EXLPOSIVE MATERIALS

NAME : DINDA JUWITA

MIEN AGUSTINA. B

PUTRI AGUSTIA

SITI AFIFAH SYAHFITRI

GROUP : 4

CLASS : 3 KD

LECTURE : Drs. Risnawati, M.Pd.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

STATE POLYTHECNIC OF SRIWIJAYA

2015

EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

Explosive chemicals can release tremendous amounts of destructive

energy rapidly. If not handled properly, these chemicals can pose a serious threat

to the health and safety of labora- tory personnel, emergency responders, building

occupants, chemical waste handlers, and disposal companies. For example, an

explosion of old isopropyl ether killed a laboratory worker when he attempted to

remove a glass stopper from the container.1 In another instance, tetrazole

exploded inside a hazardous waste incinerator, causing major damage and costly

repairs.

Unlike known explosives, which are designed to be stable under normal

conditions, PECs are particularly dangerous because they may explode if they are

subjected to heat, light, friction, or mechanical shock.

Note: There is a great deal of uncertainty regarding the hazards and safe handling

of PECs. For example, with peroxide forming chemicals, there are no definite data

available about the concentration and specific conditions at which these peroxides

will detonate. Several com- mon test methods may not detect all types of unstable

peroxides, and some common deperoxidation procedures may not remove all

types of unstable peroxides. Also, there are no specific federal Cal/OSHA

regulations on this subject.

CLASSES OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

Explosive materials may be divided into three classes:

• High explosives are explosive materials that, when unconfined, can be caused to

detonate by means of a blasting cap. An example is dynamite.

• Low explosives are explosive materials that, when confined, can be caused to

deflagrate. Black powder, safety fuses, igniters, igniter cords and fuse lighters are

examples.

• Blasting agents are substances classified by the U.S. Department of

Transportation in 49 CFR 173.50 as blasting agents. These are substances that

have a mass explosion hazard but are so insensitive that there is very little proba-

bility of initiation or of transition from burning to detonation under normal

conditions of transport. Ammonium nitrate, fuel oil and particular water gels are

examples.

Familiarity with the classes of explosive materials is essential to an

understanding of the type of magazine in which they may be stored.

Examples of materials in various Divisions are as follows:

a. Division 1.1 (High Explosives).

Consists of explosives that have a mass explosion hazard. A mass

explosion is one which affects almost the entire pile of material instantaneously.

Includes substances that, when tested in accordance with approved methods, can

be caused to detonate by means of a blasting cap when unconfined or will

transition from deflagration to a detonation when confined or unconfined.

Examples: dynamite, TNT, nitroglycerine, C-3, HMX, RDX, encased explosives,

military ammunition.

b. Division 1.2 (Low Explosives)

Consists of explosives that have a projection hazard, but not a mass

explosion hazard.

Examples: nondetonating encased explosives, military ammunition and the

like.

c. Division 1.3 (Low Explosives)

Consists of explosives that have a fire hazard and either a minor blast

hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard. The

major hazard is radiant heat or violent burning, or both. Can be deflagrated when

confined. Examples: smokeless powder, propellant explosives, display fireworks

d. Division 1.4

Consists of explosives that pose a minor explosion hazard. The explosive

effects are largely confined to the package and no projection of fragments of

appreciable size or range is expected. An internal fire must not cause virtually

instantaneous explosion of almost the entire contents of the package. Examples:

squibs (nondetonating igniters), explosive actuators, explosive trains (low level

detonating cord)

e. Division 1.5 (Blasting Agents)

Consists of very insensitive explosives. This division is comprised of

substances which have a mass explosion hazard, but are so insensitive that there is

very little probability of initiation or of transition from burning to detonation

under normal conditions of transport. Materials are not cap sensitive; however,

they are mass detonating when provided with sufficient input. Examples: oxidizer

and liquid fuel slurry mixtures and gels, ammonium nitrate combined with fuel

oil.

f. Division 1.6

Consists of extremely insensitive articles which do not have a mass

explosive hazard. This division is comprised of articles which contain only

extremely insensitive detonating substances and which demonstrate a negligible

probability of accidental initiation or propagation. Although this category of

materials has been defined, the primary application is currently limited to military

uses. Examples: Low vulnerability military weapons.

COMMON LABORATORY PECs

There are many PECs used in academic research and teaching laboratories (see

appendix I). The following are some commonly used chemicals that can become

an explosion hazard un- der certain conditions:

• Organic chemicals that form peroxides through exposure to air or light (see

Appendix II— Peroxide Forming Chemicals)

• Hydrated picric acid that becomes dry or becomes contaminated with metals

that form metal picrate salts

• Sodium amide that reacts with air or moisture to form superoxides, as evidenced

by yellow or brown discoloration

• Certain alkyl nitrates (e.g., butyl nitrate or propyl nitrate) that become

contaminated with nitrogen oxides

• Certain normally stable perchlorates (e.g., pyridium perchlorate or

tetraethylammonium perchlorate) that become unstable at elevated temperatures

Note: Most explosions occur while purifying or distilling mixtures. Therefore,

use ex- treme caution before concentrating or purifying any mixture that may

contain an explo- sive chemical (e.g., a peroxide forming chemical or

perchlorate).

There is an additional group of chemicals that should be considered

although they are not necessarily heat-, light-, friction-, or shock-sensitive. These

chemicals give off gaseous degra- dation by-products that may cause over-

pressurization of the container and explode. They can degrade over time and

should be incorporated into a safety and handling system that will prevent them

from becoming explosive hazards.

Contact EH&S immediately (642-3073) if you suspect a material is a PEC.

Post warning signs so others do not handle or disturb the material. EH&S will

inspect the chemical and devise an appropriate action plan to safely dispose of the

chemical.

GENERAL STORAGE PRECAUTIONS

It is important that chemical users track and dispose of chemicals before

they become a prob- lem. Proper inventory management systems can help

mitigate risk to personnel and avert higher than normal disposal costs.

• Identify all explosive and potentially explosive chemicals in your inventory.

Never store unlabeled chemicals. Before they can be shipped to a disposal site,

unknown chemicals require special testing to determine which hazardous

properties they possess. In some cases, an unknown chemical that is not a PEC

could be classified as a PEC because its outward appearance resembles other

known explosives. The handling and disposal of these chemi- cals costs

significantly more than known chemicals.

• Record the opening date and the date that the chemical should be discarded on

the label of chemicals that may degrade to become potentially explosive. La- bels

are available from EH&S or you may use the sample label on the next page.

• Keep explosive chemicals away from all ignition sources such as open flames,

hot surfaces, spark sources, and direct sunlight.

• Consider designating a special area for explosive chemical use. Store explosive

chemicals in an explosive magazine, and inspect areas weekly to comply with the

California Fire Code. (Contact EH&S for assistance.)

• Periodically check containers of chemicals that could become over-pressurized,

like highly concentrated formic acid (See Appendix III). Note: Release the

pressure by unscrewing the cap, using protective heavy-duty gloves, chemically

resistant coveralls, safety glasses, face shield, and a safety glass screen between

you and the container.

• As part of your Chemical Hygiene Plan, make sure everyone who uses

chemicals that are explosive or could become potentially explosive are thoroughly

trained in safe storage methods, conditions to avoid (e.g., contamination), the

hazards of the chemical, and disposal procedures.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Use chemical splash goggles for eye protection in combination with a full-

length face shield to fully protect the face and throat. Heavy, non-reactive gloves

should be worn when handling reactive compounds or in the event it is necessary

to reach behind a shielded area while a hazardous experiment is in progress.

Check glove manufacturer for recommendations on a suitable glove for the

specific chemical.

Wear a lab coat (100% cotton) and closed-toe shoes (non-fabric) with non-slip

soles. If a respirator is needed, then user must follow guidelines of the

Respiratory Protection Program.

SPECIAL HANDLING PROCEDURES

1) Conduct Procedures in a fume hood or other suitable, protective

equipment

2) Use a blast shield in combination with the hood sash to protect personnel

and equipment from injury or damage from a possible explosion or fire

3) Minimize the quantity of reactive (unstable) materials used and stored in

the work area

4) Label incoming containers with the date of receipt. Do not use reactive

materials past their expiration date

5) Exercise due care when handling peroxide formers. Visually inspect bottle

cap and threads of container (without handling) for presence of organic

peroxide crystals. If present, evacuate area and deny entry.

STORAGE

Proper storage prevents unauthorized access to explosive materials and

reduces their deterioration. All explosive mate- rials, including blasting agents,

detonators, detonating cord, boosters, blasting caps, and electric and nonelectric

detona- tors should be stored in magazines. The magazines should be properly

designed and located to comply with all applicable federal, state and local laws,

rules and regulations

Types of Magazines

There are five types of magazines for the storage of explosive materials:

Type 1 magazines are permanent magazines for the storage of high

explosives. Other classes of explosive materials may also be stored in

Type 1 magazines.

Type 2 magazines are mobile or portable indoor and outdoor magazines

for the storage of high explosives.

Type 3 magazines are portable outdoor magazines for the temporary

storage of high explosives while attended (a day box, for example).

Type 4 magazines are for the storage of low explosives. Blasting agents,

Class C detonators, safety fuses, squibs, igniters and igniter cords may also

be stored in Type 4 magazines.

Type 5 magazines are for the storage of blasting agents

Storage Within Magazines, Types 1, 2, 3 and 4

When explosive materials are stored within Type 1, 2, 3 and 4 magazines, the

following rules should be observed :

Explosive materials must not be placed directly against interior walls and

must be placed so as not to interfere with ventilation.

Containers of explosive materials must be stored so that marks are visible.

Except with respect to fiberboard or other nonmetal containers, containers

of explosive materials must not be unpacked or repacked inside a

magazine or within 50 feet of a magazine.

Tools used to open or close containers of explosive materials must be of a

nonsparking material, except that metal slitters may be used for opening

fiberboard containers. A wood wedge and a fiber, rubber or wooden mallet

must be used for opening or closing wood containers of explosive

materials. Metal tools other than nonsparking transfer con- veyors must

not be stored in any magazine containing high explosives.

Construction Specifications for Types of Magazines

This section discusses construction specifications for various aspects

(walls, floors, roofs, doors and locks, ventilation, bonding and grounding) of the

types of magazines. The discussion frequently refers to plates or drawings that

appear at the end of this section.

Type 1 Magazine

A Type 1 magazine is a permanent structure such as a building, igloo,

tunnel or dugout.

Figure 1 depicts a Type 1 magazine.

The Type 1 magazine must be bullet resistant, fire resistant, weather resistant,

theft resistant and ventilated. It should conform to the following specifications :

1) Walls. Walls must be constructed of a combination of steel, masonry or

other materials that are fire resistant and struc- turally sound (see Plates 1,

2 and 6). Any wood on the exterior of the magazine must be covered with

a fire-resistant material. Voids in standard concrete blocks must be filled

with well-tamped dry sand or well-tamped sand and cement mixture.

Lattice lining must be installed to aid in ventilation (see Plates 1 and 2).

2) Floor. The floor must be constructed of wood or other suitable materials.

Plates 1, 2 and 3 show a masonry magazine with a foundation, ventilation

and wood flooring.

3) Roof or Ceiling. The roof or ceiling may be constructed of any type of

structurally sound material that is or has been made fire resistant on its

exterior. When the natural terrain around the magazine makes it possible

to shoot a bullet through the ceiling or roof that could hit the explosive

material, the roof or ceiling must be of bullet-resistant construction.

A bullet-resistant roof can be constructed according to any of the

specifications for wan sections shown in Plate 6.

4) Other verified bulletproof construction for ceilings includes that with 20

gauge steel with 4 inches of hardwood or 18 gauge aluminum with 7

inches of hardwood.

5) Doors and Locks. The doors and locks must be constructed according to

any of the wall sections shown in Plate 6. Commonly used door

construction and details are shown in Plates 7 and 8.

6) Doors must be tightly fitted. Hinges, hasps and all locking hardware must

be rigidly secured and fastened by welding or by through bolts that cannot

be removed when the door is locked. Methods of locking are:

• Two mortise locks

• Two padlocks fastened in separate hasps and staples. Padlocks

must be steel, have at least five tumblers, and be at least 3/8-inch

diameter case-hardened shackle. All padlocks must be protected by

steel hoods made from 1/4-inch min- imum thickness steel and

installed so as to discourage the insertion of bolt cutters, saws, files

or levering devices

• A combination of a mortise lock and a hooded padlock

• A mortise lock that requires two keys to open

• A three-point lock that secures the door to the frame at more than

one point.

7) Ventilation. The generally accepted minimum ventilation area is 0.2

square inches per cubic foot of magazine space. Recommended ventilation

is as follows:

Wall and foundation—4x8 inches opening on 6-foot centers.

Roof—(Globe type ventilation)—one 12-inch diameter per each 12 feet of

magazine length or one 10-inch diameter per 10 feet of magazine length

Ventilating openings must be screened as shown in Plate 4 to prevent

entrance of sparks and rodents

Ventilation openings must be offset or shielded for bullet resistant

purposes

For security, ventilating openings should not be larger than 6x12 inches or

12 inches in diameter.

Bonding and Grounding. Experience over the years indicates that

electrical bonding and grounding of field commercial explosives magazines is not

needed. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms; the National Fire

Protection Association (NFPA); and the Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME)

do not require the bonding or grounding of maga- zines. However, one Mine

Safety and Health Administration standard requires that magazines made of metal

be electri- cally bonded and grounded.

Type 2 Magazine

A Type 2 magazine,3 depicted in Figure 2, is a portable or mobile structure such

as a skid magazine, tractor or semi- trailer.

Any of the details for the requirements shown for a Type 1 magazine are

acceptable for the Type 2 outdoor magazine. A magazine of less than 1 cubic yard

in size must be fastened to a fixed object to prevent theft of the entire magazine.

Hinges, hasps, locks and locking hardware must conform to provisions for

Type 1 magazines. Vehicular magazines must be immobilized by removing the

wheels, by locking with a king pin locking device or by other approved means.

Type 2 Indoor Magazine

Type 2 indoor magazines must be fire resistant and theft resistant. They

need not be bullet resistant. No indoor maga- zine is to be located in a residence or

dwelling. Indoor storage of high explosives must not exceed 50 pounds.

Detonators must be stored separately and must not exceed 5,000 in number.

Wood indoor magazines must have the sides, bottom and doors

constructed with at least 2 inches of hardwood and be covered with sheetrnetal not

less than 26 gauge (.0179 inches). Metal doors must have sides, bottoms, and

doors con- structed of not less than number 12 gauge (.1046 inches) metal and be

lined with a nonsparking material. Hinges and hasps must be attached to doors by

welding, riveting or bolting. Each door must be equipped with two mortise locks

or two padlocks. Padlocks must have at least five tumblers and a case-hardened

3/8-inch shackle.

Type 2 magazine, constructed of 1/4-inch steel and 3-inch hardwood

Type 2 indoor magazines for detonators in quantities of 100 or less must be

constructed of not less than number 12 gauge (0.1046 inches) metal and lined with

a nonsparking material. One padlock is required, having at least five tumblers and

a 3/8-inch case-hardened shackle. No steel hood is required for protection of the

padlock.

Type 3 Magazine

A Type 3 magazine is a “day box” or other portable magazine. It must be

theft resistant, fire resistant, and weather resistant, but not necessarily bullet

resistant. Figure 3 depicts a Type 3 magazine.

The lock for the Type 3 magazine must be at least a five tumbler steel padlock

with at least a 3/8-inch case-hardened shackle. The lock need not be protected by

a hood. Explosive materials must not be left unattended in a Type 3 magazine.

They must be removed to a Type 1 or Type 2 magazine.

Type 4 Magazine

A Type 4 magazine5 is a permanent, portable or mobile structure such as a

building. It need not be bullet resistant. Figure 4 depicts Type 4 magazines.

Construction must be of wood covered with metal, masonry, fabricated metal or a

combination of these materials. The doors must be of metal or wood covered with

metal.

Door locks must be two mortise locks or two padlocks. Padlocks must have at

least five tumblers and 3/8-inch case- hardened shackles. Padlocks must be

protected by steel hoods of not less than 1/4-inch metal.

When unattended, vehicular magazines must be immobilized, as described for

Type 2 magazines

Type 4 Indoor Magazine

Type 4 indoor magazines must be fire resistant and theft resistant. They need not

be weather resistant if the building in which they are stored provides protection

from the weather.

No indoor magazine may be located within a residence or dwelling. Storage for

low explosives must not exceed 50 pounds. Detonators must be stored in a

separate magazine, and the total number may not exceed 5,000.

Type 4 indoor magazines must be constructed of masonry, metal covered wood,

fabricated metal or a combination of these materials. The walls and floors must be

constructed of or covered with a nonsparking material. The door must be metal or

solid wood covered with metal. Hinges and hasps must be attached to doors by

welding, riveting or bolting (with nuts on the inside of the door).

Each door must be equipped with two mortise locks or two padlocks fastened in

separate hasps and staples. Padlocks must have at least five tumblers and 3/8-inch

case-hardened shackles. Padlocks must be protected by 1/4-inch metal steel

hoods.

Type 5 Magazine

A Type 5 magazine6 is a permanent, portable or mobile structure such as a

building, igloo, box, bin, tank, semitrailer, bulk trailer, tank trailer, bulk truck,

tank truck or other mobile container. It need not be bullet resistant. Figure 5

depicts Type 5 magazines.

Construction of a Type 5 magazine must be of masonry, wood covered with

metal, fabricated metal or a combination of these materials. The doors must be

constructed of solid wood or metal.

Effects of Explosions

An explosion is a gas dynamic phenomenon there are a variety of effects

of the spherically expanding heat and pressure wave. These effects assist the

investigator in understanding the dynamics of the explosion and the sequence of

events that took place during the explosion.

1. Blast Pressure Front Effect

The initiation of chemical explosives and fuel gases result in the

generation of quantities of gases. These gases expand at a high speed and move

outward equally in all directions until an obstruction is encountered.

a. Positive Pressure Phase

The positive pressure phase is when the blast pressure front is moving

away from the point of origin. The positive pressure phase is stronger than the

negative and is responsible for most of the damage.

(1.) Spherical shape of the Pressure Wave

Under ideal conditions the shape of the blast front from an explosion is spherical

in nature, moving outward from the origin equally in all directions. However,

obstructions or vents will change the configuration of the blast front.

(2.) Rate of Pressure Rise vs. Maximum Pressure

The damage caused as a result of the blast pressure front of an explosion is

a result of two items. The maximum pressure and the rate of pressure rise. If the

rate of pressure rise is rapid, then the containing vessel will not have sufficient

time to resist the forces.

Pressure Damage Chart

Restricting Element Typical Failure Pressure (PSI)

Light partition walls dislodged

(Dry wall on Wooden Studs)

 

0.3 - 0.7

Glass windows  

(Broken or Dislodged)

 

 0.3 – 1.0

Vehicles Overturned 6.0 – 8.0

b. Negative Pressure Phase

As a result of the movement outward from the origin of the positive

pressure phase, a low pressure area is created. This low pressure area allows the

movement back towards the origin of the surrounding air. The negative pressure

phase causes additional or secondary damage, and it is common to find the debris

moving towards the point of origin or in opposite directions from the positive

pressure phase.

2. Fragmentation (Shrapnel) Effect

Containers, structures, or vessels that contain or restrict the movement of

the positive pressure fronts may rupture and produce pieces of debris that may

travel long distances and cause considerable damage or injury. The distance that

they may travel depends on a variety of factors, including the types of fuels

involved, the strength of the container, type of initiation, and venting that may be

present.

a. Fragmentation

Debris from the container, for example the structure.

b. Shrapnel

Debris that was placed in the area of a device, in order to inflict harm to

those in the area.

3. Thermal (Incendiary) Effect

Combustion explosions release quantities of energy that may heat light

solid combustibles or gases present to their ignition temperature. Often diffuse

fuels (vapors or gases) or high surface to mass solids (example flexible urethane

foam cushions or vehicle interiors) are more likely to be ignited as a result of the

thermal effects of an explosion. Dense solid fuels are not as likely to be ignited

due to the duration of the heating that takes place.

a. Heat/Thermal

- High Temperature Gas

- Often sufficient to ignite diffuse fuels or lightweight fuels.

4. Secondary Blast Pressure Or Ancillary Effects

a. Reflection

Reflection is caused when the blast pressure front contacts an object and as

a result the front moves in a different direction. This "reflection" often causes

damage in other directions or locations. Refraction is often caused by different

temperature layers. Blast focusing can be caused as a result of reflection and

refraction. The key is that the damage can be amplified as a result of the

movement of the blast pressure front in one direction. Often in cities this damage

can be increased as a result of the configuration of the street and surrounding

structures.

b. Seismic

As the blast pressure wave expands, and damaged portions of buildings

collapse, significant localized seismic waves may be transmitted throughout the

ground. Velocity of the wave and the affect of the wave will vary depending on

soil conditions.

c. Water

As water is basically a non-compressible product. A shock wave will

transmit through water or other with limited reduction in strength for long

distances.

d. Ceiling

A low ceiling can have a dramatic effect on reflection of the blast front

and resultant damage to the surrounding area. Given similar types of materials and

the quantity present, with only a change in the ceiling there will be a noticeable

change in the blast front.