DataLink Layer 1

The Data Link Layer

Our goals: understand principles behind data link layer

services: error detection, correction sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access link layer addressing reliable data transfer, flow control: done!

instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies

DataLink Layer 2

outline

Introduction and services

Error detection and correction

Multiple access protocols

LAN addresses and ARP

Ethernet

Hubs, bridges, and switches

Wireless links and LANs

PPP ATM

DataLink Layer 3

Link Layer: Introduction

Some terminology: hosts and routers are nodes communication channels that

connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links wired links wireless links LANs

2-PDU is a frame, encapsulates datagram

“link”

data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to adjacent node over a link

DataLink Layer 4

Link layer: context

Datagram transferred by different link protocols over different links: e.g., Ethernet on first link, frame relay on

intermediate links, 802.11 on last link

Each link protocol provides different services e.g., may or may not provide reliable data transfer

over link

DataLink Layer 5

Link Layer Services

Framing: encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header,

trailer ‘physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify

source, dest • different from IP addresses!

Link access: Media Access Control (MAC) protocols coordinate frame

transmissions of nodes that share a broadcast link Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes

we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)! seldom used on low bit-error links (fiber, coax, twisted

pair) often used for wireless links: high error rates

DataLink Layer 6

Link Layer Services (more) Flow Control:

pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes

Error Detection: errors caused by signal attenuation, noise. sender includes error-detection bits in frame receiver detects presence of errors:

• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame

Error Correction: receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without

resorting to retransmission Half-duplex and full-duplex

with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not at same time

DataLink Layer 7

Adaptors Communicating

link layer implemented in “adaptor” (aka NIC) Ethernet card, 802.11 card

sending side: encapsulates datagram in

a frame adds error checking bits,

rdt, flow control, random access, etc.

receiving side error checking, rdt, flow

control, random access, etc

extracts datagram, passes to network layer

sendingnode frame

rcvingnode

datagram

frame

adapter adapter

link layer protocol

DataLink Layer 8

Framing

Data link breaks physical layer stream of bits into frames

...010110100101001101010010...

How does receiver detect boundaries? Length count Special characters Bit stuffing Special encoding

DataLink Layer 9

Length count First field is length of frame Count until end Then, look for next frame Problems?

DataLink Layer 10

Length Count Problems

DataLink Layer 11

Special Characters

Reserved characters for beginning and end

Beginning: DLE STX (Data-Link Escape, Start of TeXt)

End: DLE ETX (Data-Link Escape, End of TeXt)

Problems? Solution?

DataLink Layer 12

Character Stuffing Replace DLE in data with DLE DLE (reverse)

Not all architectures are character oriented!

DataLink Layer 13

Bit Stuffing

Garbaged frames ok, just keep scanning Problem? Wasted bandwidth/processing

How much in proj1?

Frame delimiter: 01111110

DataLink Layer 14

Errors

Lines becoming digital errors rare

Copper the “last mile” errors infrequent

Wireless errors common

Errors are here for a while Plus, consecutive errors

bursts

DataLink Layer 15

Error Detection

EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

DataLink Layer 16

Parity Check

Example of even parity0111000110101011 1

Two Dimensional Parity Bit:Detect and correct single bit errors

d data bits

parity bit

Single Parity Bit: suppose d bits of data even/odd parity: add one

additional bit such that the total number of 1’s in the d+1 bits is even/odd

can detect an odd number of bit errors; can not detect an even number of bit errors

o o

DataLink Layer 17

Internet checksum (RFC 1071)

Sender: treat data as sequence of

16-bit integers compute 1’s complement

sum of data add carry-out (17th bit)

back into the lowest significant bit

put 1's complement of the sum into checksum field

Receiver: compute 1’s complement sum

of received data, including the checksum field

check if the result contains all 1 bits: NO - error detected YES - no error detected;

but may be errors nonetheless.

Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted segment (used at transport layer)

DataLink Layer 18

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

often used in link layer view data bits, D, as a binary number sender, receiver agree on an r+1 bit pattern

(generator), G, leftmost bit of G must be 1 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that

<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero

remainder: error detected!

DataLink Layer 19

CRC Example

Want:D.2r XOR R = nG

equivalently:D.2r = nG XOR R

equivalently: if we divide D.2r by G,

remainder is R

R = remainder[ ]D.2r

G

Example: D=101110, G=1001, r=3

In CRC calculations, addition and subtraction are equivalent to bitwise exclusive-or (XOR) Sender transmit: 101110 011

DataLink Layer 20

Common generators

CRC-8: 100000111CRC-12: 1100000001101CRC-16: 1100000000000101CRC-32:

100000100110000010001110110110111 Can detect burst errors of less than r+1 bits Can detect any odd number of bit errors

DataLink Layer 21

Local Area Network Protocols

Multiple Access Links Two types of “links”: point-to-point

single sender, single receiver link between two routers, or between a dial-

up modem and an ISP router broadcast (shared wire or medium)

multiple sending and receiving nodes connected to single shared channel

Ethernet, 802.11 wireless LAN

DataLink Layer 22

Multiple Access protocols

single shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:

collision only one node can send successfully at a time

multiple access protocol determine how nodes share channel, i.e.,

determine when node can transmit

DataLink Layer 23

Ideal Multiple Access Protocol

Broadcast channel of rate R bps1. When only one node wants to transmit, it can

send at rate R.2. When M nodes want to transmit, each can

send at average rate R/M3. Fully decentralized: no special node to

coordinate transmissions4. Simple

DataLink Layer 24

Multiple Access Protocols: a taxonomy

Three broad classes: Channel Partitioning Protocols

divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency)

allocate piece to node for exclusive use

Random Access Protocols channel not divided, allow collisions “recover” from collisions

Taking-turns Protocols tightly coordinate shared access to avoid collisions

DataLink Layer 25

Channel Partitioning: TDMA

TDMA: time division multiple access divide time into time frames and divide each

time frame into fixed length time slots (length = pkt trans time)

each station gets one slot in each frame unused slots go idle example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots

2,5,6 idle

DataLink Layer 26

Channel Partitioning: TDMA

Pros: No collisions Fair: each node gets a dedicated

transmission rate of R/N bps Cons:

inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node!

DataLink Layer 27

Channel Partitioning: FDMA

FDMA: frequency division multiple access channel spectrum divided into frequency bands each station assigned a frequency band unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands

2,5,6 idle

frequ

ency

bands time

1

2

3

4

5

6

Pros: no collisions, fair

Cons: inefficient at low load: 1/N

bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node!

DataLink Layer 28

Random Access Protocols

When node has packet to send transmit at full channel data rate R. no a priori coordination among nodes

two or more transmitting nodes -> “collision”, random access protocol specifies:

how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)

Examples of random access protocols: slotted ALOHA ALOHA CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

DataLink Layer 29

Slotted ALOHA

Assumptions all frames same size time is divided into equal

sized slots, a slot equals the time to transmit one frame

nodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slots

nodes are synchronized if two or more nodes

transmit in a slot, all nodes detect collision before the slot ends

Operation when node has a fresh frame

to send, it transmits in next slot

no collision, node can send new frame in next slot if it has one

if collision, node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with probability p until success

DataLink Layer 30

Slotted ALOHA

Pros single active node can continuously transmit at full rate

of channel highly decentralized: each node independently decides

when to retransmit, only slots in nodes need to be in sync

SimpleCons collisions waste slots idle slots

C = collision slot, E = empty slot, S = successful slot

DataLink Layer 31

Slotted Aloha efficiency

Suppose N nodes with many frames to send, each transmits in slot with probability p

prob that a given node has success in a slot = p(1-p)N-1

prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1

For max efficiency with N nodes, find p* (=1/N) that maximizes Np(1-p)N-

1

For many nodes, take limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1 as N goes to infinity, gives 1/e = .37

Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes, each with many frames to send

At best: channelused for useful transmissions 37%of time!

DataLink Layer 32

Pure (unslotted) ALOHA

unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization when frame first arrives: transmit immediately If collision, retransmit with prob. P, or wait for a frame

transmission time with prob. 1-p collision probability increases:

frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]

DataLink Layer 33

Pure Aloha efficiency

P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .

P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .

P(no other node transmits in [t0,t0 +1]

= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1

= p . (1-p)2(N-1)

… choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infty ...

= 1/(2e) = .18

Even worse ! Price paid for a fully decentralized protocol.

DataLink Layer 34

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA: listen before transmit: If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame If channel sensed busy, wait a random amount of

time and sense the channel again

Human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

DataLink Layer 35

CSMA collisions

collisions can still occur:propagation delay means two nodes may not heareach other’s transmissioncollision:entire packet transmission time wasted

spatial layout of nodes

note:role of propagation delay in determining collision probability:The longer is propagation delay, the larger is the chance that a carrier-sensing node is not able to sense a transmission that has already begun at another node

DataLink Layer 36

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA

Listen to channel while transmitting If collision detected, stop transmitting, reducing channel

wastage

DataLink Layer 37

“Taking Turns” protocols

channel partitioning protocols: share channel efficiently and fairly at high

load inefficient at low load: 1/N bandwidth

allocated even if only 1 active node Random access protocols

efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel

high load: collision overhead“taking turns” protocols

look for best of both worlds!

DataLink Layer 38

“Taking Turns” protocols

Polling: master node

“invites” each node to transmit in turn

concerns: polling delay single point of failure

(master node)

Token passing: decentralized: no master node token passed from one node

to next sequentially. when receive a token:

send up to a maximum number of frames if has frames to send

forward token to next node

concerns: latency single point of failure

(token)

DataLink Layer 39

802.4 - Token Bus

Physical line or tree, but logical ring. Stations know “left” and “right”

stations. One token “passed” from station to station. Only station with

token can transmit.

DataLink Layer 40

Token Bus

Physical order of stations does not matter line is broadcast medium

“Send” token by addressing neighbor Provisions for adding, deleting stations

Physical layer is not at all compatible with 802.3

A very complicated standard

DataLink Layer 41

Token Bus Sub-Layer Protocol

Send for some time, then pass token If no data, then pass token right away Traffic classes: 0, 2, 4 and 6 (highest)

internal substations for each station Set timer for how long to transmit

ex: 50 stations and 10 Mbps want priority 6 to have 1/3 bandwidth then 67 Kbps each, enough for voice +

control

DataLink Layer 42

Token Bus Frame Format

No length field Data can be much larger (timers prevent

hogs) Frame control

ack required? Data vs. Control frame - how is ring managed?

DataLink Layer 43

Token Bus Control Frame Summary

DataLink Layer 44

Token Bus Frame Format

No length field Data can be much larger (timers prevent

hogs) Frame control

ack required? Data vs. Control frame - how is ring managed?

DataLink Layer 45

Token Bus Control Frame Summary

DataLink Layer 46

802.5 - Token Ring

Around for years Physical point-to-

point connections Bounded delay

DataLink Layer 47

802.5 - Token Ring

Around for years Physical point-to-

point connections Bounded delay

DataLink Layer 48

“Token” Part of Token Ring

Token circles around the ring note, token needs to “fit” on the ring if too big, then stations have to buffer, always

When station wants to transmit, “seizes” token looks like a data frame but for 1 bit

Puts its data bits onto ring no physical frame limit

Once bits go around, removed by sender Regenerates token Acknowledgement by adding bit

DataLink Layer 49

Brief Note on Performance

Light load token circles station grabs, transmits, regenerates token

Heavy load each station sends, regenerates next station grabs token round-robin nearly 100% efficiency

DataLink Layer 50

Token Ring Sublayer Protocol

Delimiters use invalid Manchester codes End delimiter has bit for error

Access control has token bit Frame control has Arrive and Check bits

A=0, C=0 destination not present A=1, C=0 destination up, not accept frame A=1, C=1 destination up, frame copied

DataLink Layer 51

Ring Maintenance Monitor station (unlike decentralize token

bus) does a claim_token upon initial ring power-up handles lost token, broken ring, cleaning ring (in

case of garbage frame), orphan frame Timer to handle lost token

longest possible token cycle drain ring and re-generate

Sets monitor bit to catch orphan frame if returns and is set, frame was not drained

Extra buffer in case ring is too “short”

DataLink Layer 52

Maintenance of Token Bus vs. Ring

Token bus had nothing centralized all stations “peers” scared that master station would go down

Token ring felt centralized was more efficient normal systems, stations hardly ever crash

DataLink Layer 53

Comparison: 802.3, 802.4, 802.5

802.3 (Ethernet) pros: popular, simple, reliable cons: non-deterministic, no priorities, min frame size

802.4 (Token Bus) pros: reliable equipment, more deterministic, priorities cons: complex protocols, hard to implement in fiber,

not popular 802.5 (Token Ring)

pros: fully digital, cheap to install, priorities cons: delay at low load, monitor is critical component

Usually, all perform roughly the same

DataLink Layer 54

Summary of multiple access protocols

What do you do with a shared media? Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or

code• Time Division, Frequency Division

Random access• ALOHA, Slotted-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD

Taking-turns• polling from a master node, token passing

DataLink Layer 55

LAN technologies

addressing Ethernet hubs, bridges, switches 802.11

DataLink Layer 56

LAN Addresses

32-bit IP address: network-layer address used to get datagram to destination IP network

(recall IP network definition)

LAN (or MAC or physical or Ethernet) address:

used to get datagram from one adaptor to another physically-connected adaptor (same network)

48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM

DataLink Layer 57

LAN Addresses

Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

DataLink Layer 58

LAN Address (more)

MAC address allocation administered by IEEE manufacturer buys portion of MAC address

space (to assure uniqueness) MAC flat address => portability

does not change no matter where the adaptor goes

IP hierarchical address NOT portable depends on IP network to which node is attached

Analogy: (a) MAC address: like Social Security

Number (b) IP address: like postal address

DataLink Layer 59

Recall earlier routing discussion

223.1.1.1

223.1.1.2

223.1.1.3

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

223.1.2.2

223.1.2.1

223.1.3.2223.1.3.1

223.1.3.27

A

BE

Starting at A, given IP datagram addressed to B:

look up net. address of B, find B on same net. as A

link layer send datagram to B inside link-layer frame

B’s MACaddr

A’s MACaddr

A’s IPaddr

B’s IPaddr

IP payload

datagramframe

frame dest,source address

datagram source,dest address

When adaptor in B receives the frame, pass datagram to IP

Other adaptors discard the frame

DataLink Layer 60

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol (RFC826)

Each IP node (Host, Router) on LAN has an ARP table

ARP Table: IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes

< IP address; MAC address; TTL> TTL (Time To Live):

time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)

Question: how to determineMAC address of Bknowing B’s IP address?

DataLink Layer 61

ARP protocol A wants to send a datagram to B on the same LAN Suppose B’s MAC address is not in A’s ARP table A broadcasts (using broadcast address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF)

an ARP request packet, containing A’s IP address, A’s MAC address and B's IP address

All adaptors on LAN receive ARP request Every node: if A’s IP-to-MAC mapping is in table, update table B: replies to A (unicast) with its MAC address, also adds A

into its ARP table if it’s not there A receives the ARP reply, adds B's IP and MAC addresses

to its ARP table. Soft state: IP-to-MAC address pair in ARP table times out

(goes away) unless refreshed ARP is “plug-and-play”: nodes create their ARP tables

without intervention from network administrator ARP resolves IP addresses only for nodes on the same

LAN

DataLink Layer 62

Routing to another LAN

walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R assume A knows B’s IP address

Two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP network (LAN)

A

RB

DataLink Layer 63

A creates datagram with source A, destination B A uses ARP to get R’s MAC address for 111.111.111.110 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,

frame contains A-to-B IP datagram A’s data link layer sends frame R’s data link layer receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees it’s

destined to B R uses ARP to get B’s MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram, sends to

B

A

R B

DataLink Layer 64

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

“dominant” LAN technology: first widely deployed LAN technology simpler, cheaper than token ring, FDDI, and

ATM Lesson learned: KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid)

kept up with speed race: 10, 100, 1000 Mbps

Metcalfe’s Ethernetsketch

DataLink Layer 65

Ethernet Frame Structure

Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame

Preamble: 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one

byte with pattern 10101011 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

DataLink Layer 66

Ethernet Frame Structure (more) Addresses: 6 bytes each

if adapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP request), it passes data in frame to network layer

otherwise, adapter discards frame Type (2 bytes): indicates the higher layer

protocol, mostly IP but others may be supported (such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)

Data (46-1500 bytes): MTU is 1500 bytes, MIN frame size = 46 + 18 = 64 bytes = 512 bits

CRC (4 bytes): checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped

DataLink Layer 67

Unreliable, connectionless service

Connectionless: No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter.

Unreliable: receiving adapter doesn’t send ACKs or NAKs to sending adapter stream of datagrams passed to network layer can

have gaps gaps will be filled if app is using TCP otherwise, app will see the gaps

DataLink Layer 68

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD

No slots adapter doesn’t

transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting, that is, carrier sense

transmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting, that is, collision detection

Before attempting a retransmission, adapter waits a random time

DataLink Layer 69

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm

1. Adaptor gets datagram from network layer and creates frame

2. If adapter senses channel idle, it starts to transmit frame. If it senses channel busy, waits until channel idle (plus 96 bit times) and then transmits

3. If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, the adapter is done with frame!

4. If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends a 48-bit jam signal

5. After aborting, adapter enters exponential backoff: after the mth collision, adapter chooses a K at random from {0,1,2,…,2m-1} where m = min(m,10). Adapter waits K*512 bit times and returns to Step 2

DataLink Layer 70

Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more)

Jam Signal: make sure all other transmitters are aware of collision

Bit time: 0.1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet;for K=1023, wait time is about 50 msec

Exponential Backoff: Goal: adapt

retransmission attempts to estimated current load heavy load: random wait

will be longer first collision: choose K

from {0,1}; delay is K x 512 bit transmission times

after second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3}…

after ten or more collisions, choose K from {0,1,2,3,4,…,1023}

DataLink Layer 71

Why 64 bytes min frame length? 10Base5 Ethernet: 10Mbps, max segment 500m, max 4

repeaters, max network diameter 2500m Repeater: physical layer device that amplifies and retransmits

bits it hears on one interface to its other interfaces, used to connect multiple segments

Round trip time (worst case collision detection time) about 50 microsec All frames must take more than 50 microsec to send so that

transmission is still taking place when the noise burst gets back to sender

With 10Mbps bandwidth, 1 bit time = 0.1 microsec minimum frame size at least 500 bits, choose 512 bits to

add some margin of safety As network speed goes up, the minimum frame length

must go up or the maximum cable length must come down E.g. for a 2500m 1Gbps LAN, minimum frame size should be

6400 bytes

DataLink Layer 72

CSMA/CD efficiency

Tprop = max prop. time between 2 nodes in LAN ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame

Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0 Efficiency goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinity Much better than ALOHA, but still decentralized, simple, and cheap

transprop tt /51

1efficiency

DataLink Layer 73

Ethernet Technologies: 10Base2

10: 10Mbps; 2: 200 meters (actual is 185m) max distance between any two nodes without repeaters

thin coaxial cable in a bus topology max 30 nodes in a segment max 4 repeaters, max network diameter 925m has become a legacy technology

DataLink Layer 74

10BaseT and 100BaseT 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet” T stands for Twisted Pair Nodes connect to a hub: “star topology”; 100 m max distance between nodes and hub

Hubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters: bits coming in one link go out all other links no frame buffering no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters speak CSMA/CD provides network management functionality

hub

nodes

DataLink Layer 75

Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3z)

1Gbps data rate use standard Ethernet frame format star topology, allows for point-to-point

links (use switches) and shared broadcast channels (use hubs)Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-

point links in shared mode, CSMA/CD is used

DataLink Layer 76

Interconnecting LAN segments

Hubs Bridges Switches

Remark: switches are essentially high performance multi-interface bridges.

What we say about bridges also holds for switches!

DataLink Layer 77

Interconnecting with hubs Hubs are physical layer devices: operate on bits Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments Extends max distance between nodes But individual segment collision domains become

one large collision domain if a node in CS and a node in EE transmit at same time:

collision Can’t interconnect 10BaseT & 100BaseT

DataLink Layer 78

Bridges

Link layer device: operate on frames stores and forwards Ethernet frames examines frame header and forwards frame

based on destination MAC address when frame is to be forwarded on a segment,

uses CSMA/CD to access the segment can interconnect different LAN technologies

plug-and-play, self-learning bridges do not need to be configured

DataLink Layer 79

Bridges: traffic isolation

Bridge installation breaks LAN into LAN segments bridges filter packets:

same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segments

segments become separate collision domains

bridge collision domain

collision domain

= hub

= host

LAN

LAN segment LAN segment

DataLink Layer 80

Forwarding

How do determine to which LAN segment to forward frame?• Looks like a routing problem...

DataLink Layer 81

Self learning

A bridge has a bridge table entry in bridge table:

(Node LAN Address, Bridge Interface, Time Stamp) stale entries in table dropped (TTL typically 60 min)

bridges learn which hosts can be reached through which interfaces bridge table initially empty when frame received, bridge “learns” location of sender records sender’s LAN address, arriving interface, and

current time in bridge table delete an address in table if no frames are received with

that address as the source address after some period of time

DataLink Layer 82

Filtering/Forwarding

When bridge receives a frame:

index bridge table using destination MAC addressif entry found for destination

then { if dest on segment from which frame arrived

then drop the frame else forward the frame on interface indicated } else flood

forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived

DataLink Layer 83

Bridge example

Suppose C sends a frame to D and D replies back with a frame to C.

Bridge receives frame from C notes in bridge table that C is on interface 1 because D is not in table, bridge sends frame into

interfaces 2 and 3

frame received by D

DataLink Layer 84

Bridge Learning: example

D generates frame for C, sends bridge receives frame

notes in bridge table that D is on interface 2 bridge knows C is on interface 1, so forwards frame

to interface 1

C 1

DataLink Layer 85

Spanning Tree

for increased reliability, desirable to have redundant, alternative paths from source to dest

with multiple paths, cycles result - bridges may multiply and forward frame forever

solution: bridges determine a spanning tree by disabling subset of interfaces

Disabled

DataLink Layer 86

Some bridge features

isolates collision domains resulting in higher total max throughput

limitless number of nodes and geographical coverage

can connect different Ethernet types transparent (“plug-and-play”): no configuration

necessary

DataLink Layer 87

Interconnection without backbone

Not recommended for two reasons:- single point of failure at Computer Science hub- all traffic between EE and SE must pass through CS

segment

DataLink Layer 88

Backbone configuration

Recommended !With a backbone, each pair of LAN segments can communicate without passing through a third-party LAN segment

DataLink Layer 89

Bridges vs. Routers

both store-and-forward devices routers: network layer devices (forward packets using network layer

addresses) bridges: link layer devices (forward packets using LAN addresses)

routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms

bridges maintain bridge tables, implement learning and spanning tree algorithms

DataLink Layer 90

Routers vs. Bridges

Bridges + and - + Bridges are plug-and-play+ Bridge operation is simpler requiring less

packet processinghigh packet filtering and forwarding rates

- All traffic confined to spanning tree, even when alternative paths are available

- Bridges do not offer protection from broadcast storms

DataLink Layer 91

Routers vs. Bridges

Routers + and -+ arbitrary topologies can be supported, cycling is

limited by TTL counters (and good routing protocols)packets can use the best path

+ provide protection against broadcast storms- require IP address configuration (not plug and

play)- require larger packet processing time

bridges do well in small (few hundred hosts) networks while routers used in large (thousands of hosts) networks

DataLink Layer 92

Ethernet Switches

Essentially high-performance multi-interface bridges switches have large number of

interfaces layer 2 (frame) forwarding,

filtering using LAN addresses automatically build forwarding

tables often: individual hosts star-

connected into switch Switching: A-to-A’, B-to-B’, and

C-to-C’ simultaneously Full duplex, no collisions!

combinations of 10/100/1000 Mbps interfaces

DataLink Layer 93

Ethernet Switches

cut-through switching: frame forwarded from input to output port without waiting for assembly of entire frame slight reduction in latency store-and-forward and cut-through

switching differ only when the output buffer becomes empty before the entire packet has arrivedPreamble DA SA type Data CRC

Cut-though forwards after DA

Store-and-forward sends after CRC

DataLink Layer 94

An Example LAN

Dedicated

Shared

DataLink Layer 95

Summary comparison

hubs bridges routers switches

traffi cisolation

no yes yes yes

plug & play yes yes no yes

optimalrouting

no no yes no

cutthrough

yes no no yes

DataLink Layer 96

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs

802.11b operate at 2.4 GHz, 11 Mbps widely deployed

802.11a 5-6 GHz range up to 54 Mbps

802.11g 2.4 GHz up to 54 Mbps

All have base-station and ad-hoc network versions

All use CSMA/CA for multiple access

DataLink Layer 97

Base station approach

Basic Service Set (BSS) (a.k.a. “cell”) contains: wireless hosts access point (AP): base station

• Perform polling, allow polled stations to transmit without contention

BSS’s combined to form distribution system (DS)

DataLink Layer 98

Ad Hoc Network approach

No AP No connection to the outside world Wireless hosts communicate with each

other Applications:

“laptop” meeting in conference room, car

DataLink Layer 99

IEEE 802.11: multiple access

Collision if 2 or more nodes transmit at same time

CSMA makes sense: shouldn’t cause a collision if you sense another

transmission get all the bandwidth if you’re the only one transmitting

Collision detection doesn’t work: hidden terminal problem and fading problem

location

signal stre

ngth

DataLink Layer 100

IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA802.11 CSMA: sender- if sense channel idle for DIFS sec. then transmit entire frame,

duration field of frame indicates how long the medium will be busy

-if sense channel busy then wait until channel becomes idle for a DIFS period, then computes a random backoff time and counts down the time as the channel is sensed idle

802.11 CSMA receiver- if received OK return ACK after SIFS sec.Other stations: adjust NAV (network

allocation vector) based on the duration field

DataLink Layer 101

Collision avoidance mechanisms

Problem: two nodes, hidden from each other, transmit

complete frames even though collision has occurred

wasted bandwidth for long duration! Solution:

use small reservation packets nodes track reservation interval with NAV

DataLink Layer 102

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS exchange sender transmits short

RTS (request to send) packet to receiver: indicates duration of transmission

stations hearing the RTS set their NAVs

receiver replies with short CTS (clear to send) packet notifying (possibly

hidden) nodes stations hearing CTS

set their NAVs

DataLink Layer 103

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS exchange

RTS and CTS are short: avoid both the

hidden terminal problem and the fading problem

collisions less likely, of shorter duration

IEEE 802.11 allows: CSMA/CA polling from AP

DataLink Layer 104

The Internet Data Link Protocols Point-to-Point on leased lines between routers Home user to Internet Service Provider (ISP)

SLIP and PPP

DataLink Layer 105

Serial Line IP (SLIP)

Character based, with special byte for frame

Character stuffing 1984, newer versions do compression

(CSLIP) No error correction or detection! No authentication Not a formally approved Internet standard

DataLink Layer 106

Point to Point Data Link Control

one sender, one receiver, one link: easier than broadcast link no Media Access Control no need for explicit MAC addressing e.g., dialup link, link between two routers

popular point-to-point data link protocols: PPP (point-to-point protocol) HDLC: High level data link control

DataLink Layer 107

PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1547] packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer

packet in data link layer frame carry network layer data of any network layer protocol

(not just IP) at same time ability to demultiplex upwards

bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the data field

error detection: receiver must be able to detect bit errors in the received frame

connection liveness: detect, signal link failure to network layer

network layer address negotiation: endpoints can learn/configure each other’s network-layer address

DataLink Layer 108

PPP non-requirements

no error correction no flow control: a PPP receiver is able to receive

frames at the full rate of the physical layer out of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links

Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers!

DataLink Layer 109

PPP Data Frame

Flag: delimiter Address: does nothing Control: does nothing Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame

delivered (e.g. IP, AppleTalk, DECnet, LCP, IPCP, etc)

DataLink Layer 110

PPP Data Frame

info: upper layer data being carried, default maximum is 1500 bytes

check: cyclic redundancy check for error detection

DataLink Layer 111

PPP Link-Control Protocol and Network-Control Protocols

Before exchanging network-layer data, data link peers must

configure PPP link (max. frame length, authentication protocol, skip address and control fields) using Link Control Protocol (LCP)

learn/configure network layer information

for IP: carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field: 8021) to configure/learn IP address

one network-control protocol for each upper-layer network protocol

DataLink Layer 112

Asynchronous Transfer Mode: ATM

Goal: integrated, end-end transport of voice, video, data meeting QoS requirements of voice, video

(versus Internet best-effort model) packet-switching (fixed length packets, called

“cells”) using virtual circuits high-speed: 155Mbps, 622 Mbps, and higher

DataLink Layer 113

ATM architecture

ATM adaptation layer (AAL): only at edge of ATM network roughly analogous to Internet transport layer different types of AALs to support different types of

services ATM layer: “network” layer

cell (53-byte packet) switching physical layer: deal with voltages, bit timings, and

framing on the physical medium

DataLink Layer 114

ATM: network or link layer?Vision: end-to-end

transport: “ATM from desktop to desktop” ATM is a network

technologyReality: used to

connect IP backbone routers “IP over ATM” ATM as link layer,

connecting IP routers

DataLink Layer 115

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): “adapts” upper

layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer below

AAL present only in endpoints of an ATM network (hosts, IP routers), not in switches Analogous to transport layer in Internet

AAL layer segment (header/trailer fields, data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells

DataLink Layer 116

ATM Layer: Virtual Circuits

VC transport: cells carried on VC from source to dest establish virtual circuit before data can flow

• A VC is a path between source and dest, each link of the VC has a virtual circuit identifier (VCI)

each packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID) every switch on source-dest path maintains “state” (in VC

translation table) for each passing connection link, switch resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be

allocated to VC: to get circuit-like performance Permanent VCs (PVCs)

long lasting connections typically: “permanent” route between two IP routers

Switched VCs (SVC): dynamically set up on per-call basis

DataLink Layer 117

ATM VCs

Advantages of ATM VC approach: QoS performance guarantee for connections

mapped to VC (bandwidth, delay, delay jitter)

Drawbacks of ATM VC approach: one PVC between each source/dest pair

does not scale ( N*(N-1) connections needed )

SVC introduces call setup latency, processing overhead for short lived connections

DataLink Layer 118

ATM Layer: ATM cell

53-byte cell: 5-byte header and 48-byte payload Fixed-length cell and simple header facilitate

high-speed switching

Cell header

Cell format

DataLink Layer 119

ATM cell header

VCI: virtual channel ID will change from link to link

PT: Payload type (e.g. RM cell, data cell, idle cell)

CLP: Cell Loss Priority bit set by source, CLP = 1 implies low priority

cell, can be discarded if congestion HEC: Header Error Control

error detection and correction bits, protect cell header

DataLink Layer 120

ATM Physical Layer

Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layer: Transmission Convergence (TC) Sublayer: adapts

ATM layer above to PMD sublayer below Header checksum (8 bits CRC) generation at transmit

side Cell delineation at receive side With cell-based (no frames) PMD sublayer, transmission

of idle cells when no data cells to send

Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) Sublayer: depends on physical medium being used Interfaces to the actual cable Move the bits on and off and handles bit timing Different for different cables