EngDes Major.docx

1 - ABSTRACTThe goal of this project was to design a sustainable and independent home for a family of four living in urban St. Louis, MO, given real-life, applicable constraints such as budget and land size. Following the formal engineering design process, we first conducted the necessary background research. Topics included the culture and climate of St. Louis, MO, in addition to possible alternative solutions to incorporate in the house for the main categories of energy generation, water conservation, and sustainable materials. The team decided to fully power their home with photovoltaic cells in concert with passive solar design based off of St. Louis propensity for clear days. Our passive solar design would take advantage of, among other natural and predicted weather trait patterns, the suns average lower rise in the fall and winter to maximize entering heat and vice versa during the spring and summer months. To minimize our carbon footprint, the team chose to use mushroom-based insulation from the New York based company Ecovative, instead of those based off petroleum. In addition, we decided to implement FSC certified, salvaged wood instead of freshly cut lumber. Water conservation measures were two-fold: First, the team decided to plant gazania seeds (drought-resistant plants) so to minimize both monetary and environmental costs of unnecessary watering. Second, using our research into greywater recycling and rainwater collection patents from both the US and Europe, we implemented a simple, non-patented system consisting of a perimeter gutter and bucket that would collect all rainwater for filtration. Together, our detailed cost analysis demonstrated that total cost of construction - including labor and contracting, but not including the price of land - would amount to just under $420,000, well under the allotted $500,000 budget.

2 - INTRODUCTION

The need for sustainable resource implementation continues to be on the rise as fossil fuels and other non-sustainable energy resources decline at an ever-increasing pace. Tackling this problem requires a thorough analysis of where this energy is being spent on. The goal of this project is to analyze the typical energy allocation of systems and subsystems in homes in distinct locations in the United States, especially with regards to those resources that have once been considered cheap, such as water and lumber. The costs are not just economical; as Earths population continues to increase, demand for such limited resources proportionally rises, leading to limited supplies and non-sustainability.Each group was assigned a distinct environment in the United States, and included Hilo, Hawaii to Anchorage, Alaska. Our group was assigned St. Louis, MO. With a comprehensive understanding of the areas culture and needs, the problem is to design a sustainable home under certain constraints such as a $500,000 budget, not including land, and a 1 acre land area restriction. Particular attention will be paid to components that deal with energy and water usage, as well as in determining the type of materials to be used for construction and insulation.

3 - BACKGROUND

3.1 - CultureSt. Louis, MO is culturally unique for its relatively optimistic job outlook, recreational opportunities ranging from major league sports teams to well-maintained sparks and golf courses, and plethora of hiking and canoeing opportunities not too far from the city center. The city is also known for its low cost of living; the citys great availability and accessibility are demonstrated by its nickname, the 20-minute city, given the fact that most recreations and major tourist attractions (like the Art Museum, the History Museum, and the Symphony hall) are a short distance away from most residential neighborhoods.1 These factors were carefully taken into consideration in the design of the home; for instance, the homes garage was designed to hold just one mid-size SUV, with room for a few bikes and an expanded storage facility, reflecting the populations propensity for walking and cycling.

3.2 - Climate St. Louis lies in transitional zone between the humid continental climate type and the humid subtropical climate type, and its climate indicators, as listed below in Table 3-12, demonstrate this fact. This data was used in determining appropriate materials for the home, especially with regards to sustainability. Careful insulation is necessary, considering Januarys subfreezing temperatures. Average wind speed ranges from a low of 7.6 mph in August to a high of 11.7 mph in March. This makes sense, as St. Louis has a relatively high frequency of thunderstorms (48 days a year on average), with most of them occurring in the spring. Furthermore, St. Louis has one of the highest rates of tornadoes out of all major metropolitan areas in the country, a definite consideration in the design of the home.3 Table 3-1: Pertinent climate indicators for St. Louis, MO

3.3 - Energy GenerationWe came up with a trifecta of green energy generation solutions that could be used either in tandem or with mutual exclusion. The solutions were based off of previous research in regards to efficient energy systems and are as follows: biofuel packages for stove fuel usage, photovoltaic panels, and lastly wind turbines powering small appliances in the summer (when gusts are most prevalent in St. Louis).Recently the company Biolite has manufactured what is known as the Biolite Homestove, a device that is a biomass cookstove that by converting waste heat into electricity, reduces smoke emissions by up to 95% while simultaneously providing users with the capability to charge mobile phones and LED lights. Figure 3-1 provides the general methodology. Not only is this technology extremely low cost but it reduces carbon emissions by 91% and smoke by 96%. While Biolite is intending to spread these abroad in developing nations, this technology would fit perfectly in our self sustainable home with only the small sacrifice of stove size.4

Figure 3-1: BioLite technology methodology

Moving on, the primary source of energy generation would of course be approximately $110,000 dollars worth of photovoltaic panels connecting directly to our clients homes electric system. The process of this energy generation is basic in principle. Essentially, solar panels are installed on either the roof of the abode or on installations in the yard. When light strikes these panels which incorporate semiconductors, electricity is generated directly and it will be sent through cables to the battery that the house will implement. Lastly, the third mode of energy generation that may be used simultaneously with the other methods but particularly in the summer season, is the wind turbine. St. Louis features strong warm winds seasonally (in the summer) and these winds can be harnessed to power appliances such as fans and air conditioning that are used more often during hotm summer days. A small 3000$ wind turbine from a company such as general electric would provide more than enough energy to power three typical fans or an air conditioning cooling system.Table 3-2 lists typical energy consumption rates for common household appliances, such as that for a microwave oven. Notes are given when appropriate, and it was estimated that total household energy usage for a family of four would be 69.15 KWH/day.

3.4 - Water ConservationOur group generated three ideas in the realm of water conservation: rainwater collection, greywater recycling, and alternatives to grass for the lawn. These ideas could be used individually or in concert with each other as they are effectively mutually exclusive. Two ideas that we found for rainwater collection are defined in patents EP2511433A2 and EP2518226A1 (see Figures 3-2 and 3-3, respectively). The first patent involves tanks that are fed by the gutters. The tanks are away from the gutters to facilitate easier collection and maintenance. This system also scales in size based on the building making it ideal for any environment.5 The second patent is very straightforward and consists of a mechanism attached to a downspout. The water is then funneled to the side and debris falls down.6 Either of these patents would work well for our house. However, the downside of both is obtaining the actual products stemmed from the patents. They could be hard to find due to the patent being filed in Europe. Another way to conserve water is to recycle greywater. Greywater is generally defined by water that has been used in bathing. Normally this water is disposed of in a similar manner to blackwater (water used in toilets). However, this water has the potential to be used again, to be converted to blackwater. Greywater systems are fairly commonplace and simple to find. However, they could add substantial cost to the house. We researched into two potential greywater recycling system patents. The first, a now-defunct 1998 US 57766454 A, features an aerobic and anaerobic tank to filter greywater (see Figure 3-4).7 The second, the 2001 US 6287469 B1, is designed to be used with a septic tank, for tertiary sewage treatment by naturally occurring micro-organisms (see Figure 3-5).8Our final idea for water conservation is using some sort of alternate material for the lawn. Grass lawns are notorious for their water consumption. One solution could involve installing synthetic turf or planting drought resistant plants. Either of these options would cut down on water supply. However, oftentimes homeowner associations place requirements on houses, sometimes making it necessary for houses to have grass lawns. If this is in place, then synthetic turf could be installed. The main issues with synthetic turf are environmental impact and installation costs. Drought resistant plants do not require much water, which makes them an ideal candidate for viable water conservation measures.

Figure 3-3: Patent EP 2518226 A1, fits around downspout & filters debris from rainFigure 3-2: Patent EP 2511433 A2, collects water from gutters & deposits into tanks

Figure 3-4: Patent US 5766454 A: Two tanks, aerobic and anaerobic

Figure 3-5: Patent US 6287469 B1: Used in conjunction with septic tank

3.5 - Sustainable MaterialsThree ideas the group generated for a list of sustainable materials to consider using in our home design were mushroom-based insulation, placing more emphasis on functional, intact, recycled/salvaged materials, and striving to use wood that is locally (i.e., within a 400 mile radius of St. Louis, MOs epicenter) and sustainably grown (i.e., from a company that is Forest Stewardship Council certified).Ecovative is a company that specializes in providing sustainable, high-performance materials for buildings; one of the products they offer is mushroom insulation which holds a Class A fire rating (ASTM E84), ultra-low VOCs (ASTM E1333), and even a competitive price per R-value, in addition to being Cradle to Cradle Gold Certified, a mark of sustainability and material health (durability).9 These benefits, though attractive, are beset by the fact that New York, their primary and central warehouse, is some 900 miles away from St. Louis, MO.Our group can also place greater emphasis on recycled/salvaged materials, assuming their functionality is intact, in order to maintain sustainability. One common method is to implement reclaimed wood, which has been popular since the 1980s. Pros to using reclaimed wood (besides sustainability) include a new look and feel, and increased strength and durability due to having already been exposed to the elements. Cons include scarcity, a higher cost, and legitimacy issues (reportedly, some retailers may blend old and new wood and pass that off as reclaimed).10To further support sustainability in our design, we will strive to use as much wood that is locally and sustainably grown. We searched the FSC (Forest Stewardship Council)s certificate database online using the state filter, Missouri, to discover that there are a total of 99 architectural or otherwise woodworking-related organizations certified in the state.11 Pros of striving to use wood that is locally grown include cheaper shipping costs and therefore greater sustainability. Cons of purchasing from an FSC certified woodworking organization include higher costs, due to their higher operating costs in maintaining certification year after year.

4 METHODOLOGY

4.1 OverviewAs can be ascertained in Graph 4-1 below, we underwent five distinct phases in our project, organized by the standard engineering design methodology:

4.2 Needs AssessmentWe began the work for the first stage in the engineering design process, Needs Assessment, on October 7, 2013, and planned to complete it by October 14, 2013. The work consisted of determining our clients needs - in this case, specific research focus included determining the culture and climate of urban St. Louis, MO, and doing background research into popular sustainable energy currently in use in the area. An average breakdown of standard energy consumption statistics for home appliances was also conducted, in order to quantify energy needs.

4.3 Problem FormulationFrom October 13 to October 16, the group focused on the next step of the engineering design process, Problem Formulation. Specific tasks included were conducting patent research on water conservation (rainwater collection and greywater recycling, see Figures 3-2 to 3-5), drafting a Duncker diagram as shown in Figure 4-2 to better visualize and organize the problem and generate appropriate solutions, and compiling these and other pertinent information from our Needs Assessment background research into a Google Presentation. The group presented their progress to the 9:15am Engineering Design class on October 16.

Figure 4-2: Duncker diagram for project

4.4 Abstraction & SynthesisWork on Abstraction & Synthesis was conducted from October 16 to October 26. On October 17, all three group members met from precisely 10:30am to 11:30am in the common room of floor 6 of the International Village dormitory complex belonging to Northeastern University to brainstorm potential alternative solutions to the three major components of Energy Generation, Water Conservation, and Sustainable Materials. Minutes were taken, and a report was drafted which included the above ideas expounded by each of the three group members individually doing research on their assigned component & ideas.

4.5 AnalysisThe Analysis portion of the Engineering Design process included drafting up a decision matrix to quantify the viability of the alternative solutions generated in the previous step of the engineering design process. Relevant work was completed from October 28 to November 6 using Google Drives cloud-based software, Spreadsheet, and followed the formal design analysis protocol. Specifically, the team rank-ordered the design goals (which differed per major component, see Table 4-1 for an instance), quantifying them using weights (a simple weighting system using the integers 1 to 10), rating the alternative design solutions based on our design goals, and finally creating a design matrix that generated a final metric best quantifying the potential viability of each alternative solution relative to one another within their respective major component category.

4.6 ImplementationWith the viability of each alternative design solution determined, the group proceeded to the Implementation phase of the formal engineering design process. From November 6 to December 5, the group worked towards completing a final home design for the urban family of four in St. Louis, MO. Specific tasks included using Autodesks computer-aided design software, AutoCAD, to generate blueprints for the plumbing and electrical systems of the home, and implementing the final design solutions for the three major components of Energy Generation, Water Conservation, and Sustainable Materials. For detailed information about each specific task, see Chapter 6 Final Design of this report.

5 - ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS

5.1 - IntroductionWe considered many different solutions for the various problems that are posed while creating an environmentally friendly house. Three of these ideas came close to final consideration but were excluded for various reasons. These ideas were: using adobe bricks for the frame of the house, using available geothermal energy to power a stirling engine which generates electricity, and using wind power to provide power for the house.

5.2 - AdobeAdobe bricks have been used by Native Americans for centuries and have proven to be very effective as insulators in desert conditions. Their durability, insulating power, and natural construction seem to make them ideal candidates for use in this home. However, the disadvantages were too much to overlook. Adobe bricks are subject to much wear and tear by the environment.15 This makes them the subject of ongoing maintenance. The costs of the maintenance can stack up and prove to be restrictive. In addition, the creation of the bricks themselves is not an easy process. This means that more expensive labor is needed create the house which makes the entire project more expensive. In addition to the financial disadvantages, cultural factors must be taken into account. Adobe houses have a much different look about them as compared to a more conventional house. This could be seen as a downside to many clients.

5.3 - Stirling EngineA stirling engine is a type of motor that uses temperature differential to generate mechanical energy.16 Conceivably, one could use the difference between the heat of the Earth and the ground to drive a stirling engine which would drive a turbine to generate electrical energy for the house. This, while a very green option which would provide power to the house, has very distinct disadvantages. First, the cost of installing a geothermal system is fairly restrictive. As a corollary to this, the price of maintenance for geothermal systems is both dangerous and expensive.17

5.4 - Wind PowerWind power is a staple in discussions relating to renewable power. While it does have a very significant advantage which is effectively limitless power, it does have several disadvantages, especially in this situation. The main disadvantage is that it is not particularly windy in St Louis. The annual average wind speed is 9.7 miles per hour which is not particularly impressive. Another disadvantage of wind power in this case is the fairly restrictive price that is associated with wind power. The price of a 10 kW (nominal) unit, not enough for our house can be as much as 50,000 dollars18 which is half enough to power the house and buying a sufficient number would be more expensive than a solar array that could power the whole house. In addition, the low wind in the area would most likely make the unit not perform to its specified level.

6 - FINAL DESIGN

6.1 - IntroductionOur group came up with a total of eight (subject to change) different solutions to make our house more environmentally friendly. They are, building the house with sustainably farmed lumber, insulating the house with organically based material (such as mushroom based insulation), recycled material, using renewable power sources, replacing the traditional lawn with drought resistant plants, collecting rainwater, recycling grey water, planting deciduous trees to cover the house, and passive solar design.

6.2 - Sustainable LumberSustainable lumber is lumber that has been farmed and cut down in a manner and with timing that enables the farm to grow back over time.12,19 Another factor that is involved with sustainable lumber is chain of custody which track who has had the lumber from the point of when it was cut down to when the consumer is in possession of it. For more information on sustainable lumber, refer to section 3.5, paragraph 4. This sustainable lumber wood would replace any non-sustainable lumber that would be used in a more conventional house. Sustainable lumber happens to be more expensive than conventional lumber due the logging companies having to renew their licenses every year and the exclusivity of the wood.

6.3 - InsulationInsulation is an integral component of any house and making said insulation a sustainable product would be beneficial to making our house more environmentally friendly. The option that we deemed prudent was using mushroom based insulation to replace the conventional insulation that would have been used instead.20 For more information on the specific insulation used refer to section 3.5 paragraph 2. As mentioned in section 3.5, this insulation is detrimented by the fact that the main supply of it is based in New York which is quite far away from St. Louis.

6.4 - Renewable EnergyRenewable energy sources are a staple for an environmentally friendly house. There were three options that looked favorable for us. They were biofuel packets, wind, and solar. After consideration that was discussed in sections 3.3, we decided on solar power being the most apt for the energy generation for our house. This consists of an array of solar panels that generate power for our house. As discussed in section 3.3, the total cost of the array would be 110,00021 dollars and would generate all of the necessary power for the house. The installed arrays would be placed on the roof of the house and/or around the house. For a layout of the electrical system of the house refer to appendix A.1, figure 4.

6.5 - Lawn AlternativeThe green grass lawn of a house is often shown to be very ubiquitous to the average American home. However, it is very wasteful and if is replaced by drought resistant plants, much water can be saved. The solution to this problem was found to be drought resistant plants. These plants are species that have evolved not need a significant amount of water to survive. Planting these plants in lieu of a standard lawn would save water for the house. Buying a lawn full of drought resistant plants is actually not much more expensive than buying a conventional lawn. In St. Louis, a 1000 square foot lawn can cost around 500 dollars.22 Around the average price for 100 gazania seeds (a drought resistant flower)23 is five dollars for 100 seeds.24 Assuming one flower per six inches, the same size lawn will only cost 20 dollars. This, in addition to the fact that they flowers dont need to be watered very much, cuts down significantly on water usage and overall price.

6.6 - Water ConservationRainwater collection was an idea that we agreed to implement in this house. On average, around 37.5 inches of rain fall on the St Louis area per year25, so being able to capture some of this rain would be helpful in keeping this house environmentally friendly. Collecting rainwater is something that is very easy to do. One only needs the house to have gutters. Then, only using a bucket and a few different materials such as a spigot one can attach the gutter to drain into the barrel26. For a detail of this part of the house, refer to appendix A.1, figure 5. With this solution, one would also need a system of purifying the water. This normally involves some combination of boiling, chemical treatment, and filtering27. The price for a barrel is around 100 dollars28 and the price for all of the other items can be considered negligible. Assuming an average home size of 2500 sq. feet29, and an average of 1 inch of rain per acre equals 27,154 gallons of water30, one can calculate that every inch of water on a 2500 square foot house is around 1558 gallons. Assuming that around 65% of the water that falls on the house will flow into the gutter and into the barrel, one can then extrapolate that yearly, around 37,986 gallons can be collected in the barrel. This, based on the the lowest rate for water in St. Louis being $1.7731 per cubic feet, represents a possible savings of almost 9000 dollars. Grey water recycle is another system of water conservation. Grey water is the water that is leftover from bathing. This water can be filtered to be used for use in the restroom, where it becomes black water that has to be sent to a water treatment facility. The specification for a in home water treatment plant that is designed to be used in conjunction with a septic tank is outlined in patent US 6287469 B1. For a complete look at the plumbing system used in the house refer to the appendix A.1, figure 6.

6.7 - Passive Solar DesignPassive solar design is the practice of designing a house that takes advantage of the sun to do the majority of the heating and cooling work, reducing the need for heating systems and air conditioning.32 Many houses that use passive solar design principles have large windows and are oriented on a specific axis. Planting deciduous trees to cover the house during specific seasons is one form of passive solar design that uses the shade and lack of shade from trees to save energy that would be used to heat and cool the house. Deciduous trees would be planted around the house in areas where the sun would shine the most. During the spring and summer, when the trees have their leaves, the sun would be blocked from hitting the house, making the house cooler and reducing the need for air conditioning. Then during the fall and winter, the trees lose their leaves and the sun is allowed to shine on the house fully, reducing the need for heating. The orientation of the house is another very important aspect of passive solar design. The general idea is to orient the longest axis of the house in a manner that allows it to get the most amount of sun during the day. This translates to having a house that is relatively long and thin. The longer axis of the house is oriented parallel to the east-west axis with large window facing the south. This orientation is controlled by use of shades and awnings to direct the rays of the sun in different times of the year. During the spring and summer, the sun shines at a higher angle than during the fall and winter. This can be taken advantage of by making awnings that come out at a specific angle and go to a specific distance so during the spring and summer the sun is blocked from entering the house and during the fall and winter the sun is allowed to enter the house. Using online tools33 we were able to calculate the necessary length, one and a half meters. For a detail of this part of the house, refer to appendix A.1, figure 7 of the overhang in order to have maximum exposure during the winter and minimum exposure during the summer. The length of the overhang is based on the height of the windows, the distance from the window to the overhang, and the latitude of the house. It is difficult to calculate the savings that will be made due to the use of passive solar design. This is due to changing weather conditions. However, cutting even a minority of both heating and air conditioning could represent very significant reductions in energy use.

7 - CONCLUSIONSOur final design satisfies the original goals and needs of our clients by addressing the admittedly open-ended, yet nevertheless involved prompt to design a sustainable and independent home. To breakdown the problem, the team focused on optimizing three major components - energy generation, water conservation, and sustainable materials - with regards to a weighted decision matrix whose design goals included energy yield, carbon footprint, aesthetics, availability, and price.The greatest potential risk revolves around the inherent nature of modern technology; PV cells are continuously becoming more efficient, environmentally friendly, and affordable. Our clients will realize the steadily falling prices of PV cells - which power 100% of the home - and will undoubtedly groan in a few years when they realize they couldve saved a lot of money by making a slow transition to achieving a 100% green status home rather than in one drop.

8 - RECOMMENDATIONSPossible issues that the team might run into during the Implementation phase of the formal engineering design process primarily revolve around time budgeting and technically related issues. Because of the cornucopia of relatively new technologies that A&M Design Solutions introduced into a single construction, the potential for error or delay in implementation is higher than in houses that utilize primarily traditional materials (such as lumber from any particular source). By its very nature, for instance, sustainable lumber and locally grown lumber are more prone to sudden depletion/delay than the lumber from any indiscrete source. Time budgeting would thus be a concern; in estimating construction deadlines, we would have to allow for a larger margin of error.Further research could be done on the design of our home, especially in topics that were scraped over or otherwise completely left out in the project, such as performing a cost-benefit analysis rather than a simple comparison of costs between traditional home design and our sustainable and independent one. Performing a full cost-benefit analysis as taught in the business school would further bridge the gap between engineering and practicality that is necessary for a well-implemented project.

APPENDICES

A.1 - ARCHITECTURAL LAYOUTS

Layout Tables Legend:1. Utilities Closet: Contains Water Heater, Air Conditioning, Inverters, greywater output2. Bedroom 13. Bedroom 24. Bathroom 15. Washer and Dryer Closet6. Bedroom 37. Bathroom 28. Kitchen9. Living Room10. Circuit BreakersYellow Lines: ElectricityThick Blue Lines: Clean WaterGrey Lines: Grey WaterBlack Lines: Black WaterThin Blue Lines: WallsI: InverterC: Circuit BreakersWA: Washing MachineDR: DryerWH: Water HeaterGO: Grey Water OutWO: Water OutWD: Water DisposalGR: Grey Water RecycleSI: SinkTO: ToiletSH: ShowerDW: Dish WasherFigure A-1: Isometric view 1

Figure A-2: Isometric view 2

Figure A-3: Isometric view 3

Figure A-4: Electrical Layout

Figure A-5: Water Collection Detail

Figure A-6: Plumbing Layout

Figure A-7: Overhang Detail

A.2 - COST ANALYSISTable A-2: Cost Analysis for HomeItem NameMaterialLaborEquipmentTotal

Excavation031278193946

Foundation, Piers, Flatwork659310597166618856

Rough Hardware64410361641844

*Rough Carpentry2280032160054960

*Insulation7176278909965

*Septic tank750012007620

*Gutter75000750

Exterior Finish12269730986119578

Exterior Trim76912371952006

Doors1948167103619

Windows3356233105687

Finish Hardware3252790604

Garage Door0000

Finish Carpentry1183608907272

Interior Wall Finish56798961014640

Painting33938095011488

Wiring3634456646010091

Lighting Fixtures258383003413

Flooring2537367906216

Carpeting5049184006889

Bath Accessories125178702038

Shower & Tub Enclosure79868401482

Countertops2415206804483

Cabinets79392551010490

Built In Appliances386355104414

Plumbing Rough-in and Connection373625899753913161

Plumbing Fixtures377364238409748

Heating and Cooling Systems805612084020140

Fireplace and Chimney786117901965

Item NameMaterialLaborEquipmentTotal

Drought resistant grass72600726

Subtotal Direct Job Costs$120094$137601$4244258091

*PV Cells2111000000110000

Final Cleanup0110401104

Insurance7731007731

Permits & Utilities4694004694

Plans & Specs1104001104

Subtotal Indirect Job Costs$13529$1104014633

Contractor Markup345120034512

Total Cost$168135$138705$4244417236

*Detailed Breakdown Analysis

Area-based calculations$/sq. ft$/sq. mArea (sq. m)Total

Reclaimed Wood$9.29$100228$22800

Mushroom Insulation$1.95$20.98342$7175.844

Drought resistant grass0.020.223300$726

One-piece apparatus

Septic Tank24$7,500

Gutter$750

Energy$/wattWatts needed

Photovoltaic Cells$5.0022000$110,000

A.3 REFERENCES

1. St. Louis Regional Chamber, "Quality of Life." Last modified 2013. Accessed October 2, 2013.

2. "St. Louis." climate-zone.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov 2013.

3. climate-zone, "St. Louis." Last modified 2003. Accessed October 2, 2013.