History of Britain to 1066

55 BC Romans449 – 600 Anglo-Saxons chased Romans away(Anglo, Saxons, Jutes led by Hengest&Ho) 793-865 Vikings came and AS kingdom declined (Raid on Lindisfarne 793) Vikings were in de Danelaw area and thread to AS1000-1042 King AePerlraed unready was king and Vikings made second invasion. 1016-1042 England was defeated Scandinavian King Cnut. 1066 Battle of Stamford Bridge and Hastings AS rule endedWilliam the conqueror reigns Normans had the power.

Caedmon’s hymn by Bede he couldn’t sing, an angel asked him to sing and then he could.He sang a poem about God the Creator. He became a monk an turned all kinds of texts into poems. Latin poem but turned in OE during King Alfred’s reign.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Seven independent manuscripts most important historical sources for the period. Covers the history of England from Caesar to King Stephen’s reign in 1154.

Migrations:1st migration: Indo-Europeans 5,000 BC2nd migration: Celtic tribes 600-500 BC3rd migration: Romans4th migration: Anglo-Saxons

- Came as Pagan but later introduced another form of Christianity- 7 Kingdoms (Heptarchy) small kingdoms merge into bigger ones- Domination 1st Kent, later Northumbria, Wessex after 8th Century.

5th migration: Vikings- King Alfread The Great fights Vikings- Peace settlement 878- Vikings settle at Danelaw

Reforms 900-10001. King Alfred the Great promotes learning / works translated into OE2. King Athelstan unites England3. King Edgar initiates Bendictine Reform 950

- reform of monastic life, revival of learning, English is learn language

King AEpelraed Unraed 978-1013 1014-1016- New invasions of Vikings- AS had to pay Danegeld(tax to avoid Viking raids) after Battle of Maldon 991- St. Brice’s Day massacre 1002 (Lot of Vikings died)

Scandinavions take over 1013,1016-1042 (King Cnut)

End – 1066AS King Edward dies 3 claim the throne. William the Conqueror wins (Edward promised)Battle of Stamford Bridge throne claimant Hardrada(Viking) loses Godwinson(AS) wins.Battle of Hastings Godwinson (AS) loses, William(Norman) wins.

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Cases

(Pro)Nouns, adjectives and numerals have 5 cases in OC• Nominative (SUBJ) ..also complement and address someone directly• Accusative (D.O.) ..also following some prepositions of time/motion• genitive (possession) ..also descriptive and description of time• Dative (I.O.) ..also object of some verbs and prepositions, expression

of time• instrumental (indicates means/manner)

Modify a noun• personal (I,you,she,he,it) Relative (that/who/which)• demonstrative (OE: se is very important) (this,that) Reflexive (himself/yourself)• interrogative (when,who,where) Reciprocal (each other,one a)• indefinite (all,any,each,may,none,something)

Demonstrative pronoun paradigm (the/a) DO LEARN BY HEART

Verbs/Adjective/Adverbs

VerbsFinite verbs In OE only 2 tenses Past/Present. inflected for Pers, Nr. MoodNon finite verbs =

Infinitive = to … Present participle = -ing Past participle = - ed

Transitive verbs = had direct objectIntransitive verb = does not need object.Copula = linking verb

Adjectives OE: endings depend on gender, case and number

Adverbs finally, wonderfully, very, however, nevertheless, then, thus

Hwaet = Interjection: a call for attention, often at the beginning of a poem.

Indirect object receives direct object I sold Susan the cakeDirect object refers to action of the verb I sold the cake

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Religion

Christian Verse considerable interest in AS. Key points are in the typical poems like Caedmon’s hymn.

- extensive corpus of Christian verse covering Old and New testament subjects

- Christian ideas are in poems- Thinking of conversion, Christian poets felt free to modify the stories

so that Germans could relate (Germanic heroic ideals)- Alcuin had a concern about the values of the heroic ethos vs. the

teachings of Christ.

Dream of Rood Vision of the Cross/ Concerned with death, judgement and afterlife and evangelical. Dream vision poem in English about a more wonderful tree, referring to the saviour’s tree. The Cross is Christ’s retainer, serving its lord as a Germanic would serve but also Christ’s slayer.

Paganism AS during period of migration are pagans (450-600) but Britons were ChristianEvidence: placenames, (-borough) archaeological evidence, weekdays, feast days (easter)

! conversion to Christianity.597: St. Augustine arrives in England converts King Aethelberht, builds church

Canterbury. 627: King Edwin (Northumbria) converted through his wife(daughter of Aethelberht)634: Oswald (converted Christian) King of Northumbria spreads Christianity.Oswiu (his brother) is another sort of Christian and succeeds him Christianities clash 664Synod of Whitby roman rule became victorChristianity strengthened ties with continent and brought Latin literature to England.Caused: founding of monasteries (In Lindisfarne) Benedictan Rule, learning, wealth, art. 8th/9th C. Viking attacks caused trouble but Alfred the Great forced baptism of Viking Guthrum in 878. 10th C. Benedicten reform power shift to monasteries and regular clergyBUT! New Vikings come in the late 10th Century. King Cnut ascends the throne in 1016 Christianity becomes stable.

Anglo-Saxon ChristianityPope Gregory pointed out: incorporating existing rituals into Christianity is a good idea (amalgamation)

- Remaining interest in Germanic legends- Royal genealogy (King Aethelwulf from Woden and Adam)- Mixing Christian and heroic themes in literature (Dream of Rood)- Magic charms containing Germanic, Celtic pagan + Christian elements

AS religion in stages450-600 Heathen age (Germanic and Celtic600-800 Conversion and expansion (amalgamation800-1016 Struggle for survival (Viking attacks)1016-onwards Christianity consolidated (union)

Germanic belief system and Christianity

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Similarities:- Creation Myth- Afterlife (Walhalla/Niflheim & Heaven/hell)- End of the world (Ragnarok/Judgement Day)

Differences- culture: honour/shame vr truth /guilt- society/rule: secular(comitatus) vs. religious (God)- Gods are unpredictable vs. God’s commandments- Gods use Midgard for their own entertainment vs. God protects- Summer/Winter feasts vs. Christmas and Easter

To help conversion- Christian ideas explored in poems- Modified stories (Germanic heroic ideals)- Still a contradiction heroic ethos vs. Teaching of Christ.

OE Germanic (Old Norse loans)ME Norman/French loansEModE Renaissance Latin and Greek

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Nouns

OE nouns made definite by demonstrative or possessive pronouns; articles didn’t existOE nouns have grammatical (instead of natural) genderOE nouns receive case depending on their function in the sentence

Weak/Strong/Athematic NounsNouns never change class.

Weak nouns recognizable by – AN ending. Use context to determine gender + caseThere is only one weak neuter noun eare

 Do not learn by heart! masculine neuter feminine

singular

nominative -a -e -eaccusative -an -e -angenitive -an -an -andative -an -an -an

plural

nominative -an -an -anaccusativegenitive -ena -ena -enadative -um -um -um

Strong nouns more elaborate. Some helpful endings –es, –as, -um.

 Do not learn by heart! masculine neuter feminine

singular

nominative -- -- -u / --accusative -- -- -egenitive -es -es -edative -e -e -e

plural

nominative -as -u / -- -a, -eaccusativegenitive -a -a -adative -um -um -um

Nouns: strong short vs. longs stems. Only OE strong feminine nominative sg. nouns AND strong neuter nominative/Acc. Plurals with short stems have – u ending. Do they have long stems? Ending is --So: in these cases, short stem gets –u , long stem nothing. Long: Sorg / short: Scinu

Short stem = syllable before inflectional ending is short (i.e. short vowel + consonant)Short vowels: example: short vowel: e / long vowel: ē

Three sneaky processes:1. Loss of ‘h’ between two voiced sounds feoh(es) – feos (GEN)2. Syncopation (loss of vowel in second syllable) heafod(um) – heafdum (DAT)3. Parasite vowels (-u/-o and –e alternating with –w and –g) here(es) herges (GEN)

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Strong nouns • Palatalization: c ċ, g ġ and sc sċ if there is no back vowel (a, o, u) in

the inflectional ending. • Fronting: a æ if there is no back vowel (a, o, u) in the inflectional ending

Example: Day = dage. So dagum (there is a ‘u’ so plain ‘g’ is used. And dæġes no back vowel so a becomes ae.

Athematic nouns affected by I-mutation(raising and fronting of the stem vowel under influence of following i/j)

a ææ e

o ee i

u y

Marc Alexander’s Lecture

Compoundingcynestōl (cyne royal stōl seat, stool) ealddagas (eald old dagas days)hāligdæg (hālig holy dæg day) stānstræ ̄t (stān stone stræ ̄t street)

AffixationPrefixes

a- (intensify or awareness)be- (makes a verb transitive)ge- (verbs: past participle can convert a verb from intransitive to transitive nouns: indicates a togetherness/collectivness/association)for- (?)ofer- (indicates success)on- (verb function has begun, undo)un- (not)

SuffixesAdjective -ful -ig -isc -leas -lic Adverbs -līce Nouns -dōm -nes -scipe -end -ung

BorrowingsLatin Continental: candel ‘candle’, catte ‘cat’, elpend ‘elephant’, planta ‘plant’, cypan ‘buy’

Settlement: ceaster ‘castle’Christian: abbod ‘abbot’, mæsse ‘mass’, offrian ‘offer’, scōl ‘school’, caul

‘cabbage’; apostata ‘apostate’, sabbat ‘Sabbath’, cucumer ‘cucumber’, del&n ‘dolphin’ grammaticcræft/stæfcræft

Scandinavian hæfene ‘haven’, lending ‘a landing’, stēoresman ‘pilot’, lagu ‘law’, feolagu ‘fellow’, hūsbonda ‘householder’, carl ‘man’, hittan ‘hit’

Other French: prūd/prūt ‘proud’Celtic: avon ‘river’, dunn ‘dun’,broc ‘badger’, drȳ ‘magician’

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Society

Cynewulf and Cyneheard Cynewulf king of Wessex (757-86) Became king after Sigeberth.Aethelbald may had something to do with it, Cynewulf was witness. In 786 Cynewulf was killed by Cyneheard, brother of Sigebertht.

King Cnut’s letter to English of 1020 The Danish King Cnut reigned over England after AEthelred’s sun Edmund died. The letters are (strangely) written in English, not in Latin nor Danish. In his letters he praises the church and God and says that everyone should obey him and his church, if they do not obey they shall be destroyed.

Germanic social structure protect your chief. (Be killed before the chief is killed.)Early Anglo-Saxon Social Structure bond between warrior and his lord

mutual loyalty: military service for weapons, feasts and treasures

Anglo-Saxon invaders: groups of warriors led by warlords. Formed small communities.centred around the (mead)hall of the lord. Warrior society with little social distinctions beyond lord and retainer. Low food supply, low access to metals

Late Anglo-Saxon Social Structure conquest and expansionSettlements, small kingdoms and bigger kingdoms, heptarchy & Anglo-Saxon England!Results power not only based on force, but on position and society gets diversified

Feudalism = bond between nobleman and his king based on mutual loyalty: military service for land ownershipsubdivision of kingdoms into smaller units, e.g. earldoms, shires, hundreds, tithings, hides

Layers 1. King and Witan/Gesithas. highest King: Bretwalda 2. ealdormen/eorls formed Witan. 3. Thanes/retainers (ceorls) are low ranking freeman 4. slaves, freedmen, serfs.

Society is combination of power, religion and workforce3 Estates - bellatores (those who fight): king and ealdormen/thanes

- laboratores (those who work): ceorls, slaves, serfs- oratores (those who pray): priests, monks

Position in society precisely defined Germanic system of mutual loyalty (comitatus) Feudalism Christian system of law codes

Social Threads (Feuds)feuds: ‘conditions of hostility between individuals or groups within the one community caused by wrongs done by one side to the other’. Position inherently based on physical powerand connections (kinship, lordship). When someone kills someone else or offends their honor, necessitates assertion of power or through feuds. Resolving a feud: revenge, intermarriage (peaceweaver), later: compensation (bloodless)

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Compensation in feuds: possible through rules expressed in law codes, Christianinnovation, offer additional protection. Rules: wergild (man money) manbot (man fine) outlaw.

Anglo-Saxon literature Germanic principles of feud, loyalty, kinship. Not Christian principles of compensation and legal protection.

Anglo-Saxon Women Anglo-Saxon proverb: ‘A woman’s place is at her embroidery’ Freoðuwebbe (peaceweaver) theme in Anglo-Saxon literature: geomoru ides ‘the sad woman’ high child mortality

Feminist scholars: “For women, Anglo-Saxon England was a golden age of power and wealth, culture and education”

• queens and abbesses, e.g. Æðelflæd, Hilda• laws offer explicit protection for women against rape, arranged marriage and

desertion

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Verbs

Verbs in OE- uninflected (expresses action or state)helpan- inflected (to help-anne) expresses purpose of action or state

(with -beon: expresses necessity or obligation)- Marked for: person, number, tense, mood, indicative(factual),

subjunctive(hypothetical)

Verbs, the finiteImperative(special form of the finite) express commandhere/heriaþ god!stele/stelaþ þa boc!

Present particle• aspect: something “ongoing, repeated or habitual”• linked to auxiliary, or used as adjective or noun heriende / stelende

Past particle• aspect: something completed or passive (if linked to right auxiliary)• linked to auxiliary, or used as adjective hered / stolen

Regular / irregular verbs

??

Weak verbs (regular 3 classes)• use dental suffix to form the past tense herian: ic herede• unique to Germanic languages• infinitive underwent i-mutation (o > e)• past tense underwent another change (c > h before t)• contracted forms may occur (loss of h) *smeahian (to ponder): he smeaþ

Strong verbs (regular 7 classes)• regular changes in stem vowel mark tense and aspect• stelan: he stilð (i-mutation)• helpan: he healp (breaking: hælp > healp)• ceosan: curon (past participle) (Verner’s Law: explains anomalies in Grimm’s Law, cf.

English was and were, or Dutch kiezen, gekozen/uitverkoren)• contracted forms may occur (loss of h) *seohan > seon

Preterite-present verbs (regular)• resemble strong verbs in present tense and weak verbs in past tense• form the basis for the modal auxiliary system• can (cunnan), dare (durran), may (magan), must (motan), shall (sculan), possess

(agan), be good (dugan), remember (gemunan), be enoug (benugan), need (durPan), grant (unnan), know (witan)

Anomalous verbs (irregular)• don and gan have weird pasts don: dyde; gan: eode• willan has weird inflectional morphology in the present tense þu wilt (not wilst)• sien/beon/wesan is weird all over mix of three forms

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• s- and V- forms, e.g. sien, eart, is• b- forms, e.g. beon, bist, biþ• w-forms, e.g. wæs, wæron

Negation with verbs• is usually formed by placing the adverb ne in front of the verb• some verbs contract with the adverb ne (nis, nolde, nyl, næfþ (isn’t, wouldn’t, won’t,

hasn’t)

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Literature & Learning

Literature facts• OE writings fraction of all writings in ASE, most literature is in Latin• vernacular for literary expression very early for Europe• earliest post-conversion OE poem: Cædmon’s Hymn

Golden Age: LatinViking Age: Old English (and Latin)Benedictine Reform: Latin and Old English

• c. 3,047 texts in Old English, heavy losses throughout history

Literature types category of literature is broader• prose• limited range of topics• theology• hagiography• sermons• natural science• administration, law codes, etc.• poetry• 2/3 in four poetic manuscripts• broad range of topics• religious poetry, riddles, wisdom poetry, elegies, heroic poetry

ConversionBoth missions brought Christianity, albeit in different flavoursRoman mission St. Augustine starts converting South of Britain (597)

King Æthelbert of Kent convertedIrish mission St. Columba starts converting Scotland (565)

King Oswald of Northumbria (635-642) converted

Christianity religion of the book, Bible, literacy, new script, production of manuscripts, bureaucracy, monasteries

Golden age of learning 600-800• coming with Christianity… coming of the Vikings• literate form of learning introduced to AS• learning was mainly non-literate before conversion• school of Theodore and Hadrian• works of Aldhelm, Bede and Alcuin• Latin• focus on elementary education• focus on learning (sciences, theology)• Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (669-690)• Hadrian, abbot of St. Augustine’s Abbey, Canterbury (669-710)

Anglo-Saxon School room limited number of pupils, acquisition of literacy, reading/writing, clerical/lay, male/female, Latin/vernacular, knowledge of Bible,portions by heart: Psalms, etc., Anglo-Saxon curriculum, liberal arts

• trivium: grammar, rhetoric and dialectics/logic

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• quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, harmony/music, and astronomy

Golden Age Aldhelm 639-709 educated by Theodore and Hadrian from a noble family, related to the kings of Wessex. Learned abbot, bishop, scholar and poet. De laude virginitates And wrote poetry in Old English?

Golden Age Bede 672-735 entered the monastery at the age of 7 was prolific writer and polymath: historiography (Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum), hagiography, theology, computus, natural science, poetry, orthography, etc. Bede was influential: read even today

Golden Age Alcuin 735-804 leading scholar at the court of Charlemagne and advisor to Charlemagne. Was a writer and polymath: grammar, mathematics, orthography, poetry, etc.“Quid enim Hinieldus cum Christo?” in letter to Bishop Higbald of Lindisfarne, in 797

Viking Age 800-900• coming of Vikings death of Alfred• decline in learning centres of learning destroyed• shortage of learned/literate people in England• learning bounces back under Alfred the Great

Viking Age Alfred 849-899sources on Alfred the Great: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle introductions to ‘Alfredian texts’and Asser’s Vita Ælfredi (893)Aims gather group of witan from wherever possible improve state of learning in monasteries and among laymen instill idea of just leadership revival of learning (‘Alfredian texts’)

Gregory the Great, Cura Pastoralis / Gregory the Great, DialoguesAugustine, Soliloquia /Boethius, De Consolatione PhilosophiaeOrosius, Historia adversus Paganos / Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum / Psalms (first fifty) / Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Benedictine Reform 950-1025• 1025 started in reign of King Athelstan (c. 895-939), the first king of England• Battle of Brunanburh (937)• imported relics, books and scholars • supported scholars and clergy, like Dunstan and Æthelwold• Dunstan and Æthelwold leading figures • revive Benedictine monasticism• replace secular bishops with monastic bishops• revive Anglo-Saxon learning• stress use of English as medium of learning

Scholars:• Aelfric of Eynsham (c. 955-c. 1010) monk, and later abbot of Eynsham, sermons

and religious doctrine, natural science• Wulfstan of York (†1023) advisor to Cnut, state administration• Byrhtferth (c. 970-c. 1020), natural science

Manuscript culture Junius manuscript, Vercelli Book, Exeter Book, Beowulf manuscript

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Anglo-Saxon literature great wealth of books and texts vernacular versions of important texts learning in decay (Viking incursions) many secular works (unusual) Ælfred’s literacy ‘programme’

Alfredian textsCura Pastoralis, St Augustine’s Soliloquia, Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, First 50 Psalms, (Gregory’s Dialogues, Orosius,Bede), Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (?)

AlfredKing Alfred provided the springboards for his successors to become King of England.

Alfredian textsAre those Old English texts associated with the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex.He started to translate Latin texts into OE.

Pastoral Care 890s. A letter prefacing the text, addressed by Alfred to his bishops, contrasts the former greatness of England with its recent decline and proposes a programme of education and translation to recover the people's lost wealth and wisdom. The letter asks each bishop to arrange instruction in reading English for 'all free young men' with means and opportunity while Alfred and his helpers translate 'those works which are most necessary for all men to know'.LiteracyThe Boethius explores most of the same issues as the Latin text: the goal of all created things; the nature of Fortune; the distinction between worldly and true goods; the problem of evil; and the question of human free will. Yet Alfred has removed or shortened passages, especially those dealing with eternity and free will, and added other passages, particularly ones commenting upon rulers' responsibilities to their subjects.

Gregory’s Cura PastoralisUse the wisdom that God has given you. Not all the books are in a language we can speak so why not translate them and become educated? What wise men there were throughout the English people, both in sacred and in secular orders; and how there were happy times then throughout England.

Old English Preface to his First Series of Catholic HomiliesHe translated this from latin into English as well to warn the people for evil.

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Adjectives & Numerals

Adjectives• basic form, e.g. god• declined for context and type (strong, weak declension)• for strong declension: stem length (long or short)• gender, number, case

Adjectives Strong Declision Adjectives Weak DeclisionApplies when weak declension does not apply

god wif (vs. weak þæt gode wif)+ demonstrative pronoun þæt gode wif + possessive adjective (=declined gen. of personal pronoun) þines godan wifes (gen. sg. neut.)+ genitive noun or NP þines wifes gyldena healsbeag (nom. sg. masc.)

Always strong/weak

+ possessive adjectives þines godan wifes (gen. sg. neut.)+ the ordinal number oðer oðer æg (acc. sg. neut.)+ the cardinal number an (in meaning: one) anre giefe (gen./dat. sg. fem.)

+ comparative adjectives ieldra mann (nom. sg. masc.)+ ordinal numbers, except for oðer+ cardinal number an (in meaning: alone) ic ana wat (nom. sg. masc.)

Recognise? + mostly like declensions of dem. pronouns and strong nouns+ so more morphological distinctions than in weak declension+ nom. + ac. pl. is distinguished for gender: masc. gode; neut. god; fem. goda

+ mostly like declension of weak nouns+ so few morphological distinctions+ nom. + ac. pl. all genders is: -an, e.g. godan

Look out for: + contraction root final -h- between voiced sounds is lost heah: heahne > heane+ syncopation second syllable of two-syllable adjective is shortened fæger: nom. sg. fem. fægeru > fægru

+ contraction+ root final -h- between voiced sounds is lost heah: gen. sg. masc. heahan > hean+ syncopation+ second syllable of two-syllable adjective is shortened fæger: gen. sg. masc. fægeran > fægran

Adjectives comparison Comparative SuperlativeWhat? stem + r + ending halig, haligra

(vs. nom. sg. masc. halga)stem + ost +ending halig, halgost

Look out for: Always weak Weak or strong depending on context

Sometimes i-mutation in both. eald, ieldra, ieldestSometimes anomalous/irregular comparatives and superlatives

good, better, best; little, less, least; much, more, most; evil/bad, worse, worst

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“If the adjective follows a demonstrative pronoun, possessive adjective, or genitive noun or noun phrase, one of the so-called "weak" endings is added to it; otherwise it is given a "strong" ending”

Numerals Cardinals / Ordinals

Numerals Cardinal OrdinalWhat + An is used rather than an indefinite

article.+ Noun / adjective

+ always adjective+ the second coming

Forms an, twegen/twa, þrie/þreo, feower, fif, siex, seofon, eahta, nigon, tien, endleofan, twelf -tiene: þreotiene… nigontiene -tig: twentig, an and twentig…

forms: forma/fyrmest/ærest, oðer, þridda, feorða, fifta, siexta, seofoða, nigoða, teoða, endlyfta, twelfta -teoða: þreoteoða… nigonteoða -tigoða: twentigoða, an and twentigoða…For 'thirteenth' to 'nineteenth', add the element –tēoða in place of ordinal -tīene: for example, Prēotēoða 'thirteen'.For 'twentieth' and higher, add -tigoða, -tegoða or -teogoða: fīfteogoða 'fiPieth', fīf and hundeahtatigoða 'eighty-fith'.

Look out for + the cardinal an is declined either strong (one) or weak (alone)+ the cardinals twegen and þrie have their own paradigm+ numbers over 69 have the prefix hund- hundeahtatig (hence Dutch acht, but tachtig)hundnigontig, hundteontig (an hund), hundendleofantig, hundtwelftig (hundtwentig)+ points to a duodecimal counting system

+ ordinals are always treated as weak adjectives, except for oðer+ numbers over 69 have the prefix hund-+ hundeahtatigoða (80th)

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Poetry

Cædmon’s Hymn ca. 680 first appears in Latin in Bede’s Ecclesiastical History (ca. 731)first copies in OE found in later 730s

Exeter, Cathedral Library, MS 3501 960s contents, riddles, wisdom poetry, elegies

Vercelli book 20 th C. Vercelli, Cathedral Library, MS CXVIIContents; Dream of the Rood, homilies, hagiographical texts

Junius MS 11 th C. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11Contents; Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan

Beowulf MS 11 th C. London, British Library, Cotton Vitellius A. xv early eleventh centuryContents; Beowulf, Judith

Form each poetic line has two verses, the two verses are divided by a caesura

Metre• rhythm; each verse has two stressed syllables (lifts) and two or more groups of

unstressed syllables (drops) (two half-lines, divided by a caesura)• five standard patterns• alliteration; one or both stressed syllables in the first verse alliterate with first stressed

syllable in the second verse

Stylevocabulary

• archaic words, often only found in poetry Cædmon’s Hymn: meotod, or• poetic compounds Cædmon’s Hymn: modgeþanc• synonyms for lord/warrior/man Cædmon’s Hymn: weard, meotod, wuldorfæder, etc.• kennings Exodus: heofon-candel; Beowulf: hwæl-weg

syntax• freer word order than in prose• lack of pronouns and prepositions

variation/apposition = “repetition in different words of an element of a sentence”• stock themes, e.g. in heroic poetry• beasts of battle• boasting (flyting)• arming scenes

Examples• (religious poetry)• wisdom poetry use of maxims or aphorisms. General concern with state of human

existence and order of society. Insight into Anglo-Saxon priorities, attitudes and beliefs. (Freedom of Men)

• elegies focus on transience of life and earthly glory, often concentrate on themes of separation or exile. Often compare the present (cold, wintry, deprived of joy, alone) against the past (warmth, happiness, company) (The Wanderer)

• heroic poetry heroic ideals

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boasting (beot, flyting), fate (wyrd), glory (dom) and praise (lof), imagery of battle, beasts of battle, warriors, war-gear, glorifies bond between lord and retainermutual loyalty, allusions to battles or past conflicts, (The Battle of Brunanburh)

• riddles prosopopoeia, ambiguity, direct questioning, transformation, double entendre

Heroic Ideal- bravery in the face of overwhelming/impossible odds- acceptance of a (unusually harsh) situation- carry out declared intentions willingly- desire to forge a reputation(posthumously if need be)- desire to be judged favourably by companions- loyalty to superiors

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Adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions

Adverbs Conjunctions PrepositionsUse + modify adjectives, nouns and adverbs

+ “provide logical transitions between clauses”+ “link sentence elements” + define links between

their objects and whatever they modify

Flavours + Adverbs also, before, ever, much+ conjunctive adverbs however, nevertheless, so, therefore, thus+ interrogative adverbs how, when, where, why+ adverbial constructions (Dutch: bijwoordelijke bepaling)+ usually refer to time and space by day, daily, immediately

+ coordinating conjunctions link elements and, or, but (and/ond 'and', ac 'but' and oPe 'or')+ correlative conjunctions link pairs of elements both… and, either… or+ subordinating conjunctions introduce sub-clauses although, as, becauseǣr þām (þe) - 'before' æfter þām (þe) - 'after'swā may mean 'so' or 'as', but swā swā always means 'as' þā þā means 'when'þǣr þǣr means 'where'.

for -before, in front of, because of, in place of, for the sake of, usually with dative, sometimes with accusative.

fram - from, by, with dative.ġeond - throughout, through, usually with accusative, sometimes with dative.in - with dative, in; with accusative, into.innan - with dative, in, within, from within; with accusative, into.mid - with, and, by means of, usually with dative, sometimes with accusative.of - from, of, with dative.

Morphology + not declined+ losses and changes of meaning+ loss: eac > also+ change of meaning: sona (immediately > soon)+ basic formær, eall (entirely), efne, ne, siððan, swa (so), þa (then)hu, hwider, hwanon, hwær, hwonne, hwy+ adjective + -e hraðe, wearmeadjective/noun + -lic + -e sarlice, unrihtlice

+ not declined+ losses ac > but, for þam þe > because+ no standard forms (like -lic for adjectives, -e for adverbs)+ coordinating ac, and, oþþe+ correlative ægþer… ge (both… and), na þæt an… ac eac swilce (not only… but also), ne… ne (neither… nor)+ subordinating butan (except), gif (if),

The information you will need about each preposition:- its meanings- what case the object of the preposition may take- whether the case of that object influences the meaning of the preposition

NOTE: Several prepositions

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+ noun + case endingsume dæge (some day), hwilum (at times), nihtes (by night)

swa (as), þa (when)+ for þam þe (because), wiþ þam þe (provided that)

have different meanings depending on

the case of the object.

- the dative is generally associated with location- the accusative is associated with movement towards.

Comparison + comparative: adjectival stem + -or hraðor, leoflicor+ superlative: adjectival stem + -ost hraðost, leoflicost+ other adverbs+ comparative: stem + -(r)ranorþerra+ superlative: stem + -mestNorþmest+ adjective by adding -e; since many adjectives aremade by adding -liċ to nouns or other adjectives, you will often see adverbs ending in -līċe. Examples:

wearme 'warmly' from wearm 'warm' sārlīċe 'painfully' from sār, sārliċ 'painful'.+ Adverbs may also be made by adding case endings to nouns, for example,genitive dæġes 'by day', unances 'unwillingly'

Look out for

+ sometimes i-mutation in stem vowel in comparative (with loss of ending) softe, seft, softost+ sometimes i-mutation in stem vowel in comparative (with loss of ending) and superlative (with -ost > -est) lange, leng, lengest

+ subordinating conjunctions are easily confused with conjunctive adverbs+ differences+ conjunctive adverbs stress logic+ subordinating conjunctions introduce sub-clauses

• not declined• prepositions assign case to

their “prepositional” object (cf. transitive verbs and their objects)

• usually either dative or

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+ sometimes anomalous comparatives and superlativeswel, bet, betst (well, better, best)lytle, læs, læst (little, less, least)

NB these are the same things to look out for in the adjectival degrees of comparison

+ how to tell adverbs from conjunctions in OE+ sometimes conjunctive adverb + þe = subordinating conjunction for þæm (therefore) versus for þæm þe (because)+ sometimes doubling swa (so or as) versus swa swa (as, literally: so as) þa (then or when) versus þa þa (when, literally: then when)

accusative, sometimes genitive, sometimes more than one case

• if more than one case: dative mostly for location, accusative mostly for motion or direction in: dat. in, acc. into

• losses and changes of meaning mid (with) and wiþ (against): feohtan mid versus feohtan wiþ

• no standard forms (like -lic for adjectives, -e for adverbs)

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