Evos Final Draft

Running head: NEANDERTHAL INTELLIGENCE, CULTURE 1

What Modern Researchers Know about the Intelligence and Culture of Neanderthals

Lauren Handy

State University of New York at New Paltz

NEANDERTHAL INTELLIGENCE, CULTURE 2

Abstract

The life history and origins of Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) have been widely

debated in the world of academia. Despite the wide array of evidence, there are still lively

discussions over the culture and intelligence of Neanderthals. By compiling evidence from

multiple disciplines, including anatomy, phylogeny, and behavior, all based on fossil records and

genetic and archaeological evidence, inferences can be made about these controversies.

Neanderthals had larger braincases and more robust, heavily muscled bodies than modern

humans. Their anatomy indicates the possibility for basic aspects of language. There is

archaeological evidence of tool-making and planned burials, suggesting small, organized

cultures. They hunted in groups, inferring some form of communication and basic society.

Neanderthals had the capacity for and show evidence of symbolic thought and musical

inclinations.

Keywords: Neanderthals, human evolution, intelligence


What Modern Researchers Know about the Intelligence and Culture of Neanderthals

Homo neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals, are a species of hominins who lived between

127 and 30 thousand years ago (Boyd & Silk, 2009). They inhabited various parts of Eurasia,

focusing near the glacial parts. They died out approximately at the time when Homo sapiens, or

modern humans, spread out from Africa. It has been proven that Neanderthals and modern

humans interbred before the Neanderthals all died out. In fact, had it not been for this

interbreeding modern humans may not have survived because Neanderthals held key genes

involved in the immune system (Brown, 2011). Without some of the genes that were passed on,

the modern humans would have succumbed to local diseases (Marshall, 2011). The precise

evolutionary relationship between modern humans and Neanderthals is unknown

Neanderthals have a cranial capacity that ranged from 1245-1740cc, averaging at 1520cc.

Overall these are larger brains than modern humans, who average at 1400cc (Boyd & Silk,

2009). It could be inferred from this cranial capacity difference that Neanderthals had higher

intelligence levels than modern humans, but that has yet to be proven. Neanderthals also had

larger bodies, including their skulls and teeth. By examining their larynxes, it is possible to say

they were capable of language.

Due to their culture, it can be inferred that Neanderthals had higher levels of intelligence

in comparison to previous hominins. They created Mode 3 tools, which were the most advanced

kind of tool in the timeframe the Neanderthals were alive (McGourty, 2008). Neanderthals

hunted large game, which can imply both intelligence and some form of communication (Small,

2007). Those who were injured while hunting were nursed back to health (unknown, 2012).

Neanderthals show evidence of a symbolic culture. They frequently, purposefully buried

their dead in a ritualized manner, complete with purposeful placement of the body and


adornment with flowers and jewelry (Solecki, 1975). The person found at this site may also have

been a kind of shaman, using the flowering plants as medicine. They have evidences of personal

adornment and jewelry. Neanderthal art has been found in caves, where they lived, across

Eurasia (Paradise, unknown date). Flutes have been found at home bases as well, which could

have been used for personal entertainment or social bonding (Unknown, 2006).


Anatomy

Skeleton

Neanderthal cranial capacity ranged from 1245-1740 cubic centimeters (cc), averaging at

about 1520 cc. Overall these are larger brains than modern humans, who average at 1400 cc.

Inferences, however, can not be made about intelligence based on brain size because

Neanderthal’s bodies were more robust and heavily muscled and, thus, their brains reflect their

overall body size.

Neanderthal leg bones, like their bodies, were thicker than H. sapiens. Their load-

bearing joints were larger and their scapulae (shoulder blades) had more extensive muscular

attachments (Boyd & Silk, 2009). These can lead to the conclusion that Neanderthals were

involved with heavy lifting, extensive running, and continual hunting. In comparison to modern

humans, their rib cages were larger and more barrel-shaped, which are remnants of older

hominin characteristics.

Based on fossil remains, Neanderthals were sturdy and strong, weighing 30% more than

modern humans of same height. They were a few inches shorter than modern European humans,

yet had larger torsos and shorter arms and legs. These skeletal differences could have been to aid

in conserving heat in a cold environment. During the Middle Pleistocene, there were long glacial

periods that cooled the earth. The rate of heat loss is proportional to a being’s surface area,

therefore any changes that reduce the amount of surface area will conserve heat (Boyd & Silk,

2009).

Skull and Teeth

The skulls of Neanderthals were more rounded those than Homo erectus or Homo

heidelbergensis, who preceeded Neanderthals. Their crania were long and low, like H.


heidelbergensis, but relatively thin-walled, most likely due to the increase in brain size (Boyd &

Silk, 2009). Neanderthals had big faces in respect to cranial size, similarly to H. erectus and H.

heidelbergensis, leading to the belief that was inherited. They have large brow ridges with no

forehead, although in comparison to earlier hominins they stuck out less to the sides. The brow

ridges were also lightened with many air spaces. Neanderthals had an occipital bun, which may

have aided in running (Small, 2007).

The molars of Neanderthals were smaller than H. ergaster, which may have been a

consequence of less jaw muscles to cope for a larger brain (Boyd & Silk, 2009). They had

taurodont roots, which is where the pulp of cavity expands so roots merge to a single broad root.

These teeth are derived from Neanderthal’s ancestors and can be seen in modern humans today.

Their incisors were relatively large and show heavy wear, most likely due to eating meat. By

looking at the teeth, it can be seen that Neanderthals pulled meat or hides through their clenched

front teeth. Microscopic, unidirectional scratches on front of incisors show they also held meat in

their teeth while cutting it with a stone tool (Boyd & Silk, 2009). Also based on the direction of

these scratches it can be seen that Neanderthals were right-handed (Welsh, 2011).

Evolutionary Relationships

Classification

Neanderthals are hominins who lived in the later Middle Pleistocene era, roughly 127 to

30 thousand years ago (Garrigan & Hammer, 2006). H. heidelbergensis hominins who lived in

Eurasia evolved to being what are now considered Neanderthals. The H. heidelbergensis who

lived in Africa and evolved under different environmental pressures became what are now

known as Homo sapiens.


Common Human Ancestry

Neanderthals and modern humans diverged genetically about 500,000 years ago

(Garrigan & Hammer, 2006). No modern Homo sapiens carry mitochondrial DNA derived from

Neanderthals living in Europe 30,000 years ago (Stringer & Gamble, 1993). There is evidence of

genetic exchange between Neanderthals and humans in non-Africans, but none of it can be found

in mitochondrial DNA Researchers have discovered that early modern humans who traveled out

of Africa share some mutations in common with Neanderthals that are not found in Africans

(Raillant-Clark, 2011). It has been concluded that humans and Neanderthals must have interbred

after early modern humans species expanded from Africa. Roughly 2.5% of the genomes of

living non-Africans comes from Neanderthals (Zimmer, 2011). It has been found that without

this early interbreeding early modern humans would not have gotten the appropriate immune

system genes to have survived any further expansion.

Behavior

Causes of Death and Burial of Dead

Most of the fossils found show that Neanderthals lived to 40-45 years old. One was

found with severe arthritis that affected his affected jaw, back, and hip. Another lost almost all

his teeth to gum disease. A third suffered a blow to his left temple that crushed the orbit, which

caused partial paralysis on right side of his body, caused his right arm to wither, and caused his

right ankle to be arthritic. Others had bone fractures, stab wounds, gum disease, withered limbs,

lesions, and deformities (Boyd & Silk, 2009). Some kept living after injury, meaning they

received care from others.

They frequently buried dead. Originally thought to have merely protected the corpses

from dismemberment by scavengers, rituals were later discovered. In Shanidar Cave, an adult


male was found positioned on his side with flower remnants surrounding him. It was later

thought that this man was also surrounded by flowering plants because he was a kind of shaman

who used the plants for medicinal purposes.

Hunting and Diet

Neanderthals were proficient hunting big game. Their fossil sites are filled with the bones

of red deer (elk), fallow deer, bison, aurochs, wild sheep, wild goats, and horses. It was not just

young or elderly animals that were hunted, bones of healthy adult animals well represented. This

means they killed whole herds of animal at a time, supporting the idea of social bonds. They also

hunted smaller game.

Although they spent a great deal of their time hunting, Neanderthals ate vegetables.

Chemical analyses of their bones show no signs of eating vegetables, but recently fossilized

grains of vegetables were found in their teeth. These vegetables show evidence of having been

cooked, further adding to the sophistication of the Neanderthal lifestyle (Ghosh, 2010).

Neanderthals are the first hominins to be shown to have cooked their vegetables.

Language

The larynx of modern humans is much lower than other primates, which allows a full

range of vowels (Zimmer, 2007). Neanderthal vocal tracts are similar other primates and could

not have produced full range of sounds necessary for modern speech. Based on the growth rate

of the basal crania of Neanderthals, they could have created a small amount of vocal sounds. It is

also possible for high larynx to make vowel sounds using the nasal cavity. In comparison to

modern humans it would take longer to produce and be harder to understand, but the possibility

is still present (Boyd & Silk, 2009).


Shelters and Home Bases

Researchers have found many fossil sites. In these sites they have found some well

preserved found tools, evidences of tool-making, animal remains, and concentrations of ash.

These mean that Neanderthals created the tools they used to hunt animals and the fire they used

to cook them in their living spaces. After cooking them, the Neanderthals ate the animals and

vegetables in their home bases. These home bases tended to be caves or rock shelters because

they were protected by overhanging cliffs from predators and weather. These bases were semi-

permanent encampments that were the pinnacle point from which they wen out to hunt and

forage. Neanderthals did not build shelters. There is no evidence of postholes or hearths, either.

The only exceptions to these are near end of period around 60kya when early modern humans

began to spread into Eurasia (Boyd & Silk, 2009). The Neanderthals may have imitated the early

humans by making these shelters.

Personal Adornment, Symbolic Culture

Animal teeth, ivory beads, and bones have been found in Neanderthal home bases that

displayed perforation grooves meant for suspension. Bone objects have been found decorated

with spaced notches that were used for adornment as well (Bahn, 1998). Neanderthals created the

first musical instrument: the flute (Unknown, 2006). This may have been used for personal

entertainment or social bonding rituals

It has been found that there were left- and right-handed Neanderthals, which can allow

for the inference of lateralized brains and language capacity. (Welsh, 2011). It has long been

believed that modern humans were the first hominins to have lateralized brains, but if

Neanderthals indeed had it too it could have aided in their artistic talents. These talents have

been found in cave paintings and sculpture art (Boyd & Silk, 2009).


Tool-Making

Neanderthals were sophisticated toolmakers. They created Mode 3 tools, which utilize

the Levallois technique of using flakes struck from prepared cores. They were the pioneers of the

Mousterian Industry, which was the most advanced kind of tool-making in the time until modern

humans spread across Eurasia (McGourty, 2008).

Social Structure

Found abundant flutes and whistles, possibly used in social rites and bonding activities.

populations. There was little contact between groups. These groups consisted of 1-3 females in

reproductive age, 1-3 males in reproductive age, children, and the elderly. All of the females

were most likely related to each other. All of these groups required isolation to function. There

were some male alliances, but not many (Boyd & Silk, 2009). It is hypothesized that this lack of

communication between groups is what helped early modern humans dominate Neanderthals to

the point of them being wiped out (Conroy, 2005). Flutes and whistles have been found that were

most likely used in social rites and bonding activities. Injured and elderly remains have been

found that have been healed or taken care of, supporting these bonds between members of groups

(Unknown, 2006).

Discussion

It is very difficult to find supporting evidence on the degree of Neanderthal intelligence.

They had larger brains than humans, but they also had larger bodies to fit that size difference.

Their braincases and dentition reflect this size difference in brain. Overall as a species,

Neanderthals were larger and more robust than modern humans.

Neanderthals lived between 127 and 30 thousand years ago in Eurasia. After early

modern humans migrated out of Africa and began to spread through Eurasia they came in contact


with Neanderthals. There was interbreeding and the results can be seen in modern humans’

genomes today. These changes in the genome advanced early modern humans’ immune systems

and allowed for adaptations to fight off diseases found in Eurasia.

There is evidence that Neanderthals died of various causes, such as fractures, stab

wounds, and gum disease. There is also evidence that after being injured other members of the

group an individual belonged to would take care of him/her. They lived to be approximately 40-

45 years old. Neanderthals purposefully and ritually buried their dead. In one example, a

carefully positioned skeleton was found surrounded by flowering plants. It is thought that these

plants were not only decorations for the burial but also that the individual was a shaman and

these plants were his medicinal plants.

Based on remains found at fossil sites, Neanderthals hunted packs of animals at a time,

which can show forms of communication and the ability to cooperate. Although chemical

analysis of their bones shows no evidence of eating vegetables, indications of such diets have

been found via cooked vegetation found between fossil teeth. They are the first hominins who

cooked their food.

It is very possible that Neanderthals were capable of some form of language. Although

their larynxes are not as low as modern humans, their basal crania and nasal cavities support the

notion that they were capable of producing some vowel sounds, which could easily have become

a language.

Neanderthals did not have permanent homes. They lived in semi-permanent home bases

where they would make their tools and cook and eat their food. It is in these home bases that

several burial sites have been found. It is not until the time that early modern humans spread to


Eurasia that some permanent shelters have been found and they were most likely an imitation of

what the humans were doing.

There is much evidence of personal adornment and symbolic culture among the

Neanderthals. They had many forms of personal adornment, via bones and shells with holes dug

into them for the purpose of suspension. Cave art and sculptures have also been found, showing

the ability to take what they saw and recreate it via a completely new medium. The man buried

in the Shanidar cave is thought to have been a shaman. Shaman are individuals who have access

to some spiritual world, usually for the use of healing sick individuals.

Neanderthals were pioneers of the newest mode of tools in that period of time: Mode 3,

also known as the Mousterian Industry. These were the predominant tool being used until early

modern humans created the Mode 4 tools in the Upper Paleolithic era.

Finally, Neanderthals lived in many small groups. They had flutes and whistles that were

used for bonding and social occasions. There were approximately 1-3 females in reproductive

age, 1-3 males in reproductive age, children, and the elderly. Most of the females were related to

each other, leading to stronger kinship bonds in the groups. There was little contact between the

groups. It is hypothesized that this lack of communication and cooperation between groups

eventually led to the Neanderthal downfall, coupled with the idea that after hunting all the bison

into extinction the remaining groups starved to death. Like most other hypotheses on the lifestyle

and eventual fall of the Neanderthals, it is impossible to be certain.


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