عليكم السالم

THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHDEFINITION research is a formal ,systematic,intensive processe used in the investigation of

a problem . In the educational realm, it may be carried on by an individual ,team or organization it may be conducted in a class,school,or community.Research is not limited to a

laboratory setting.THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH

Generally ,the quest for truth takes a person to one of five major sources of evidence tradition ; learned authority ,personal experience

logicalreasoning ;scientific investigationa review of the history of the development of research technology will reveal that theses

sources are listed here chronologically .Because the last two sources offer will be limited to scientific inquirry

the scientific method involves a double movement of though the investigator directs his attention from the partially known and oftentimes confused information learned from

observation previous investigations reflective thinking and so on toward a meaningful whole or generalization secondly he moves back from this suggested whole or generalization to the particular parts in order to connect these with one another in a meaningful pattern the first of

these movements is INDUCTIVE the second DEDUCTIVE .The process of thinking is considired complete when the investigator moves to and from a meaning with appropriates

interaction of his REASONING PROCESS occurring between recollected consederation and far -reaching general meanings

On the one hand induction is a movement toward the discovery of some principle while on the other hand deduction is a movement toward the testing of this principle for exemple

confirming,accepting,modifying insofar as the investigator is able to interpret isolated details and see them in the light of organizing principle he will find valid relationships

TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHwe have three main types of research according to the aim

research that aims to discover the truth this research is used in general to treat social political economic problems however here we may not find solutions only if we discover the reality of

problems and situationsResearch that gives critical explanations in this type the researcher tries to arrive at a results s

relying on logic and the gathered dataThe complete research includes both types

AIMES OF RESEARCHthe chief purposes for conducting research are

to determine the status of phenomena past and presentto ascertain the nature composition and processes that characterize selected phenomena to

trace growth developmental history change and status of certain phenomenato study the cause and effect relationships among and between certain phenomena

NOTEalthrough man has not yet devised any perfect method of finding solutions to problems

deemed worthy of investigation progress has been made there has been a gradual transition from seeking knowledge based purely on custom tradition authority and personal experience

to appealing for evidence based on reasoning and scientific inquirry

CHARACERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

patience knowledge and culture including reading open mind mastery of the used language mastery of other languages

scientific doubtscientific spirit the researcher has to be just respecting others' views fair and honest working

hard and helping people and doing things for nation and country objective avoiding subjectivity and bias

able to organize ;avoid controversybe brave especially in confessing mistakes

Today we wanna creat a page where enlish LMD studenst can communicate and to benefit from exchanging information about their studies and the Difficulties they Might Encounter

and first of all I would like to give few courses in the Techniques of the Written Expression

ESSAY WRITINGThe parts of the essay are much like the parts of a paragraph. The essay starts with an introductory paragraph containing a thesis statement which in turn tells the reader what the essay is about, just as the topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about. The body of the essay is made up of paragraphs that support the thesis statement, and the concluding paragraph that completes the essay.

1.Composing a Thesis Statement1.1. What is a Thesis Statement ?A thesis statement is a sentence which summarizes the main point or points (ideas) of a an essay and clearly expresses what the writer is going to say about his/her topic. In other words, it is merely a statement of the points the essay makes about a specific topic. Hence, the thesis statement identifies the topic which will be discussed abd the purpose of the essay. The thesis statement is usually the last sentence of the introductory paragraph. It covers exactly the topic the writer wants to talk about, no more and no less. It lets the readers know what to expect. It helps the writer better organise and develop the ******* of his/her paper. That is, it is the road map to the argument the writer will subsequently develop in his essay.

1.2.Characteristics of a Good Thesis StatementExamples of good thesis statements :- Every mother has the rioght to work, and the decision should be one that a mother makes on her own, but first she should carefully consider the many problems that she might encounter.- Violence has various aspects and varied causes resulting in serious effects.

A good thesis statement has the following characteristics :a. A thesis statement must be a declarative statement, not an interrogative one.Examples : - What are the many problems a working mother might encounter ?This is a weak thesis statement ; it is a question-What are the aspects, the causes, and the effects of violence ?b. Thesis statements must make a claim or argument ; they are not statements of facts. In other words, the point you make in your essay should not be obvious ; if most of your readers are likely to believe your thesis without even reading your essay, you probably do not need to write an essay to support that thesis.Examples : Violence is a dangerous phenomenon. This is essentially an indisputable point and therefore, not a good thesis statement.c. A good thesis statement is specific, precise, and limited. Probably the most common problem with trail thesis statements is that they are too broad, that they claim too much. In a good essay, you will say more about less, not less about more.Examples : A mother should consider the many problems that she might encounter. This thesis statement is too broad since the writer is going to write about the problems of a mother in general.Black artists have contributed a lot to the American culture. [« Black artists ,» « culture ,» and « a lot » cover more ground than what can be dealt with in one short essay ]

Better : Scott Joplin was a major influence in the development of the uniquely American music called ragtime. [specifically defined and narrow]d. A thesis statement is not an announcement of the topic. In other words, avoid using phrases such as « the purpose of this paper is .... » or « In this paper, I will attempt to .... »e. Do not clutter your thesis with expressions such as « in my opinion, » « I believe, » and « in this essay I’ll agrue that ... » These unnecessary phrases weaken your thesis statemnt because they often make you sound timid or uncertain. This is your essay ; therefore, the opinions expressed are obviously yours. Be forceful ; speak directly with conviction.f. A thesis statement is not a title. Remember that a thesis statement will always be a complete sentence ; there is no other way to make a statement.Examples : Problems encountering a working mother.Aspects, causes, and effects of violence.

WRITING ESSAY INTRODUCTIONSTo write an introduction for an essay, follow these steps :1. Introduce the topic in general.2. Narrow the topic down to focus more on the question.3. Restate the question in your own words and in statement form.4. Write the thesis statement.Examples : Question

Living in an apartment instead of the university dormitory has advantages and disadvantages. Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of the apartment living, and then defend your preference.IntroductionWhen a student decides to enter a university away from home, he or she must also consider living accommodations. Although most universities offer student dormitories, students frequently opt to live in an apartment. While there are manyadvantages to apartment living, there are also many disadvantages. Before a student decides to live in an apartment, all the aspacts of that kind of accommodation should be reviewed.Analysis1. The first sentence introduces the general topic of the university living accommodations.When a student decides to enter a university away from home, he or she must also consider living accommodations.2. The second sentence narrows the topic down to apartment living.Although most universities offer student dormitories, students frequently opt to live in an apartment.3. The third sentence sentence restates the specific question.While there are many advantages to apartment living, there are also many disadvantages.4. The fourth sentence is the thesis statement.Before a student decides to live in an apartment, all the aspacts of that kind of accommodation should be reviewed. Things to remember when writing an introduction for an essay :1. Make sure you have an introduction.Sometimes writers start the essay with te first developmental paragraph. However, you need at least a brief introduction so that your readers will know what you are writing about.2. Keep you intriductory paragraph simple.A good introduction strengthens your essay. However it is better to use your time writing the developmental paragraphs than spending too much time on the introductory paragraph.3. Check that your introductory paragraph is aimed toward answering the question.Your thesis statement tells your reader what you are going to write about, and your developmental paragraphs give support to your thesis statement. If you support a thesis that is not aimed toward the question, you may not get credit for your essay.

WRITING THE BODY OF AN ESSAYThe body is the heart of an essay. It is where writers provide support for the thesis statement and the bulk of their information. The body of an essay should consist of at least two developmental paragraphs, and each developmental paragraph should have a topic sentence that supports the idea mentioned in the thesis statement. All the ideas in each paragraph should support their topic sentence.Study the following sample of composing the body of an essay, but before doing that you need to read the question and the introdcution.QuestionSome people believe that a mother should not work. Others argue against this. Consider the probels that a working mother faces. Do you believe a mother should work ?IntroductionNowadays it is very common for women to work outside the home. Whether a mother should stay at home or join the worforce in debated by many people. Some argue that the familly, especially children, may be neglected. However, many mothers need to work because of economic reasons. Actually every mother has the right to work, and the decision should be one that a woman makes on her own, but first she should consider the many problems that she might encounter.BodyThe major poblems a mother faces concern her children. She must either find a reliable person who will be loving toward the children or a good day-care centre that the children can attend. If a child gets sick, the mother must make special arrangements for the child to be cared for at home, or she must stay from work herself. While at work, the mother may worry about her children. For instance, she may wonder if they are safe, if they are learning the values she wants them to have, and if her absence hurts them emotionally. She may also regret not being able to take them to after school activities or participate in familly activities with them.Even though a mother is frequently forced into working for economic reasosn, she soon discovers that there are added expenses. The biggest expense is child care. Another expense is transportation which includes not only going to work but also getting her children to school or day care. This may include purcahsing or maintaining a car. Yet another expense is clothing, such as a uniform or business suits to maintain a professional appearance.AnalysisThe first developmental paragraph supports the idea of problems that was identified in the thesis statement. The topic sentence states the idea of problems concerning children. All the sentences in this paragraph describes either a problem concerning children or a detail explaining a problem concerning children.The second developmental paragraph in this essay also supports the idea of problems that was identified in the thesis statement. The topic sentence states the

idea of the problem of added expenses. All the sentence in the paragraph describes either an added expense or a detail explaining the added expense.

The Five-Paragraph EssayA classic format for compositions is the five-paragraph essar, of course, but it is a useful model for you to keep in mind, especially as you begin to develop your composition skill. In the following section, we shall try to describe the body of a five-paragraph essay.Body---First developmental paragraphThe first paragraph of the body should contain the strongest argument, most significant example, cleverest illustration, or an obvious beginning point.Body---Second developmental paragraphThe second paragraph of the body should contain the second strongest argument, second most significant example, second cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up to the first paragraph in the body.Body---Third developmental paragraphThe third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious followup to the second paragraph in the body.

WRITING ESSAY CONCLUSIONSSo far you have practised writing the introduction and the body of an essay. To end the essay, you need to write a concluding paragraph.For the essay question, your concluding paragraph will :1. Restate the thesis statement.2. Restate the topic sentences from the developmental paragraphs, i.e, give a summary of the main points from the body ogf the paper.3. State your opinion, preference, or make a prediction.4. Conclude with a statement that sums up the essay. The final statement gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to an end.Read the following conclusions.1)In conclusion, living in an apartement has both advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is having independence and all that this freedomentails. Its disadvantages include possible isolation, extra expenses, and responsibilities. For a new student at university, the advantages of dormitory living outweigh those of apartment living ; therefore, I would prefer living in campus to living in an apartment.

2)After a mother takes into account all of the above problems and perhpas other probelms unique to her situation, she must decide if a job outside the home is worth it. I believe that even though she faces major obstacles, these obstacles are not insurmountable. Many mothers do work and manage a familly very successfully. In conclusion, it is a woman’s right to make the coice, and only the woman herself should decide this matter.

Things to remember when writing a conclusion for an essay :1. Make sure you have a conclusion.Sometimes writers do not complete the essay with a concluding paragraph ; however, it is important to have a conclusion. Without one, it may be difficult for the reader to know whether you have completed your essay or run out of time.2. Keep your concluding paragraph simple.A good conclusion strengthens your essay ; however, it is better to use your time writing the developmental paragraphs than spending too much time on the concluding paragraph.3. Check that your concluding paragraph completes the essay.Your concluding statement tells your readers that you complete the essay. Be careful not to include a new idea to your conclusion, which could make your readers think you are going to be discussing something else.

ANALYSING ESSAYSKeep this list in mind as you write your essay.1. Is there an introductory paragraph ?

2. Does the introductory paragraph restate the question ?3. Does the introductory paragraph have a thesis statement ?4. Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence ?5. Do the topic sentence of the developmental paragraphs support the thesis statement ?6. Do the ideas in each developmental paragraph support its topic sentence ?7. Are the details (examples,facts,descriptions,personal experiences) clear ?8. Is there a concluding paragraph ?9. Does the concluding paragraph give the impression that the essay is complete ?10. Does the essay answer all the parts of the question ?11. Have the grammar and spelling been corrected ? (Incorrect grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage count against you if the errors lead to a lack of clarity. Your essay will be cleared if you correct as many of these errors as you can find in the limited time that you have.)Practise analising essays by reading the following student-written essay and answering yes or no to each of the eleven questions in the preceding checklist.QuestionBoth large and small cars have their advantages and disadvantages. Write about some these advantages and disadvantages. State which type of car you prefer and why.

Both large and small cars have their advantages and disadvantages.First, large cars have many advanatages. For example, many people can be carried inside the car. Also, large cars are stronger in bad accidents, and they are very good for big families. About the disadvantages. Large cars can not get through small streets, and they use a lot of gas to start and run.Second, small cars also have advantages and disadvantages. About the advantages. You can drive the small car any place. Small car uses less gas and many people call them economical. The last advantage is that the small car is good for a small familly like a father, a mother and one child. About the disadvantages of small cars. The small car is not strong if someone has a bad accident. Moreover, small car can not go very fast because of their siz.For all this i like small cars.Analysis :1. No, the introductory paragraph is incomplete.2. No, the restate problem should be in different words, not in the same words as the question.3. Yes, there is a thesis statement that gives the controlling ideas as advantages and disadvantages of small and large cars.4. Yes, in the topic sentence of the first developmental paragraph, the topic is large cars and the controlling idea is advantages. However, the topic sentence of the second developmental paragraph is weak because it has two controlling idea advantages and disadvantages of small cars.5. Yes, the topic sentence of the developmental paragraphs support the thesis statement.6. No, the first developmental paragraph discusses both advantages and disadvantages. This does not support the topic sentence of the paragraph. The second developmental paragraph really supports the topic sentence ; however, this latter should tackle only one controlling idea.

7. Yes, however more details could be added.8. No, the concluding paragraph is incomplete. The topic and controlling ideas are not restated ; it is not clear what for this refers to or why the student has this preference.9. No, a concluding statement should sum up the essay.10. No, the reasosns the writer likes small cars are not included.11. No, there are some grammatical mistakes which may cause confusion

well here are some Sources that might help http://www.4shared.com/file/17WNnZuU/Second_Year.html An Overview about the Subjectshttp://www.4shared.com/file/uqKpxS-a/LIT.html Some Literature Courseshttp://www.4shared.com/file/NnZL2tK4/TEE.html Written Expression Courseshttp://www.4shared.com/file/048GhJYS/METHO.html Methodology Courses

  Lesson fiveSubstitutionI . D e f i n i t i o nIn grammar, the term Substitution refers to the words we use (such as so, one, do, did, yes,no...) to indicate that something has been left out and identify what type of data it is. Of course, the use of such words obeys the rules of the language they occur in.The clearest and simplest examples of substitution in the English language are the wordsYesandNo. Both can substitute long sentences or sequences of sentences, as we can see in thefollowing examples:-A): Have you ever thought of trying to get a job abroad?B):No.([I have never thought of trying to get a job abroad.])In the first example, the short grammatical word (no) replaces all the sentence (I have neverthought of trying to get a job abroad)-A) Has your father signed your permission for the excursion?B) Yes.([He has signed the permission for the excursion.])In the second example, the short grammatical word (yes)refers to the whole sentence (He hassigned the permission for the excursion)I I . Pa t t e r n s o f u s eLet’s study how we can use substitution:1)Replacing adverbials of place and timeIn the English language, we often find in the sentences expressions of place and time. Toavoid repetition we use words likehere,there, andover there

to replace details of place ,andwords such asthen, andat that timeto substitute details of time. Things can become clearer with the examples below:She invited me to her house, but I wouldn’t gothere.In this example,therereplacesto her house A lot of rich people have already visited tropical islands, but many poor peoplehave never beenthere.In this example,thererefers to tropicalisland.She invited me last night, but I just couldn’t spare the timethen.In this sentence,thenreplaceslast night.2 )Replacing longer stretches of textIn substitution, we use the terms this and that to refer to ideas or information which areexpressed over several clauses or which can’t be precisely related to a specific part of thesentence. Let’s explain this pint with the following example:We’ve had a few unexpected problems.That /thisis why I’ve called another meeting.Remark1-We usethisand that to point to or indicate real objects:Thisrefers to what is near to us, as in the following example:This is where I liveThatis used to refer to what is far from us, as in the sentence:That is where father died.-We usethisto precise new, key information like in:56

   Thisis really what I wanted to say.-We usethisto show sympathy and ownership towards something Thisis my own opinion.-We use that to disassociate ourselves from something in particular:That’s rubbish.2 ) Replacing predicatesBefore we start talking about the manner we use substitution to replace a predicate, let’sfirst say what the predicate is. It is everything that follows the subject. In order to replace the predicate, we use auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, combinations of auxiliary verbs and forms of the verb be. Here are some examples:She’d like to take a few days off work but justcan’t. (modal can)Have you got money? No, I h

aven’t.(auxiliary have)Have you been drinking? No, Ihaven’t been. (combination of  auxiliaries).Remark2If the predicate contains a verb in the present simple tense or in the past simpletense, we use the auxiliaries do, does, or did. Here are some examples:Sue didn’t notice something unusual but everyonedid. (notice something unusual)3 )Replacing infinitive clauses ,that noun clauses and noun clauses derived fromquestions-We usetoandnot toto replace infinitive clauses as in:I invited them to come but they didn’t wantto. [come]-We usesoor not toto replace that noun clauses after think andhopeas in the example:A: Is she coming round?B: I think so/ I don’t think so/ I hope (I think/ hope[that she isn’t coming round])-We use the question word to replace noun clauses derived from questions as in:They said they’d ring but I‘ve no ideawhen.[they‘ll ring]3 )Using pronouns and possessive adjectives to replace nouns and noun phrases-We use subject pronouns (I, you, he , she, it, we, they), object pronouns(me, you, him, her, it,us, them, one, ones), possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) to avoid repetition of clear information.Here are some examples in a short passage:The Peter and Jane saidtheywere leaving the town. [Peter and Jane]The dog swallowedits

food. [of the dog]Don’t put on the red dress but the blueone. [dress]Remark3We also use demonstratives (this, that, theses, those) and quantifiers (a few, a little,much, many, a lot, any) in substitution.He offered me some cake, but I didn’t wantany. [cake]He‘s got a few books, but I’ve gota lot. [of books]4 ) Expressing similarity, agreement, and disagreement-We usesoto express similarity with affirmative statements as in:A): My brother can stand on his head.B):Socan the Prime Minister. [Stand on his head]-We use neither or norfollowed by an auxiliary or a form of be to express similarity withnegative statements as in:A): I’m not staying in.B):Neither/noram I. [Staying in]57

 

Remark3When we express similarity with something stated in the past simple or the simple present we use do, does or did. As in:A): I like ABBA.B):So doesLiza. [she likes Abba]A): I ate an apple.B):So didI. [ate an apple]5 ) Comparative structuresIn general, we leave out information in comparative structures.Paris is big but London is bigger [than Paris]We also use pronouns to avoid repetition of action.I can run faster thanthem.I I I . P r a c t i c eExercise 1What do the underlined words substitute?The old man saidhewas going to takehiscat to the vet and ask herif shecould look after himwhilehewas in hospital, but thenheaskedmeif youcould possibly look after itwithyours.Exercise 2In the following extracts, examples of substitution have been singled out. Ineach case explain and specify what information is implied

This extract is from an article written by a film critic:Here’s a useful rule of thumb: never trust those (1) – usually comedians, entertainers and thelike- who say, “I love people”. And here’s another (2): never trust film critics who say: “Ilove movies.”...What keeps a film critic going and enjoying his job is optimism. Each film, you ferventlyhope, will be the one (3) that makes up all the dross you saw last week.Exercise 3The following is part of a text from an elementary coursebook, where it isused as a source of examples of future tenses and prepositions of time. It includesseveral examples of substitution.(Jane and Bill are talking on Monday April 19th, at nine o’clock in the morning)Jane:Is everything all right?Bill:Yes, Ithink so. I ‘m picking up the visas on Wednesday morning and the tickets in theafternoon, and I’m getting the traveller’s cheques from the bank tomorrow.Jane:Oh, good. Don’t forget that the children are going to stay with Mother on the 22nd-you’re driving them.Bill:Oh, yes how long for?Jane:Just for two days. Back on Friday night.Bill: That isn’t long.Jane:Darling- you know it’s John’s birthday on the 24th.Bill: So it is. We must have him fhome for his birthday. What are we giving him?Jane:A bike.Bill: Oh yes, that’s right. When are you going to do the packing?Jane:At the weekend, at the last possible moment. You‘re going to help Ihope58

  Bill: Oh yes. Yes, of course.-Identify the following features1) Identify a substitution of a that noun clause.2) What pronouns are used to substitute John and the children?3) The wordthatoccurs twice in the text. What does it stand for in each case? 59  Bibliography1)Carter ,R ., Hugue , R .,& Mc Carthy , M .,(2006) Exploring Grammar in Context.Cambridge, Uk:Cambridge University Press.2)Coe , N .,Harrison , M .,&Paterson ,K .,(2007) Oxford Practice Grammar .Oxford, UK :Oxford University Press.3)Nettle, M .,Hopkins , D .,(2003) Developing Grammar in Context .Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.4)Parrott, M., (2007) Grammar for English language Teaching. Cambridge, UK / CambridgeUniversity Press .5)http://a4es/.org/q/h/9901/tm-reported1.html 6)http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/types.html 7)http://www.englishpage .com/prepositions/ phrasaldictionary.html 8)Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ellipsis9)Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/substitution60

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