AIR POLLUTION STATUS IN DELHI AND

DETAILED COMPARISON WITH DIFFERENT CITIES OF THE WORLD.

SUBMITTED BY :

AMIT KUMAR BHOJVIA (2K13/EN/006)

SUHAANI KATARIA (2K13/EN/054)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report submitted by AMIT KUMAR BHOJVIA and SUHAANI KATARIA, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of INDUSTRIAL TRAINING at CENTRAL POLLTUION CONTROL BOARD as a part of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING) of DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, NEW DELHI ,session 2015-2016 is a record of bonafide work and has submitted anywhere for any other purpose.

AMIT KUMAR BHOJVIA SUHAANI KATARIA (V SEM)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals of STP officers and staff. We would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

We are highly indebted to Mr. J.S.Kamyotra and S.K.Tyagi for his guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project and also for their support in completing the project. We are also thankful to all lab staff for giving me training as well as guidance,

We would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and also towards teachers of Environmental Engineering Department, DTU, for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.

CONTENTS

AIR POLLUTION AS A CONCERN IN DELHI MAJOR AND MINOR AIR POLLUTANTS PRODUCED IN DELHI SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION PRESENT SCENARIO OF AIR POLLUTION IN DELHI HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION OTHER FACTORS WHICH CAUSES AIR POLLUTION RECENT TRENDS IN AIR QUALITY IN DELHI CLIMATIC CONDITION OF DELHI

DELHI METRO HELPS IN REDUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION

HOW CAN CITIZENS OF DELHI HELPS IN REDUCING AIR POLLUTION

ODD EVEN SCHEME: A STEP TOWARDS REDUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION

RESULTS OF ODD EVEN SCHEME

HOW CURRENT ODD EVEN SCHEME HAS CHANGED THE MINDSET OF DELHI PEOPLE

HOW CAN WE IMPROVISE

COMPARISON OF DELHI’S AIR POLLUTION STATUS WITH DIFFERENT CITIES OF THE WORLD

PARISMEXICOATHENS

COMPARISON ON THE BASIS OF

Climatic conditionAir QualityConcentration of air pollutantsSources of Air pollutionPreventive measures

AIR POLLUTION AS A CONCERN IN DELHIAir pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans, and damage to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.

The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide.

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Fig. Carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere during half of the global warming emissions.

Fig. Nitrogen dioxide global Air Quality levels

Source images : Cole, Steve; Gray, Ellen (14 December 2015). "New NASA Satellite Maps Show Human Fingerprint on Global Air Quality". NASA. Retrieved 14 December 2015.

Fig.3. Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained

excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Fig. Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3)

increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of

nitrogen oxides.

Source images:  "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011.

Major pollutants produced by human activity include:

Primary pollutant

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.

Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhance global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. Fig.

Fig. Size of Particulate Matter

Fig. Pollution Sources contributes to Total PM 2.5

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease. Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently banned from

use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. CFC's on being released into the air rises to stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone

layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, disease to eye and can even cause damage to plants.

Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.

Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural

processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants:

Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include: A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air

Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation in human and animal tissue, biomagnification in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Areas with the largest number of cars on the road see higher levels of air pollution on average. Motor vehicles are one of the largest sources of pollution worldwide. You may be surprised to learn, however, that slower moving traffic emits more pollution than when cars move at freeway speeds. Traffic jams are bad for our air. It’s when you find yourself in a sea of orange traffic cones — stuck in what looks more like a parking lot than a highway — that your car really starts eating up gas. The constant acceleration and braking of stop-and-go traffic burns more gas, and therefore pumps more pollutants into the air.

The relationship between driving speed and pollution isn’t perfectly linear, though. One study suggests that emissions start to go up when average freeway speed dips below 45 miles per hour (mph). They also start to go up dramatically as the average speed goes above 65 mph. So, the “golden zone” for fuel-consumption and emissions from your vehicle may be somewhere between 45 and 65 mph.

This leads to a dilemma for urban planners trying to develop roadways that will reduce congestion with an eye to reducing the pollution that it causes.

PETROL DIESEL POLLUTION

The combustion of gasoline and other hydrocarbon fuels in automobiles, trucks, and jet airplanes produces several primary pollutants: nitrogen oxides, gaseous hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide, as well as large quantities of particulates, chiefly lead. In the presence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides combine with hydrocarbons to form a secondary class of pollutants, the photochemical oxidants, among them ozone and the eye-stinging peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Nitrogen oxides also react with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide, a foul-smelling brown gas. In urban areas like Los Angeles where transportation is the main cause of air pollution, nitrogen dioxide tints the air, blending with other contaminants and the atmospheric water vapor to produce brown smog. Although the use of catalytic converters has reduced smog-producing compounds in motor vehicle exhaust emissions, studies have shown that in so doing the converters produce nitrous oxide, which contributes substantially to global warming.

BURNING OF FUELS

In cities, air may be severely polluted not only by transportation but also by the burning of fossil fuels (oil and coal) in generating stations, factories, office buildings, and homes and by the incineration of garbage. The massive combustion produces tons of ash, soot, and other particulates responsible for the gray smog of cities like New York and Chicago, along with enormous quantities of sulfur oxides (which also may be result from burning coal and oil). These oxides rust iron, damage building stone, decompose nylon, tarnish silver, and kill plants. Air pollution from cities also affects rural areas for many miles downwind.

INDUSTRIAL REASONS

Every industrial process exhibits its own pattern of air pollution. Petroleum refineries are responsible for extensive hydrocarbon and particulate pollution. Iron and steel mills, metal smelters, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, cement and asphalt plants—all discharge vast amounts of various particulates. Uninsulated high-voltage power lines ionize the adjacent air, forming ozone and other hazardous pollutants. Airborne pollutants from other sources include insecticides, herbicides, radioactive fallout, and dust from fertilizers, mining operations, and livestock feedlots.

DOMESTIC REASONS

The burning of the following substances is prohibited under the Environment Protection Regulation 2005:

Synthetic plastics or other synthetic polymers. Wood that is painted, chemically treated or contaminated with chemicals. Chemicals other than those recommended by the manufacturer as a fuel. Unseasoned wood. Wood which is burnt as a fuel should be properly seasoned (less than 20% moisture content) to

minimize smoke emissions. Use of generators in marriages for about hours creates huge amount of air pollution, specially in marriage season.

No one seems to know how many of these generators are under contract, and how many of them are running rather than simply being made available in the case of an emergency. But if small diesel generators are replacing other sources of electricity at times of peak demand, it could present a conundrum to EPA, which has spent decades working to clean up these engines but also wants to encourage the fast-growing demand-response market. Diesel generators, which are meant for emergencies, pose a potent health risk. Diesel exhaust contains a mix of toxic chemicals, and last month, the World Health Organization concluded that it causes cancer in humans. New diesel generators are equipped with air filters and catalysts to clean up their emissions, but the older models can release 200 to 400 times as much smog-forming nitrogen oxides per megawatt as a new natural gas plant, and 10 times as much as a coal plant

There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories.

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES:

These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel.

Stationary sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.

Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft. Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a

technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive

mixtures with air. Methane may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.

Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

NATURAL SOURCES: Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation

Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle

Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species results in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.

Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

PRESENT SCENARIO OF AIR POLLUTION IN DELHI

Air pollution in Delhi’s National Capital Region (NCR) is comprised of a complex mix of pollution from human

activities  (vehicle emissions, industry, construction and residential fuel burning) as well as natural sources like dust

and sea salt. The heavy concentration of particulate matter is greatly affected by meteorological conditions –in the

winter, cool air causes “inversions” that stagnant the air and trap pollution close to the ground. Air flow patterns 

from Afghanistan and Pakistan pick up emissions as they move over the densely urbanized regions of Punjab and

Haryana where farmers burn the straw in their fields and pull this pollution into Delhi.  Pre-monsoon dust storms

also contribute to air pollution in the region.

City activities also contribute to the air pollution. The NCR generates 10,000 tons per day of municipal solid waste,

much of which is eventually burned, adding particulate pollution to the air (Guttikunda 2015) and  galloping

urbanization brings massive construction projects to the area. In adddition, Delhi has more than 7.4 million vehicles

on it’s roads, with an additional 1,200 added each day and the result is a pollution “hotspot.”

Fig. Increase in Pollution Level

On the other hand, the Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority  investigated the issue and reported to the Supreme Court the significant role of vehicles and vehicle emissions to rising air pollution in Delhi, stating that rapid motorization based on poor quality fuel and vehicle technology will make the air pollution trend irreversible. The report focuses on government standards and policies that have contributed to the current pollution problem and ends with recommended priority actions on the policy level.

From 2002 to 2012, vehicle numbers have increased by as much as 97%, contributing enormously to the pollution load and direct exposure to toxic fumes.

The Price of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): In 2002-03, CNG was cheaper than diesel by about 46.71%. But in December 2013, the price differential plummeted to 7.35%. Only after the most recent intervention to reduce CNG prices by Rs 15 per kg in February 2014 has helped to increase the differential again to about 35%. High CNG costs hurt public transport and undermine the clean fuel program.

  The gap between diesel fuel and petrol prices, which are skewed towards making diesel relatively cheaper, is leading to dieselization of cars. From just 4% of new car sales in 2000, diesel cars are now half of new car sales. The WHO has formally reclassified diesel emissions as class I carcinogen for its strong link with lung cancer –putting it in the same class as tobacco smoking.

  Emissions standards: only 38 cities and towns have the high-level Bharat IV standards in place for fuel and vehicles emissions.  The rest of India has the much more polluting Bharat Stage III standards in place. Equivalent to Euro IV standards, Bharat IV particulate standards are 50% cleaner than Bharat Stage III standards for cars and 81% cleaner for trucks and diesel buses. Though Delhi follows Bharat IV standards, significant cross-through traffic from other locals means that the city is greatly affected by high polluting vehicles. You can read more on emissions standards in India here.

  Non-polluting modes of public transportation are jeopardized. Currently it is too dangerous to walk and cycle safely in the city.  Road accident data for 2012 shows every hour a person is injured or killed in a road accident in Delhi.

  Buses are taxed more highly than cars adding to bus operation costs   Car growth is explosive due to hidden subsidies for example the low cost of parking in Delhi when

compared to parking in other international cities.What part do emissions from India’s coal-fired power plants play in the pollution problem?NASA satellite data from December 2013 revealed that sulfur dioxide emissions in India increased more than 60% from 2005-2012. According to a press release from NASA, this data corroborated other research concluding that as of 2010 India is the world’s second largest emitter of sulfur dioxide after China. That research also found that, at the time, half of India’s emissions came from the coal-fired power sector. Head of the research team responsible for the study added “long-lifetime, sulfur-containing air pollutants such as sulfate can be transported long distances to affect public health and the environment at a regional scale.”

HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTIONAir pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing,

wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory

system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. The most common sources of

air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and

outdoor air pollution.

MORTALITY

It is estimated that some 7 million premature deaths may be attributed to air pollution. India has the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. There is a correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.

Air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months across the European Union. Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.

The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.

The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the current 75-ppb standard. The agency projects the stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulates air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per 10 µg/m3 increase).

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest. A 2007 study found that in women, air pollution is associated not with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke. Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011. Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis. Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.

LUNG DISEASE

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma and COPD from increased exposure to traffic related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD.

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

  A Report by TIMES OF INDIA on Reduced Lung Capacity: More than a third of schoolchildren in four big cities of India suffer from reduced lung capacity, with Delhi

showing the worst results, claims a new study whose results could be pointing to how air pollution is impacting the health of kids in urban India.

In the survey, 2,373 kids in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Kolkata underwent a lung health screening test (LHST). Of the 735 students who took the test in Delhi, 21% were found to have 'poor' lung capacity while another 19% had 'bad' capacity.

This means four out of every 10 children screened in the capital failed the test. Delhi has the worst air quality among 1,600 cities around the world, according to the World Health Organization.

The students were asked to inhale and then exhale forcefully into a testing device to check their lung capacity. Dr Preetaish Kaul, representative of Heal Foundation which conducted the survey, said they were shocked to find so many children not being able to exhale properly.

Children in the three other cities surveyed were only marginally better off.

"The survey was observational and we did not look into the cause of poor lung health in children. However, given the fact that most children were otherwise healthy, it will not be wrong completely to infer that poor air quality has a role to play in causing the reduced lung capacity," said Dr Preetaish Kaul, representative of Heal Foundation.

In Bengaluru, 36% (14% 'poor' and 22% 'bad') were found to have reduced lung capacity, followed by 35% in Kolkata (9% 'poor' and 26% 'bad') and 27% in Mumbai (13% 'poor' and 14% 'bad').

LHST determines how much air the lungs can hold, how quickly one can move air in and out of the lungs, and how well the lungs take oxygen in and remove carbon dioxide out from the body. "The test can detect lung diseases and measure the severity of lung problems. Poor results in LHST mean compromised lung function and high possibilities of contracting pulmonary diseases," said a doctor.

Dr Raj Kumar, who heads the respiratory allergy and applied immunology department at Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, said more scientific studies were needed to determine the impact of air pollution on children.

"Although I did not participate in the study, there can be no denying that air pollution is affecting us badly. Children are worst impacted as they are yet in their growth years with vital organs of the body physiologically not mature enough to deal with it," he said.

Another survey conducted by Heal foundation suggested that a majority of people think it is the whole and sole responsibility of the government to clean the air.

Source: Central Pollution Control Board. 2008b. “Study on Ambient Air Quality, Respiratory Symptoms and Lung Function of Children in Delhi.” Environmental Health Series 2.

The survey indicated that only 15%, 24%, 27% and 9% people in Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Kolkata, respectively, thought they as individuals were also responsible for the poor quality of air in their city.

Said environmental activist Kamal Meattle, "Reckless cutting of trees, rapid urbanization and above all, a dearth of environment-friendly laws, is the cause of many illnesses. Poor lung health is one of them. It's high time we take up the issue on priority and figure out ways to control pollution."

CANCER

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 µg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per 10 µg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 µg/m3 increase). The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these three outcomes --- increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions. Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at polluted areas.

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.

In December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the disease, according to the researchers.

CHILDREN’S HEALTH AT RISK

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards. These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog. A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.

A Study on Blood Pressure among children:

The clinical significance of particulate-induced increases in blood pressure could be considerable. Childhood blood pressure is an important predictor of hypertension and cardiovascular disease later in life. Although blood pressure is believed to be a complex trait, determined by numerous genetic, biological, behavioral, social, and environmental factors, avoiding or removing potentially irreversible adverse factors as early as possible seems reasonable.Indeed, repeated particle-induced elevations in blood pressure also lead to repeated increases in arterial wall stress and may result in long-term chronically elevated pressures. Epidemiological evidence exists for a chronic increase in arterial stiffness in children due to traffic-related air pollution, as exemplified by residential traffic-related indicators.Our current epidemiological observations in children are in line with human exposure studies. In a crossover study, where participants were exposed 2 hr to diesel exhaust, increases in systolic blood pressure were reported until 24 hr post exposure. No effects on diastolic blood pressure were reported. Further, a controlled experiment in healthy adults (18–35 years of age) inhaling UFP for 2 hr showed changes in heart rate variability and loss of sympathovagal balance. Existing evidence suggests that air pollution is able to trigger an acute autonomic imbalance, favoring sympathetic nerve activity causing smooth muscle contraction and thus vasoconstriction. In a crossover experiment, systolic blood pressure was significantly lower during a 2 hr walk in Beijing, China, in participants wearing a particulate-filter face mask than in participants who were not protected by a face mask. Wearing the face mask was also associated with increased heart rate variability, which suggests that the rapid increase in blood pressure due to particle inhalation can be mediated through the autonomic nervous system. In other controlled studies, ultrafine carbon particles did not change blood pressure or heart rate variability but altered endothelial dysfunction or caused retinal vasoconstriction.Experimental evidence of intratracheally instilled UFP in hamsters showed that UFP can pass from the lungs into the blood circulation within minutes. Due to specific characteristics (high surface area, particle number, metal and organic carbon content) of UFP, they may be transferred directly into the circulation and cause systemic inflammation and peripheral vascular oxidative stress resulting in reductions of nitric oxide, enhancing vasoconstriction and as such change blood pressure. Further, excess production of endothelin-1, a potent vasoconstrictor, after exposure to air pollution, can cause changes in blood pressure. In animal models, plasma endothelin was up-regulated after exposure to diesel exhaust and concentrated air particles. These results were confirmed in an epidemiological setting where patients with metabolic syndrome and healthy volunteers showed an increase in plasma endothelin-1 concentrations 3 hr after diesel exhaust exposure.

Study has both strengths and limitations. Study was limited in number of repeated measurements and participants because it was part of a larger

biomonitoring program with a fixed design. The UFP concentrations did not differ significantly between the two periods consequently, adaptation toward the blood pressure measurements cannot explain our

findings, because variation in exposure was random and independent of the first or second blood pressure reading. To account for diurnal variation in blood pressure, all children were examined at the same moment of the day. To reduce the effect of remaining variability, at least five blood pressure readings were taken after 5 min of rest in the sitting position and the first blood pressure measurement was excluded reported that parental smoking is an independent risk factor for children’s blood pressure. In this regard, indoor smoking was an exclusion criteria, although this does not account for exposure to passive smoke elsewhere. Noise exposure might be a confounding factor in the association between air pollution and blood pressure. Because we used a repeated-measure design and the child was examined at the same location in both sampling periods and living at the same residential address at the different examinations, noise exposure is unlikely to be a time-varying factor and therefore unlikely to bias our estimates of acute exposure. Additional adjustment for residential proximity to a major road, as a proxy for nighttime noise exposure, did not alter our association between systolic blood pressure and acute UFP exposure.

The major strength of the current study is the measurement of the different-sized UFP and PM fractions in school playgrounds to reflect exposure as accurately as possible.

Conclusion :Children attending school on days with higher ultrafine particulate concentrations (diameter < 100 nm) had higher systolic blood pressure. This association was largely dependent on particle size and was not confounded by the PM2.5 mass concentration.

"Clean" areas:

Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010. This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

Central nervous system:

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.

In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center, published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was discovered that early exposure to air pollution causes the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and schizophrenia. The study also shows that air pollution also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that "When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play a role in autism, as well as in other neuro developmental disorders." Air pollution has a more significant negative effect of males than on females.

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality. Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in three different controlled laboratory atmospheres that simulated those found in "conventional" and "green" buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ventilation.

Performance was evaluated objectively using the widely used Strategic Management Simulation software simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments.

OTHER FACTORS WHICH CAUSES AIR POLLUTION Fuel wood and biomass burning

Fuel wood and biomass burning is the primary reason for near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban India, and in satellite pictures of the country. Fuel wood and biomass cakes are used for cooking and general heating needs. These are burnt in cook stoves known as chullah piece in some parts of India. These cook stoves are present in over 100 million Indian households, and are used two to three times a day, daily. As of 2009, majority of Indians still use traditional fuels such as dried cow dung, agricultural waste, and firewood as cooking fuel.

This form of fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOx , SOx , PAHs, poly aromatics, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and other air pollutants. Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India because of biomass burning and use of chullahs. The air pollution is also the main cause of the Asian brown cloud which is delaying the start of the monsoon. Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, unless electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India.

India is the world's largest consumer of fuel wood, agricultural waste and biomass for energy purposes. From the most recent available nationwide study, India used 148.7 million tonnes coal replacement worth of fuel wood and biomass annually for domestic energy use. India's national average annual per capita consumption of fuel wood, agri waste and biomass cakes was 206 kilogram coal equivalent.

In 2010 terms, with India's population increased to about 1.2 billion, the country burns over 200 million tonnes of coal replacement worth of fuel wood and biomass every year to meet its energy need for cooking and other domestic use. The study found that the households consumed around 95 million tonnes of fuelwood, one-third of which was logs and the rest was twigs. Twigs were mostly consumed in the villages, and logs were more popular in cities of India.

The overall contribution of fuel wood, including sawdust and wood waste, was about 46% of the total, the rest being agri waste and biomass dung cakes. Traditional fuel (fuel wood, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy use in rural India and accounts for about 90% of the total. In urban areas, this traditional fuel constitutes about 24% of the total.

Fuel wood, agricultural waste and biomass cake burning releases over 165 million tonnes of combustion products into India's indoor and outdoor air every year. To place this volume of emission in context, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States estimates that fire wood smoke contributes over 420,000 tonnes of fine particles throughout the United States – mostly during the winter months. United States consumes about one-tenth of fuelwood consumed by India, and mostly for fireplace and home heating purposes. EPA estimates that residential wood combustion in the USA accounts for 44 percent of total organic matter emissions and 62 percent of the PAH, which are probable human carcinogens and are of great concern to EPA. The fuel wood sourced

residential wood smoke makes up over 50 percent of the wintertime particle pollution problem in California. In 2010, the state of California had about the same number of vehicles as all of India.

India burns tenfold more fuel wood every year than the United States, the fuel wood quality in India is different than the dry firewood of the United States, and the Indian stoves in use are less efficient thereby producing more smoke and air pollutants per kilogram equivalent. India has less land area and less emission air space than the United States. In summary, the impact on indoor and outdoor air pollution by fuel wood and biomass cake burning is far worse in India.

A United Nations study finds firewood and biomass stoves can be made more efficient in India. Animal dung, now used in inefficient stoves, could be used to produce biogas, a cleaner fuel with higher utilization efficiency. In addition, an excellent fertilizer can be produced from the slurry from biogas plants. Switching to gaseous fuels would bring the greatest gains in terms of both thermal efficiency and reduction in air pollution, but would require more investment. A combination of technologies may be the best way forward.

Between 2001 and 2010, India has made progress in adding electrical power generation capacity, bringing electricity to rural areas, and reforming market to improve availability and distribution of liquified cleaner burning fuels in urban and rural area. Over the same period, scientific data collection and analysis show improvement in India's air quality, with some regions witnessing 30 to 65% reduction in NOx, SOx and suspended particulate matter. Even at these lower levels, the emissions are higher than those recommended by the World Health Organization. Continued progress is necessary.

Scientific studies conclude biomass combustion in India is the country's dominant source of carbonaceous aerosols, emitting 0.25 teragram per year of black carbon into air, 0.94 teragram per year of organic matter, and 2.04 teragram per year of small particulates with diameter less than 2.5 µm. Biomass burning, as domestic fuel in India, accounts for about 3 times as much black carbon air pollution as all other sources combined, including vehicles and industrial sources.

Fuel adulteration

Some Indian taxis and auto-rickshaws run on adulterated fuel blends. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced fuels is common in South Asia, including India. Some adulterants increase emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicles, worsening urban air pollution. Financial incentives arising from differential taxes are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. In India and other developing countries, gasoline carries a much higher tax than diesel, which in turn is taxed more than kerosene meant as a cooking fuel, while some solvents and lubricants carry little or no tax.

As fuel prices rise, the public transport driver cuts costs by blending the cheaper hydrocarbon into highly taxed hydrocarbon. The blending may be as much as 20-30 percent. For a low wage driver, the adulteration can yield short term savings that are significant over the month. The consequences to long term air pollution, quality of life and effect on health are simply ignored. Also ignored are the reduced life of vehicle engine and higher maintenance costs, particularly if the taxi, auto-rickshaw or truck is being rented for a daily fee.

Adulterated fuel increases tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). Air toxin emissions — which fall into the category of unregulated emissions — of primary concern are benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), both well known carcinogens. Kerosene is

more difficult to burn than gasoline; its addition results in higher levels of HC, CO and PM emissions even from catalyst-equipped cars. The higher sulfur level of kerosene is another issue.

The permissible level of fuel sulfur in India, in 2002, was 0.25 percent by weight as against 0.10 percent for gasoline. The higher levels of sulfur can deactivate the catalyst. Once the catalyst becomes deactivated, the amount of pollution from the vehicle dramatically increases. Fuel adulteration is essentially an unintended consequence of tax policies and the attempt to control fuel prices, in the name of fairness. Air pollution is the ultimate result. This problem is not unique to India, but prevalent in many developing countries including those outside of south Asia. This problem is largely absent in economies that do not regulate the ability of fuel producers to innovate or price based on market demand.

Fig. Smoke blanket over Delhi from satellite image due to burning of crops in Haryana and Punjab.

Source images: "Environmental Pollution". Theenvironmentalblog.org. 2011-12-16. Retrieved2012-12-11.

Traffic congestion

Traffic congestion is severe in India's cities and towns. Traffic congestion is caused for several reasons, some of which are: increase in number of vehicles per kilometer of available road, a lack of intra-city divided-lane highways and intra-city expressways networks, lack of inter-city expressways, traffic accidents and chaos due to poor enforcement of traffic laws.

Traffic congestion reduces average traffic speed. At low speeds, scientific studies reveal, vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more per trip. For example, a study in the United States found that for the same trip, cars consumed more fuel and polluted more if the traffic was congested, than when traffic flowed freely. At average trip speeds between 20 to 40 kilometers per hour, the cars pollutant emission was twice as much as when the average speed was 55 to 75 kilometers per hour. At average trip speeds between 5 to 20 kilometers per hour, the cars

pollutant emissions were 4 to 8 times as much as when the average speed was 55 to 70 kilometers per hour. Fuel efficiencies similarly were much worse with traffic congestion.

Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other Indian cities is extreme. The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometers per hour; a 10 kilometer trip can take 30 minutes, or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traffic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon footprint fuel per trip, than they would if the traffic congestion was less. Emissions of particles and heavy metals increase over time because the growth of the fleet and mileage outpaces the efforts to curb emissions.

In cities like Bangalore, around 50% of children suffer from asthma.

Greenhouse gas emission:

India was the third largest emitter of carbon dioxide in 2009 at 1.65 Gt per year, after China (6.9 Gt per year) and the United States (5.2 Gt per year). With 17 percent of world population, India contributed some 5 percent of human-sourced carbon dioxide emission; compared to China's 24 percent share. On per capita basis, India emitted about 1.4 tons of carbon dioxide per person, in comparison to the United States' 17 tons per person, and a world average of 5.3 tons per person.

About 65 percent of India's carbon dioxide emissions in 2009 was from heating, domestic uses and power sector. About 9 percent of India's emissions were from transportation (cars, trains, two wheelers, airplanes, others). India's coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are inefficient and offer significant potential for CO2 emission reduction through better technology. Compared to the average emissions from coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants in European Union (EU-27) countries, India's thermal power plants emit 50 to 120 percent more CO2 per kWh produced. This is in significant part to inefficient thermal power plants installed in India prior to its economic liberalization in the 1990s.

Between 1990 and 2009, India's carbon dioxide emissions per GDP purchasing power parity basis have decreased by over 10 percent, a trend similar to China. Meanwhile, between 1990 and 2009, Russia's carbon dioxide emissions per GDP purchasing power parity basis have increased by 40 percent. India has one of the better records in the world, of an economy that is growing efficiently on CO2 emissions basis. In other words, over the last 20 years, India has reduced CO2 emissions with each unit of GDP increase Per Copenhagen Accord, India aims to further reduce emissions intensity of its growing GDP by 20 to 25 percent before 2020, with technology transfer and international cooperation. Nevertheless, it is expected, that like China, India's absolute carbon dioxide emissions will rise in years ahead, even as International Energy Agency's Annex I countries expect their absolute CO2 emissions to drop.

A significant source of greenhouse gas emissions from India is from black carbon, NOx, methane and other air pollutants. These pollutants are emitted in large quantities in India every day from incomplete and inefficient combustion of biomass (fuel wood, crop waste and cattle dung). A majority of Indian population lacks access to clean burning fuels, and uses biomass combustion as cooking fuel. India's poorly managed solid wastes, inadequate sewage treatment plants, water pollution and agriculture are other sources of greenhouse gas emissions.

NASA's Lau has proposed that as the aerosol particles rise on the warm, convecting air, they produce more rain over northern India and the Himalayan foothill, which further warms the atmosphere and fuels a "heat pump" that draws yet more warm air to the region. This phenomenon, Lau believes, changes the timing and intensity of the monsoon, effectively transferring heat from the low-lying lands over the subcontinent to the atmosphere over the Tibetan

Plateau, which in turn warms the high-altitude land surface and hastens glacial retreat. His modeling shows that aerosols—particularly black carbon and dust—likely cause as much of the glacial retreat in the region as greenhouse gases via this "heat pump" effect.

Health costs of air pollution

Exposure to particulate matter for a long time can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer and heart attacks. The Global burden of disease study for 2010, published in 2013, had found that outdoor air pollution was the fifth-largest killer in India and around 620,000 early deaths occurred from air pollution-related diseases in 2010.According to a WHO study, 13 of the 20 most-polluted cities in the world are in India; however, the accuracy and methodology of the WHO study was questioned by the Government of India led by Manmohan Singh.

RECENT TRENDS IN AIR QUALITY IN DELHI

Monsoons scrub India's air, bringing its natural diversity in better view.

Himalayan peaks in eastern India on a day without haze.

With the last 15 years of economic development and regulatory reforms, India has made progress in improving its air quality. The table presents the average emissions sampled at many locations, over time, and data analyzed by scientific methods, by multiple agencies, including The World Bank. For context and comparison, the table also includes average values for Sweden in 2008, observed and analyzed by same methods. Over 1995-2008, average nation wide levels of major air pollutants have dropped by between 25-45 percent in India.

Pollutant1995

2005 2008 2008

Pollutant, PM10 (micrograms per cubic meter) 109 67 59 11

Pollutant, CO2 emissions (kg per 2005 PPP$ of GDP) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2

Health, mortality rate (under 5, per 1000) 100 73 67 3

Pollutant, methane, Agriculture emissions (% total) 68.8 64.4 n.a. 28.1

Pollutant, nitrous oxide, Agriculture emissions (% total) 75.2 73.4 n.a. 60.2

India's Central Pollution Control Board now routinely monitors four air pollutants namely sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), suspended particulate matter (SPM) and respirable particulate matter (PM10). These are target air pollutants for regular monitoring at 308 operating stations in 115 cities/towns in 25 states and 4 Union Territories of India. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction, relative humidity and temperature has also been integrated with the monitoring of air quality. The monitoring of these pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency of twice a week, to yield 104 observations in a year.

For 2010, the key findings of India's central pollution control board are:

Most Indian cities continue to violate India's and world air quality PM10 targets. Respirable particulate matter pollution remains a key challenge for India. Despite the general non-attainment, some cities showed far more improvement than others. A decreasing trend has been observed in PM10 levels in cities like Solapur and Ahmedabad over the last few years. This improvement may be due to local measures taken to reduce sulfur in diesel and stringent enforcement by Gujarat government.

A decreasing trend has been observed in sulfur dioxide levels in residential areas of many cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Lucknow, Bhopal during last few years. The decreasing trend in sulfur dioxide levels may be due to recently introduced clean fuel standards, and the increasing use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of coal or fuelwood, and the use of LPG instead of diesel in certain vehicles.

A decreasing trend has been observed in nitrogen dioxide levels in residential areas of some cities such as Bhopal and Solapur during last few years. The decreasing trend in sulfur dioxide levels may be due to recently

introduced vehicle emission standards, and the increasing use of LPG as domestic fuel instead of coal or fuelwood.

Most Indian cities greatly exceed acceptable levels of suspended particulate matter. This may be because of refuse and biomass burning, vehicles, power plant emissions, industrial sources.

The Indian air quality monitoring stations reported lower levels of PM10 and suspended particulate matter during monsoon months possibly due to wet deposition and air scrubbing by rainfall. Higher levels of particulates were observed during winter months possibly due to lower mixing heights and more calm conditions. In other words, India's air quality worsens in winter months, and improves with the onset of monsoon season.

The average annual SOx and NOx emissions level and periodic violations in industrial areas of India were significantly and surprisingly lower than the emission and violations in residential areas of India

Of the four major Indian cities, air pollution was consistently worst in Delhi, every year over 5 year period (2004–2008). Kolkata was a close second, followed by Mumbai Chennai air pollution was least of the four.

Recent reports have found problems with pollution increasing, especially because of increasing use of vehicle transport.

In May 2014 the World Health Organisation announced   New Delhi   is the most polluted city in the world.

CLIMATIC CONDITION OF DELHI The climate of Delhi is monsoon-influenced humid subtropical bordering semi-arid, with high variation between summer and winter temperatures and precipitation. Delhi's version of a humid subtropical climate is markedly different from many other humid subtropical cities such as Sao Paulo, Tokyo and Brisbane in that the city features dust storms(something more commonly seen in a desert climate), has relatively dry winters and has a prolonged spell of very hot weather, causing it to be also classified as semi-arid region.Summers start in early April and peak in May, with average temperatures near 32 °C, although occasional heat waves can result in highs close to 45 °C on some days and therefore higher apparent temperature. The monsoon starts in late June and lasts until mid-September, with about 797.3 mm of rain. The average temperatures are around 29 °C although they can vary from around 25 °C on rainy days to 32 °C during dry spells. The monsoons recede in late September, and the post-monsoon season continues till late October, with average temperatures sliding from 29 °C to 21 °C.Winter starts in November and peaks in January, with average temperatures around 12–13 °C. Although winters are generally mild, Delhi's proximity to the Himalayas results in cold waves leading to lower apparent temperature due to wind chill. Delhi is notorious for its heavy fogs during the winter season. In December, reduced visibility leads to disruption of road, air and rail traffic. They end in early February, and are followed by a short spring until the onset of the summer. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −2.2 °C to 48.4 °C.

Overview of Seasonal Distribution

Summer: April, May, June; Hot to very hot; Very low to moderate humidity; Low precipitation Monsoon (Rainy): July, August, September; Hot, Pleasant during rains; High to very high humidity; Heavy

precipitation Autumn: October, November; Warm days, Cool nights, Pleasant; Low humidity; Low precipitation Winter: December, January; Cool to Cold; Moderate humidity; Low precipitation Spring: February, March; Warm days, Cool nights, Pleasant; Low to moderate humidity; Moderate precipitation

Climate Data

Temperature records for Delhi exist for a period of a little over 100 years. The lowest ever temperature reading during this period is -2.2 °C, recorded on January 11, 1967 at  Delhi Palam. And, the highest ever temperature reading during the same period is 48.4 °C recorded on May 26, 1998, again at  Delhi Palam.

Climate data for Delhi (Safdarjung) 1990-2006

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Record high °C (°F)30.0

(86)

34.1

(93.4)

40.6

(105.1)

45.6

(114.1)

47.2

(117)

46.7

(116.1)

45.0

(113)

42.0

(107.6)

40.6

(105.1)

39.4

(102.9)

36.1

(97)

29.3

(84.7)

47.2

(117)

Average high °C (°F)21.0

(69.8)

23.5

(74.3)

29.2

(84.6)

36.0

(96.8)

39.2

(102.6)

38.8

(101.8)

34.7

(94.5)

33.6

(92.5)

34.2

(93.6)

33.0

(91.4)

28.3

(82.9)

22.9

(73.2)

31.2

(88.2)

Daily mean °C (°F)14.3

(57.7)

16.8

(62.2)

22.3

(72.1)

28.8

(83.8)

32.5

(90.5)

33.4

(92.1)

30.8

(87.4)

30.0

(86)

29.5

(85.1)

26.3

(79.3)

20.8

(69.4)

15.7

(60.3)

25.1

(77.2)

Average low °C (°F)7.6

(45.7)

10.1

(50.2)

15.3

(59.5)

21.6

(70.9)

25.9

(78.6)

27.8

(82)

26.8

(80.2)

26.3

(79.3)

24.7

(76.5)

19.6

(67.3)

13.2

(55.8)

8.5

(47.3)

19.0

(66.2)

Record low °C (°F)−0.6

(30.9)

1.6

(34.9)

4.4

(39.9)

10.7

(51.3)

15.2

(59.4)

18.9

(66)

20.3

(68.5)

20.7

(69.3)

17.3

(63.1)

9.4

(48.9)

3.9

(39)

1.1

(34)

−0.6

(30.9)

Average precipitation mm (inches)19

(0.75)

20

(0.79)

15

(0.59)

21

(0.83)

25

(0.98)

70

(2.76)

237

(9.33)

235

(9.25)

113

(4.45)

17

(0.67)

9

(0.35)

9

(0.35)

790

(31.1)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 1.7 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.8 5.5 13.0 12.1 5.7 1.7 0.6 1.6 51.7

Average relative humidity (%) 63 55 47 34 33 46 70 73 62 52 55 62 54

Mean monthly sunshine hours 214.6 216.1 239.1 261.0 263.1 196.5 165.9 177.0 219.0 269.3 247.2 215.8 2,684.6

Source 1) NOAAS

Source 2) Indian Meteorological Department (record high and low up to 2010)

Climate data for Delhi (Palam)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Record high °C (°F)31.0

(87.8)

35.7

(96.3)

41.3

(106.3)

45.3

(113.5)

48.4

(119.1)

47.6

(117.7)

45.7

(114.3)

43.2

(109.8)

40.8

(105.4)

39.6

(103.3)

36.4

(97.5)

30.0

(86)

48.4

(119.1)

Average high °C (°F)20.8

(69.4)

23.9

(75)

30.0

(86)

36.9

(98.4)

40.5

(104.9)

40.3

(104.5)

35.4

(95.7)

33.7

(92.7)

34.2

(93.6)

33.3

(91.9)

28.3

(82.9)

22.7

(72.9)

31.7

(89.1)

Average low °C (°F)6.7

(44.1)

9.1

(48.4)

14.1

(57.4)

20.5

(68.9)

25.1

(77.2)

27.6

(81.7)

26.4

(79.5)

25.6

(78.1)

23.8

(74.8)

18.8

(65.8)

12.7

(54.9)

7.8

(46)

18.2

(64.8)

Record low °C (°F)−2.2

(28)

−1.6

(29.1)

3.4

(38.1)

8.6

(47.5)

14.6

(58.3)

19.8

(67.6)

17.8

(64)

20.2

(68.4)

13.6

(56.5)

9.9

(49.8)

2.1

(35.8)

−1.3

(29.7)

−2.2

(28)

Average precipitation mm (inches)18.9

(0.744)

16.6

(0.654)

10.8

(0.425)

30.4

(1.197)

29.0

(1.142)

54.3

(2.138)

216.8

(8.535)

247.6

(9.748)

133.8

(5.268)

15.4

(0.606)

6.6

(0.26)

15.2

(0.598)

795.4

(31.315)

Source: Indian Meteorological Department

Source images: CPCB; NAAQS TRENDS-REPORT

NO2 LEVEL IN NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STATIONS IN 2012

Source images: CPCB; NAAQS TRENDS-REPORT

National Mean Concentration of three regularly monitored pollutants

National mean concentration with 90th percentile and 10th percentile for SO2, NO2 and PM10 is depicted in National mean of SO2 concentration has decreased over the years indicating that there has been a decline in SO2 levels. Decreasing trend may be due to various interventions that have taken place in recent years such as reduction in sulphur in diesel, use of cleaner fuel such as CNG in metro cities, change in domestic fuel from coal to LPG etc. National mean of NO2 concentration has remained stable over the years with a slight decrease in last three years despite increase in sources like vehicles . The reason for this may be various intervention measures that have taken place such as improvement in vehicle technology and other vehicular pollution control measures like alternatefuel etc. National mean of PM10 concentration shows fluctuating trend exceeding the NAAQS. The reasons being emission from gensets, small scale industries, biomass incineration, suspension of traffic dust, natural dust, commercial and domestic use of fuel and vehicular emission etc. Furthermore, the increasing trend for PM10 may be attributed to the increasing number of vehicles and re-suspension of natural dust.

Source images: CPCB; NAAQS TRENDS-REPORT

YEARLY TRENDS OF LOW,MODERATE , HIGH LEVELS OF SO2, NO2 AND PM10

Source images: CPCB; NAAQS TRENDS-REPORT

DELHI METRO HELPS IN REDUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION

Fig. Delhi Metro

The Delhi Metro (DM), an intra-city electric rail system serving the National Capital Region (NCR) of India, has been operational since December 2002. By March 2012, the DM had an operational route length of 167 km.

While a key motivation behind building a mass transit system in Delhi was to ease traffic congestion in the city, it is not hard to imagine that it may have a considerable impact on air quality as well. An improvement in air quality would presumably occur mainly due to the ‘traffic diversion effect’. This refers to the possibility that commuters who were earlier using private modes of transport such as cars and two-wheelers switch to the DM leading to net reduction in the level of vehicular emissions. 

Investigating whether this actually happened becomes particularly important for Delhi because the city is infamous for its high levels of air pollution. On most days between 2004 and 2006, the average levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide exceeded the permissible standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Such high levels of pollution raise health concerns for the city's inhabitants. The adverse effects of air pollution on health outcomes such as damage to the central nervous system, worsening of asthma and an increase in infant mortality rates, are well document. Studies conducted by the CPCB find that high pollution levels in Delhi are positively associated with lung function deficits and with respiratory ailments (CPCB 2008). Guttikunda and Apte (2009) found that about 10,900 premature deaths every year in Delhi occur due to ambient particulate matter pollution. In light of these facts, it is important to examine whether there has been any significant impact on air pollution in Delhi due to the operation of the metro.  

Traffic diversion versus traffic creationBased on transport economics theories, it is not possible to predict whether the net effect of the DM on air quality will be positive or negative. The main argument is that along with the traffic diversion effect, there could be a traffic creation effect due to introduction of a new mode of transportation. The latter refers to new demand for travel generated by a faster and arguably more comfortable mode of transport such as the DM. For example, new demand for travel could arise if, facilitated by the DM, people decide to relocate to the outskirts of the city to possibly benefit from cheaper real estate prices, and then commute longer distances to work. If part of the increased distance is covered using pollution intensive modes of transport (such as private cars), then this could negate any traffic diversion effect and could lead to an increase in overall level of pollution. 

An added dimension that needs to be considered while studying the net effect is the presence of two coal-based power plants within the city limits that were operational during our study period (2004-2006). If operation of the DM resulted in increased capacity utilisation of these plants in order to supply electricity for running it, then this could also contribute to higher overall emissions in the city. 

Analyzing the link between the metro and air qualityIn our study, we examine the effect of the DM on air quality using data obtained from the CPCB on four pollutants – nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone and sulfur dioxide, between 2004 and 2006. This data is collected at two

locations in Delhi - ITO, a major traffic intersection in central Delhi, and Siri Fort, a residential locality in South Delhi. We obtained hourly data on temperature, rainfall, wind speed and relative humidity for Delhi.In order to establish a causal link between the DM and air quality it is important to compare pollution actually observed in the period after the DM became operational with its correct ‘counterfactual’. This counterfactual refers to the level of pollution in the hypothetical scenario where all other factors that affect pollution remain the same as in the post-metro period, and the only difference is that the metro does not exist in the counterfactual. Any difference between the observed pollution in the post-metro period and the pollution in the counterfactual can then be attributed to the DM. To do this, we estimate the trend (pattern over time) in pollution using hourly pollution data over a reasonably long time period which includes the date of extension of the DM. If we detect a sudden change in the level of pollution at the date of extension of the DM, then we attribute this change to the extension of the DM. 

Between 2004 and 2006 there were six extensions of the DM rail network. At each extension, we examine the time trend for each pollutant separately. We identify the localized, short term effect on pollution that can be attributed to each extension of the DM by conducting this analysis separately for pollution data from ITO and Siri Fort. Our preliminary analysis shows a reduction in the levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide at both locations. This reduction varies between 24 to 29% for nitrogen dioxide and between 26 to 69% for carbon monoxide. For sulfur dioxide, we find an increase of 90% at ITO, and a decrease ranging between 35 to 89% for Siri Fort. For ozone, we do not find a uni-directional effect even across extensions at a particular location. 

Conclusions and caveatsTo summarize, preliminary evidence points toward a reduction in the levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide. Given that both nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are important vehicular emissions, our initial findings suggest that the DM has encouraged people to switch from private to public mode of travel resulting in positive effects on air quality in the city. In the light of our findings and given the existing evidence on the adverse health effects of air pollution, these indirect health benefits should be taken into account when urban policy makers contemplate setting up large scale intra-city transportation systems. We provide a rationale for subsidizing these mass transit systems, such as the metro or dedicated bus routes, even when the direct costs do not show a net profit. These public transport systems should be considered seriously for other cities that face similar challenges in terms of vehicular congestion and health costs due to pollution. 

Two caveats should be kept in mind while interpreting and understanding these results. First, the large number of missing observations in the pollution data makes this analysis particularly challenging. Further examination is needed to ensure that our results are not being driven by the pattern of missing observations. Second, for a few extensions, the magnitudes of change in carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide are very large to be driven solely by a traffic diversion effect. Also, ozone is created in the presence of sunlight and nitrogen dioxide through a complicated non-linear process. The results for ozone do not show a consistent pattern in our analysis. In the light of these facts, further investigation is needed to rule out the possibility that our findings are not being driven by chance or poorly measured pollution data. 

How can citizens of Delhi help in reducing pollution?

Pollution in Delhi is a perpetual problem which need to be looked upon as a serious issue not only by the Government but also by the citizens of the city. One of the easiest ways is that there should be an efficient involvement of Resident Welfare Associations in

various localities in collection, segregation of garbage from houses and the societies. Citizens can take steps to covert the garbage into compost in their localities. More and more trees must be planted in every locality. Every individual should keep a proper check on the pollution level of their vehicles. Making more use of CNG. One of the best ways to control pollution is to manage wastes of all types in a proper manner.

Each and every citizen should abide by the 3Rs: Recycle, Reuse, Reduce. More and more people should use bus and metro instead of cars and scooters, as they can carry a lot more people

in one journey. Car pool is also a good option. Controlling the use of energy and making use of electricity in an efficient manner. One can also reduce water pollution by reducing the use of chemicals, cleaning agents, pesticides, herbicides,

fertilizers etc.

HOW TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION IN DELHI

CONTROL MEASURES

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or control technologies.

Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:1. Using unleaded petrol2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private vehicles4. Ensure that houses, schools,  restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on the downwind of the city.7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons

Control measures in industrial centers

1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be made mandatory3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know the emission levels.

 EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Air  pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.

1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.

3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with chemical treatment.

 Pollution Control Equipment:Sometimes pollution control at source is not possible by preventing the emission of pollutants. Then it becomes

necessary to install pollution control equipment to remove the gaseous pollutants from the main gas stream.

The pollutants are present in high concentration at the source and as their distance from the source increases they

become diluted by diffusing with environmental air.

Pollution control equipment’s are generally classified into two types:

(a) Control devices for particulate contaminants.

(b) Control devices for gaseous contaminants.

In the present book only the control devices for particulate contaminants are dealt with.

Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants: 

(1) Gravitational Settling Chamber:For removal of particles exceeding 50 µm in size from polluted gas streams, gravitational settling chambers (Fig

5.1) are put to use.

This device consists of huge rectangular chambers. The gas stream polluted with particulates is allowed to enter

from one end. The horizontal velocity of the gas stream is kept low (less than 0.3 m/s) in order to give sufficient

time for the particles to settle by gravity.

The particulates having higher density obey Stoke’s law and settle at the bottom of the chamber from where they are

removed ultimately. The several horizontal shelves or trays improve the collection efficiency by shortening the

settling path of the particles.

(2) Cyclone Separators (Reverse flow Cyclone):Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators, to separate the particulate matter

from the polluted gas. Centrifugal force, several times greater than gravitational force, can be generated by a

spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone separators more effective in removing much smaller particulates

than can possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers.

A simple cyclone separator (Fig 5.2) consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential inlet discharging near

the top and an outlet for discharging the particulates is present at the base of the cone.

Mechanism of Action:

The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and generates a centrifugal force due to which the

particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e. flow reverses to form an

inner vortex which leaves flow through the outlet). The particulates slide down the .walls of the cone and are

discharged from the outlet.

(3) Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters):In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through a fabric that filters out the particulate

pollutant and allows the clear gas to pass through. The particulate matter is left in the form of a thin dust mat on the

insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a filtering medium for further removal of particulates increasing the

efficiency of the filter bag to sieve more sub micron particles (0.5 µm).

A typical filter (Fig 5.3) is a tubular bag which is closed at the upper end and has a hopper attached at the lower end

to collect the particles when they are dislodged from the fabric. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For

efficient filtration and a longer life the filter bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent

too many particulate layers from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.

(4) Electrostatic Precipitators:The electrostatic precipitator (Fig. 5.4) works on the principle of electrostatic precipitation i.e. electrically charged

particulates present in the polluted gas are separated from the gas stream under the influence of the electrical field.

A typical wire and pipe precipitator consists of:

(a) A positively charged collecting surface (grounded).

(b) A high voltage (50 KV) discharge electrode wire.

(c) Insulator to suspend the electrode wire from the top.

(d) A weight at the bottom of the electrode wire to keep the wire in position.

Mechanism of Action:

The polluted gas enters from the bottom, flows upwards (i.e. between the high voltage wire and grounded collecting

surface). The high voltage in the wire ionises the gas. The negative ions migrate towards the grounded surface and

pass on their negative charge to the dust particles also. Then these negatively charged dust particles are

electrostatically drawn towards the positively charged collector surface, where they finally get deposited.

The collecting surface is rapped or vibrated to periodically remove the collected dust-particles so that the thickness

of the dust layer deposited does not exceed 6 mm, otherwise the electrical attraction becomes weak and efficiency of

the electrostatic precipitator gets reduced.

As the electrostatic precipitation has 99 + percent efficiency and can be operated at high temperatures (600°C) and

pressure at less power requirement, therefore, it is economical and simple to operate compared to other devices.

(5) Wet Collectors (Scrubbers):In wet collectors or scrubbers, the particulate contaminants are removed from the polluted gas stream by

incorporating the particulates into liquid droplets.

Common wet scrubbers are:

(i) Spray Tower

(ii) Venturi Scrubber

(iii) Cyclone Scrubber

(i) Spray Tower:

Water is introduced into a spray tower (Fig. 5.5.) by means of a spray nozzle (i.e. there is downward flow of water).

As the polluted gas flows upwards, the particulates (size exceeding 10 µm) present collide with the water droplets

being sprayed downward from the spray nozzles. Under the influence of gravitational force, the liquid droplets

containing the particulates settle to the bottom of the spray tower.

(ii) Venturi Scrubber:

Submicron particulates (size 0.5 to 5 µn) associated with smoke and fumes are very effectively removed by the

highly efficient Venturi Scrubbers. As shown in Fig 5.6 a Venturi Scrubber has a Venturi shaped throat section. The

polluted gas passes downwards through the throat at the velocity of 60 to 180 m/sec.

A coarse water stream is injected upwards into the throat where it gets atomised (i.e. breaks the water into droplets)

due to the impact of high velocity of the gas. The liquid droplets collide with the particulates in the polluted gas

stream.

The particles get entrained in the droplets and fall down to be removed later on. Venturi Scrubbers can also remove

soluble gaseous contaminants. Due to the atomisation of water there is proper contact between the liquid and the gas

increasing the efficiency of the Venturi Scrubber (their power cost is high because of the high inlet gas velocity).

To separate the droplets carrying the particulate matter from the gas stream, this gas-liquid mixture in the Venturi

Scrubber is then directed into a separation device such as a cyclone separator.

(iii) Cyclone Scrubber:

The dry cyclone chamber can be converted into a wet cyclone scrubber by inserting high pressure spray nozzles at

various places within the dry chamber (Fig. 5.7).

The high pressure spray nozzles generate a fine spray that intercepts the small particles in the polluted gas. The

centrifugal force throws these particles towards the wall from where they are drained downwards to the bottom of

the scrubber.

(c) Diffusion of Pollutants in Air:Dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere is another approach to the control of air pollution. If the pollution

source releases only a small quantity of the contaminants then pollution is not noticeable as these pollutants easily

diffuse into the atmosphere but if the quantity of air contaminants is beyond the limited capacity of the environment

to absorb the contaminants then pollution is caused.

However, dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere can be accomplished through the use of tall stacks which

penetrate the upper atmospheric layers and disperse the contaminants so that the ground level pollution is greatly re-

duced. The height of the stacks is usually kept 2 to 21/2 times the height of nearby structures.

Dilution of pollutants in air depend on atmospheric temperature, speed and direction of the wind. The disadvantage

of the method is that it is a short term contact measure which in reality brings about highly undesirable long range

effects.

This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at which their harmful effects are less noticeable

near their original source whereas at a considerable distance from the source these very contaminants eventually

come down in some form or another.

(d) Vegetation:Plants contribute towards controlling air-pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen in the process of

photosynthesis. This purifies the air (removal of gaseous pollutant—CO2) for the respiration of men and animals.

Gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely, Coleus Blumeri, Ficus variegata and

Phascolus Vulgaris. Species of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by metabolising nitrogen

oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted especially around those areas which are declared as high-risk areas of

pollution.

(e) Zoning:This method of controlling air pollution can be adopted at the planning stages of the city. Zoning advocates setting

aside of separate areas for industries so that they are far removed from the residential areas. The heavy industries

should not be located too close to each other.

New industries, as far as possible, should be established away from larger cities (this will also keep a check on

increasing concentration of urban population in a few larger cities only) and the locational decisions of large

industries should be guided by regional planning. The industrial estate of Bangalore is divided into three zones

namely light, medium and large industries. In Bangalore and Delhi very large industries are not permitted.

ODD EVEN SCHEME : A step towards reduction in air pollution

The Delhi government released a detailed blueprint for its ambitious road-rationing plan to check pollution in the

national capital through odd even scheme.The plan to curb the number of vehicles plying in the city, however, has a host of exemptions, including two-wheelers, women drivers and top politicians. The restrictions will also not apply

to CNG and electric vehicles.The odd-even scheme, to be run on a trial basis from 1 January to 15 January, will limit four-wheelers to alternate days.Cars with licence plates ending in an odd number can ply on odd dates and

those ending in an even number can run on even dates between 8am and 8pm, except on Sunday, when no restrictions apply.The penalty in case of a violation is Rs.2,000.The numerous exemptions, experts say, will reduce

the effectiveness of the plan that seeks to curb vehicle emissions in the world’s most polluted city.The city has been engulfed by a blanket of smog in recent days, triggering respiratory problems among its residents. “There are no

justifications for some of the exemptions that have been included,” said Debolina Kundu, associate professor at the National Institute of Urban Affairs. “In the long run, I don’t think it is very viable. It is just a token effort.”

The right way to approach the problem of pollution is to strengthen public transport and last-mile connectivity,But these steps will take a long time to implement in a city that’s already choking with a noxious combination of vehicle

exhaust, dust and smoke from burning of waste levels at 295 micrograms/m3 and PM10 levels at 470 micrograms/m3. On Wednesday, the city saw the highest level of air pollution this year with particulate matter

(PM) 2.5 (tiny particles that cause respiratory problems)

Announcing the blueprint, Delhi chief minister Arvind Kejriwal said: “Pollution has become a very serious

problem.”

“We will do an assessment at the end of 15 days. If the people accept this plan, we will think about having a

permanent solution. Other countries have also taken such steps to tackle high pollution levels,” he said.

According to the Delhi statistical handbook for 2015, the total number of registered vehicles in the city in 2014-15

was 8.83 million. Delhi added 534,000 vehicles in the year ended 31 March.Given the staggering pace of addition of new vehicles, the odd-even plan appears to be a bold measure to curb pollution.

“It may not work the first time around, but it is a bold step that shows the changing trend in urban transportation in the country,” said Sudhakar Yedla, professor at the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai. He

focuses on urban transportation policy.“If you wait for public transport to improve, it will never happen. It may be a knee-jerk reaction from the government, but (such an initiative) needs a champion,” he said.

The Delhi government has taken all approvals including that of the lieutenant governor, and will issue a formal notification for the scheme on Monday.The list of 20-plus exemptions from the restrictions include VIPs, emergency

vehicles, ambulances, fire engines, hospitals, prisons, hearses, enforcement vehicles and defence ministry vehicles.Among VIPs, leaders of the opposition in the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha, chief ministers of states, judges

of the Supreme Court and high court and Lokayukta are exempt.The Delhi chief minister and the state’s cabinet ministers have been left out of the exemptions.

RESULTS OF ODD EVEN SCHEME

Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), an independent think-tank in Delhi, in collaboration with the

Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago(EPIC), independently measured air quality and traffic volumes

at five important locations (viz. Connaught Place, GTB Nagar, IIT Delhi, Mathura Road, and Shadipur) across New

Delhi, over the last three weeks. The data collected using low-cost pollution monitors showed a mixed result:

The average air pollution levels increased in the first week of January in comparison to the previous week.

However, in the second week of January, air quality was marginally better, but still poorer than the last week

of December.

Average PM 2.5 level of 306 µg/m3 was observed during the first two weeks of January 2016, similar to

average PM 2.5 level of 330 µg/m3 observed during the first fortnight of January 2014. However, the first two

weeks of 2015 had a lower average PM 2.5 level of 226 µg/m3due to unseasonal rains and winds.  In other

words, meteorological variables such as temperature, wind speed and precipitation have a significant impact in

the short-term. What that means is it’s hard to provide conclusive evidence on the impact of the odd-even

policy on air quality.

The daily average number of vehicles increased by 10% in these five locations during the first two weeks of

January, as compared to the last week of December. This increase was primarily driven by an increase in 2-

wheelers (17%), 3-wheelers (12%), taxis (22%) and private buses (138%).

HOW CURRENT ODD EVEN SCHEME HAS CHANGED THE MINDSET OF DELHI PEOPLE

The cut in vehicular emission due to rolling out of the odd-even scheme has resulted "definitive decline" in levels of PM2.5 pollutants, Delhi Government said today while claiming success of the restrictions unveiled on January 1.The Government said data of pollutants collected from over 55 locations showed a clear trend of improving air quality in several areas across the city and that there has been a "positive impact" of the odd-even scheme."According to the scientists of the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), 80 per cent of PM2.5 air pollution is caused by vehicular traffic and reduction in its levels, even in outer areas of Delhi shows that reduction of four wheeled vehicles on roads since the New Year Day is having a positive impact," the government said in a statement.However, a report by IIT Kanpur had said vehicular pollutions contribute to around 25 per cent of PM2.5 concentrations during winters which comes down to 9 per cent during summers.It said the ambient air data collected by DPCC through mobile dust samplers using Light Scattering Technique at 20 locations in peripheral areas of Delhi on January 4 showed a clear declining trend in the levels of PM2.5.The major source of PM2.5 pollutant is vehicular pollution."In 13 of these 20 locations, the PM2.5 level has been recorded at less than 300, which proves reduction in comparison to previous years at the same time by at least 100 units," it said.Transport Minister Gopal Rai had asked for data collection from peripheral areas of Delhi to ascertain the impact of NCR towns on air pollution of Delhi.Government said since January 1, the DPCC mobile teams have recorded ambient air data from 55 locations, and the trend is that air quality is improving in central parts and other areas which are not on the borders of the national capital."The PM10 data for the latest 20 locations from peripheral areas of Delhi shows an adverse impact of NCR towns. PM10, the major cause of which is dust arising from construction waste and wind blown dust, is on the higher side in bordering areas. Everyone is contributing, car pooling has come in trend nd people are accepting it

HOW CAN WE IMPROVISE? In India the public transport system is still inadequate, as per the current population status more number of

public transports should come forward to reduce air pollution and provide better public transport connectivity.

The small roads and traffic congestion problem could be solved by more availability of public transport and less usage of private vehicles and supporting car pooling.

Some measures could also be opt as per the different schemes in several countries of the world, like in Paris free public transport is provided by government during higher air pollution emergence in their city.

And in Estonia the public transport is totally free and strict laws are there to reduce air pollution and people are convinced to follow them.

There should be a common pass for all the public transport like metro, bus, cycles etc. Government should emphasis on providing different lanes for cycle riders for reduction in road accidents

and air pollution. The ecofriendly vehicles including cycles and electric vehicles, must be subsidized for those who needs to

travel nearby proximity There should a reduction in constructional activities.

COMPARISON OF DELHI’S AIR POLLUTON STATUS

WITH DIFFERENT CITIES OF THE WORLD

Pollution in Paris

Climate in ParisSeasons in ParisA melody of colors and atmospheres, a symphony of contrasting skies and light. Every season pays tribute to Paris and highlights its charms, be it the sun caressing its pale façades, or the rain reflecting the night’s gleam. To the sweet music of romance or a festive beat, compose your own score for your trip to the city, depending on the time of year and the whims of the weather.

Spring (21 March-21 June)

This is the season where Paris seems to reawaken, with its avenues fringed with new green shoots and its trees in flower. The days are getting longer, as are the opening times of museums, and the high season is just around the corner. There’s a holiday feeling in the air and the sweet smell of candy floss pervades the pathways of the Foire du Trône funfair. People venture out and about in the parks and gardens and along the river banks, strolling, cycling or skating.

Average temperatures and rainfall:  Minimum Maximum Rain in mm

March 4°C 12°C 35

April 6°C 16°C 42

May 10°C 20°C 57

Summer (21 june-21 september)

ZOOM

When the summer season is at its height, rest and relaxation and “joie de vivre” bask in the sun, on the café terraces, in the parks and on the “beaches” by the Seine. Picnics abound and gourmets melt for the best ice cream in Paris. On the Champs-Elysées, the 14 July parades and the cyclists triumph. Cinema and music celebrate: free films and concerts thrill the la capital, which takes on its summer scenes.

Average temperatures and rainfall:  Minimum Maximum Rain in mm

June 13°C 23°C 59

July 15°C 25°C 59

August 14°C 24°C 64

Autumn (21 September-21 December)

ZOOM

When you see the avenues and parks take on their autumn reflections, and the soft light of the street lamps sets aglow the carpet of fallen leaves, it’s an inspiring sight. The days may be getting shorter, but the colours are blooming. This is not only the time to return to school, but also a renewal of culture. Autumn has its own festival

and the major trade fairs draw the crowds. Towards the end of November, Paris already sparkles with Christmas decorations.

Average temperatures and rainfall:  Minimum Maximum Rain in mm

September 12°C 21°C 55

October 8°C 16°C 50

December 5°C 10°C 51

Winter (21 December-21 march)ZOOM

Snow occasionally covers the rooftops of Paris with its mantle, reminiscent of the Impressionist paintings by Caillebotte. Christmas dresses up the main avenues with its sparkle, markets and appealing window displays spring up around the city. It is a pleasure to dive into the cosy warmth of its restaurants and cafés. Take a tasty break for hot chocolate between two museums or after a few pirouettes on the open-air ice rinks. From January to March, this is the charm of off-season Paris.

Average temperatures and rainfall Minimum Maximum Rain in mm

January 2°C 7°C 50

February 1°C 6°C 56

March 1°C 7°C 46

AIR QUALITY IN PARIS

Fig. Smog Blanket over world heritage site Eiffel Tower in Paris

Paris is not considered to be an unbreathable capital, as you might describe Athens, Mexico, or even London, once known as the “Big Smoke”. The quality of the air is something that cannot be ignored: as it may cause irritation of our airways or breathing difficulties and also contributes to the erosion of monuments. For these reasons Paris City Council makes every effort to bring a breath of fresh air to a city that still suffers from a surplus of traffic.

Paris metropolitan area is rather privileged by presenting a relatively flat relief, a low altitude (from 11 to 217m)

climate under oceanic influences mainly (rainy and windy conditions) and continental occasionally. This is in favour of the atmospheric pollutants dispersion and leaching. However, this good situation is counterbalanced by a density of population and activities extremely high. 

Paris alone with its agglomeration concentrate about 90% of the regional population on a little more than 20% of the region area. The emissions of pollutants are thus concentrated there. The metropolitan area is responsible for more than 75% of the regional NOx emissions (see density of NOx emissions below), for 70% of the hydrocarbons (volatile organic compounds, VOC) and for half of the particles. In short, the NOx emissions of the Ile-de-France region represents 10% of the national ones.

If we only take into account the capital, 20% of the regional population live in Paris on less than 1% of the territory. Indeed, Paris contributes to 12% of the regional emissions of hydrocarbons (volatile organic compounds, VOC), to 6% of the regional emissions of fine particles (PM10) and up to 11% of the nitrogen oxides emissions.

In Paris metropolitan area, the three principal sources of pollution are: transport, heating (households and business) and industry. Among them, road transport (cars, vehicles of delivery, two wheels motorized and heavy lorries) is by far the major problem: it is responsible for 53% of the nitrogen oxides emissions of the Paris agglomeration, 15% of the volatile organic compounds and 25% of the particles produced by an increasing fleet of diesel vehicles. 

For a certain number of pollutants the situation has been really improved thanks regulation on gasoline (by removing leaded gasoline or decreasing its benzene content) and technological improvement the vehicles fleet

(for instance for nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide through the use of catalytic converters and its generalization). Sulfur dioxide is no longer an issue, its level being decreased by 20% within 50 years due to a decreased number of heavy industries in the region and to the emission decrease of industrial activities. 

Despite those improvements, between 3 and 4 million of people are exposed to levels of pollution above the European regulations due to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particles (PM10) levels in the Paris agglomeration. Close from the traffic, NO2 levels are not only exceeding the limit value, around twice the air quality objective, but are also rather stable above it. Increases have even been monitored by some stations. Meanwhile the decrease observed for the background levels seems to have come to an end. This is a great challenge for the coming years, especially with the air quality objective becoming a limit value in 2010 (see NO2 map for 2009 enclosed). In Background conditions, ozone also remains an issue, as well as benzene on busy and congested roads. 

Levels of pollution encountered in 2010 in Paris area (yearly mean of stations, in µg/m3)P R A

O N 3

N 8 4

P 4 2

P 3 1

C 6 N

N 2 5

According to the French Air Act (Loi sur l’air et l’utilisation rationnelle de l’énergie, 1996), information and monitoring ambiant air quality for the whole of the Ile-de-France region is undertaken by Airparif. Airparif, like all the other French air quality monitoring networks is a non-profit and independent organisation, agreed by the French ministry of the environment. 

Fig. Levels of Nitrogen Dioxide in Paris 2009

Surveillance Since 1954, the air in Paris is being constantly monitored, a job entrusted since 1979 to the [AIRPARIF] organization, under the authorization of the Department for the Environment. The quality of the air is displayed on a daily basis on electronic boards throughout the city, on a scale from 1 (very good) to 10 (very poor) corresponding to international standards set down by the OMS and the European Commission.

When levels of pollution are high, the population is alerted by the media. These warnings concern in particular anyone with existing conditions, children, older people, or pregnant women. At the same time we are advised against outdoor sporting activities. Despite these occasional warnings, consultation of yearly statistics indicates an air quality that is generally good.

Steps taken towards reduction in air pollutionAirparif was started in 1979. The Air quality monitoring implemented relies on the complementary use of three tools:

Results 24 hours a day from about 50 measuring sites distributed on the whole Ile-de-France Region, 12 of them being located in Paris. The main pollutants permanently monitored are nitrogen oxides, particles and fine particles, black fumes, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compound, monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toluene, benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydro

carbons, heavy metals (lead, nickel, arsenic, cadmium), sulphur dioxide and ozone. Additional pollutants are also followed on a regular basis (e.g. aldehydes) or through specific monitoring campaigns (dioxins, pesticides, soot...). The pollutants monitored evolves according to the regulation and to the development of knowledge on their health and environmental effects.

An emission inventory and modelling tools used for forecasting the air pollution, draw pollution maps, evaluate the air quality along the 20 000 km road network and test the efficiency of reduction measures foreseen or already implemented by the authorities.

Detailed monitoring campaigns relying on mobile laboratories and diffusion tubes used to validate the models and the stations location but also to investigate in great details specific areas or subject of interest (airports, train stations, Paris ring road...)

Among the steps taken by the City of Paris to fight against atmospheric pollution, can be highlighted: the increase in environmental-friendly municipal vehicles and buses (electricity or natural gas), bicycle paths, “green” districts with reduced traffic, more convivial public areas along the busier routes, as well as public transport improvements including the installation of exclusive bus lanes and the tram project for the ring-roads. The local authorities also encourage Parisians to use public transport as much as possible, and develop the activities of cycling and rollerblading.

When pollution levels are high, the police authorities may decide to alternate the use of cars, lower speed limits, keep coaches out of the city centre, or to impose free use of public transport in the region.

POLLUTION IN MEXICO CITYMexico City air has gone from among the world’s cleanest to among the dirtiest in the span of a generation. Novelist Carlos Fuentes first novel took place here in 1959 and was entitled "Where the air is clear" - a title he has said is ironic considering the city now soupy environment.The average visibility of some 100 km in 1940s is down to about 1.5 km. Snow-capped volcanoes that were once parts of the landscape are now visible only rarely. And levels of almost any pollutant like nitrogen dioxide (NO2) now regularly break international standards by two to three times. Levels of ozone (O3), a pollutant that protects us from solar radiation in the upper atmosphere but is dangerous to breathe, are twice as high here as the maximum allowed limit for one hour a year and this occurs several hours per day every day.

 

 

Facts and figures of Mexico city:The Mexican Republic is formed by 31 states and the Federal District. Among the states of this country there is one

called the State of Mexico, which is situated in the center of the country surrounding the Federal District. The

Federal District (DF) and some counties of the State of Mexico form the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (ZMCM).

The Federal District is divided into 16 counties called Delegaciones, all of them constitute the ZMCM. From the

total of 121 counties for all of Mexico, only 16 of them are considered part of the ZMCM .

Federal District (Delegaciones)

1) Alvaro Obregón 2) Azcapotzalco3) Benito Juárez4) Coyoacán5) Cuajimalpa6) Cuauhtémoc7) Gustavo A. Madero8) Iztacalco9) Iztapalapa10) Magdalena Contreras11) Miguel Hidalgo12) Milpa Alta13) Tláhuac14) Tlalpan15) Venustiano Carranza16) Xochimilco

State of Mexico (Counties)

17) Atizapan de Zaragoza18) Coacalco19) Cuautitlán20) Cuautitlán Izcalli21) Chalco22) Chicoloapan23) Chimalhuacan24) Ecatepec25) Huixquilucan26) Ixtapaluca27) La Paz28) Naucalpan de Juárez29) Netzahualcoyotl30) Nicolás Bravo31) Tecamac32) Tlalnepantla33) Tultitlán

Land Use within the area of Mexico City is greatly distorted; the charts below indicate some mismanaged concept implemented by the district government. The following graphics show the distribution of land uses.

Industry: In 1987 major industrial activity was carried out in the northern part of the Federal District, in Azcapotzalco (27% of the total), followed by Iztapalapa(16%), G.A.Madero (14%) and M.Hidalgo (12%), respectively. The remaining facilities are spread throughout the other districts.Residential Distribution. Major concentrations of habitation in 1987 wereIztapalapa with 16.36% of the total, followed by G.A.Madero (12%), A.Obregòn(10%) and Tlalpan (10%). The remaining facilities are spread throughout the other districts.Green Areas Distribution: The Federal District is poor in green areas (i.e. parks etc.); most of them are located in the south part of the city. M.Alta delegation represents 32% of the total with around 28,000 square kilometers followed byTlalpan (30%) and Xochimilco (12%). The remaining areas are spread throughout the other districts.

 

Mexico City is one of the worlds largest metropolitan areas, housing nearly 21 million inhabitants within the Valle de Mexico (also referred to as the Mexico City basin - see fig.1.5). The Valle de Mexico occupies ~1300km2 at a nominal elevation of 2240 m above mean sea level, and is bordered on the east and west by mountains that rise 1000 m above the valley floor, with low points to the north and south.The Metropolitan Area of Mexico City, also called Zona Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México (ZMCM), lies in a high altitude basin almost completely surrounded by hills, mountains (including dormant/active volcanoes - seismic activity is frequent and the area which is well known as an "earthquake zone" but with an opening to the north that extends over 4 km2.More than 20% of Mexico s entire population lives in the Valle de Mexico, and more than 30% of the country's industrial output is produced within its environs. Though already one of the world s largest cities, the Mexico City metropolitan area is still growing at a rate exceeding 3% annually. More than three million vehicles travel on its streets daily.

The average altitude of Mexico City is 2,240 m above sea level. At these altitudes, the average atmospheric pressure is roughly 25% lower than at sea level.

 

This lowered partial pressure (pO2) does have significant effects. For example, people breathing at these altitudes require more red blood cells and their blood viscosity changes

significantly. Because less oxygen is available, combustion processes likewise cannot take place adequately. Such rich mixtures, on the one side, reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides, but on the other side, it enhances the emission of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds (VOC). Changes in engine design, the addition of catalytic converters or after burners and careful tuning considerably would reduce the major pollutants in exhaust gases. The difficulty with these approaches is that they often work well on a test bed with warm engines under suitable operating conditions, but are not so effective in poorly maintained vehicles operating under stop-start city cycles (fig.1.8; refer also to the chemistry of atmospheric pollutants, further below).Under these aspects, this environment of about 21 mio inhabitants, most of them younger than 25 years of age, crowd together to produce not only one of the most densely populated cities but also one of the most severe air pollution scenarios on earth.

Climatic Parameters - Global Factors:

The climatic conditions of the state of Mexico are quite diverse; they range from a semiarid belt in the far North to a rather tropical environment in the South. Although its elevation is high, Mexico City's location at 19� north latitude provides it with a temperate climate throughout the year. The climate is generally dry, but thunderstorms are frequent and intense from June through October. Winters are slightly cooler than summers and have a more semiarid character.

The global wind-distribution charts reveal the general trends among the most distinct seasons.During the winter months a very persistent high pressure system resides over the south-eastern Pacific of the northern hemisphere. This enables a weak flow of moderately tempered air (synoptic flow from the south) into the highlands of Mexico. The geographical conditions of Mexico City with its northern opening traps the air that are

pushed by turbulent flow (as a result of the synoptic flow) from the north towards the southerly located mountain chain favoring an inversion zone. As mentioned previously, the location of heavy industry at the northern outskirts of the City keeps pushing their exhaust gases into the metropolitan area, which further aggravates the already tense situation present due to exhaust emissions of the automotive fleet.The summer months, experience a stronger synoptic flow from the south, intensive sunshine, and the absence of inversed atmospheric strata by lifting the trapped masses of air and thereby cleansing the daily accumulating toxic cocktail. And still, often the winds crossing the southern mountain chain run over the cushion of firmly residing air in the valley. Like in winter, the resulting vortex further below the mountain chain pushes the air back from the northern end into the valley towards the south. The only easing effect during the summer months are the wash-out effects due to rain and lifting of the air strata during intense sunshine.

Climatic Parameters - Local Factors:

Pollution levels of Mexico City are regularly above air quality standards. Up to date, fossil fuels are the primary energy source for the Mexico's industry and technology based society. Yet their combustion, especially in automobiles, release incompletely burned chemicals and oxidized species known as primary pollutants into the atmosphere. The dangers they pose range from eye and throat irritation to global warming. Many of the primary pollutants undergo further reaction under the influence of sunlight. The products of these photochemical reactions are called secondary pollutants. Primary and secondary pollutants, along with aerosols, which are suspended fine particles such as water droplets, dust, and soot, contribute to the brown haze observable as smog (fig.2.2).

The most important air pollutant of Mexico City:

ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), precursors like nitrogen oxides (NOX), hydrocarbons (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO), that originate from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. At these altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) is far lower than at sea level, thus combustion is far from ideal. Most of the energy consumed in this city is related to urban transportation. A very important source of air pollution is gas exhaust from private vehicles.The image on the right shows drastically how the prevailing atmospheric conditions affect Mexico City. A change in the temperature stratification within higher altitudes of the atmosphere hinders exhaust gases to escape the valley. Such situations and the massive generation of toxic gases can alter the trapped air into a harmful cocktail (fig.2.2).

As can be seen in the Conceptual Diagram illustrating important meteorological processes contributing to pollutant transport within the Mexico City Basin during a 1997 Field Campaign (Feb-March by Edgerton et al.), a distinct daily rhythm does prevail within the basin. Under certain conditions, the contribution of emissions from the previous day can accumulate with those of the present day. This inhomogeneous pollutant concentration within Mexico City is primarily based on the atmospheric system present over the basin. These circulations are highly complex.Because of the topographic setting of the city, the moderately strong insulation associated with its tropical latitude and high elevation, and weak prevailing synoptic winds during the winter months, Mexico City is strongly affected by thermally and topographically induced circulation patterns. Three daytime flow patterns are observed during that period; a regional plain-to-plateau flow of air from the lower lying areas to the north and east into the basin from the north in the late afternoon, driven by the heating of the elevated terrain in central Mexico; local valley-to-basin flow in which southerly winds would develop and propagate through the gap in the

mountains to the southeast and over the ridge forming the southern boundary of the Mexico City basin; and local upslope flows driven by the heating of the sidewalls of the mountains.

Early Morning: The constant synoptic flow (main flow sheath of tropospherical air) has an impact on the local and regional thermally-driven flows in the area. The cooled masses of air sink along the slopes of the mountain chains and slide underneath the cold and pollutant loaded blanket of air covering Mexico City (classical inversion layer).Noon: As the sun rises on the horizon, the vertical and horizontal advection (diverging flow) gradually shifts to a circular diffusion pattern as the cold-air pool gradually rises with the energetic solar input. The rise of the now mixed layer sucks fresh air from the northern end - by now opened up as the mixed layer rises beyond the threshold of the plateau-basin mountains.Late Afternoon: As the masses of air rise further, eventually reaching out beyond the peaks of the surrounding mountains, the synoptic flow of the upper troposphere is capable of sweeping out the masses of air. This happens as the heated vertical diffusion accelerates its circulation pattern; therefore, sucking the pollutant loaded trapped bottom air up into the higher altitudes of the troposphere.

Unfortunately, many times of the year inversion situations like that described in the case picture of early morning persist for the entire day, thus preventing any exchange of air.

 

Air Pollution in Mexico City - Sources and Effects

Before going deeper into Mexico City's pollution problem, it is worth considering the great smog of London in 1952/53 and the resulting effects on its population. In December of 1952, London experienced an unusually cold winter conditions. In response, the people of London burnt large quantities of coal in their grates. Smoke was pouring from the chimneys of their houses and becoming trapped beneath the inversion of an anticyclone that had developed over the southern parts of the British Isles during the first week of December.

Trapped, too, beneath this inversion were particles and gases emitted from factory chimneys in the London area, along with pollution, which the winds from the east had brought from industrial areas on the Continent. The total number of deaths in Greater London in the week ending the 6th December of 1952 was 2,062, which was close to normal for the time of year. The following week, the number was 4,703. The death rate peaked at 900 per day on the 8th and 9th and remained above average until just before Christmas. Mortality from bronchitis and pneumonia increased more than sevenfold as a result of the fog. It should not, however, be complacent. The air of Mexico City contains other types of pollutants, mostly of vehicle exhausts. Among these pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, benzenes and aldehydes. They are less visible than the pollutants of yesteryear but are more or less toxic, causing eye irritation, asthma and bronchial complaints.

 

Effects of Pollutant on the Urban Population:

According to the nature of the pollutant, concentration levels and the period of exposure, the effects of pollution can range from a little irritation to acute sickness or even to premature death. To evaluate the effects of pollutants, two approaches are used:

i) Toxicological experimental studies relying mostly on animal tests and involve only few human probands.i) Epidemiological studies, based on the measurable effects on the health of people when naturally exposed to a particular pollutant. The exposure time for human experiments is usually limited because of possible damage to health. Epidemiological studies can help to evaluate chronic, long-term effects.

Many compounds have been identified in polluted urban air, but their interaction, for example, sooth chemistry, is extremely complex. Photochemical pollution is now more common than was originally thought. It occurs so widely that is important to discuss it in some detail later on.

Nitrogen present in the air and as an impurity in fuels convert to nitric oxide in exhaust gases. In similar way, other trace impurities can give rise to a variety of pollutant gasses in emission. The presence of chlorine and sulfur in fuels results in the emission of gaseous chlorine and sulfur compounds.

Emission Inventory of ozone precursors in the ZMCM (Percentage in Pollutant Weight, 1995). The emission inventory is the basic instrument of diagnosis and planning, and offers a rational basis for decision-making. From the ZMCM emission inventory, motor vehicles make the greatest contribution to the emission of ozone precursors (55% HC and 71% NOX), followed by thermo-electric power plants (15% NOX), services (38% HC), industry (10% NOX and 3% HC), and the rest from other human activities and natural sources (fig.3.2).

Although pollutant emissions have been reduced in the Mexico City metropolitan area (ZMCM), approximately 4 million tons per year are emitted at the present time (data of 1998). According to local census data, the main source of most pollutants is the internal

combustion engine (75%), followed by natural sources (12%), services (10%) and industries (3%). Sulfur dioxide is related to industrial activity, while carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons arise mainly from transport emissions.The main sources of sulfur dioxide (SO2) are industries (57%), followed by internal combustion engines (27%) and services (16%).Some particles emissions in the city are due to natural sources (erosion).

Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Sulfur dioxide can also be oxidised under photochemical conditions but the sulfur-oxygen bond is very strong so that sulfur dioxide cannot undergo the photo-dissociation. The oxidation process involves the hydroxyl radical and in combination with humid air (water aerosols) it reacts to sulfuric acid (H2SO3, H2SO4), that, if inhaled, exerts corrosive properties to the nasal mucus, the trachea of the lungs and the alveolar tissue (fig.3.3). Ultimately resulting in respiratory problems and severe attacks of coughing.

OH + SO2 → HSO3

HSO3 + O2 → HSO5 → HO2 + SO3

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 Fig.3.3: Effects of SO2(60kB)

Ozone (O3) is a colorless gas produced in the presence of ultraviolet light. It is a chemically unstable gas that will enter oxidation reactions with other materials faster than normal oxygen (O2). The buildup of substantial concentrations of Ozone is a major atmospheric pollution problem in the ZMCM. The Mexican ozone standard of 0.11ppm is frequently exceeded, so the reduction of this pollutant has been taken as an important indicator of improvement in air quality (fig.3.4).

Fig.3.4: Effects of O3(80kB)

Main sources: Atmospheric reactions of hydrocarbons (emitted from the internal combustion engine) and nitrogen oxides under the influence of ultraviolet in sunlight.

Main effects: It affects the growth of trees and plants in general. Specific effects of this pollutant on human health have also been detected in the form of irritated eyes, persistent headaches, and increased hyper-reactivity.

With the increase of traffic, the associated pollution impact in cities and the realization that ozone is a toxic substance, authorities moved away from attributing ozone a beneficial effect to an attitude that regards it as a potential hazardous substance for the respiratory system.

In the spring of 1995, a long-term study of US researchers created widespread attention. In this study mice were exposed to high concentration of ozone gas; in turn these mice developed lung cancer (the selected concentrations were 1000 to 2000mg/m3, well beyond any observed levels; furthermore, a very sensitive strain of mice was selected. With the usually concentration of 240 mg/m3 neither rats nor mice showed a significantly increased cancer risk). The carcinogenic effect of ozone in air is thus still disputed. Regarding the non-carcinogenic, harmful effects of increase ozone levels, the following observations were made.In reference, the Ozone Protection Act for European countries (e.g. in Austria it went into effect on May 1st of 1992), group ozone concentration into three categories - according to the average mean of 3-hours.

Carbon Monoxide(CO): It is a colorless and odorless gas. Oxidation to carbon dioxide does occur in the atmosphere, although very slowly.

Main sources : Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons and substances containing carbon. Internal combustion engines burning fossil fuels, such as gasoline and diesel. Natural sources of CO production can be detected in wild- or in campfires.

Main effects : Carboxi-haemoglobin is formed by the combination of carbon monoxide and haemoglobin in the blood and prevents oxygen being carried from the lungs to the target tissues (fig3.9).

 

Fig.3.9: Effects of CO (65kB)

Thus, it further decreases the oxygen-carrying efficiency of haemoglobin not only by the decreased altitude, but also because it occupies the binding sites of the heme-group of the red blood cells with the oxygen. It also affects the central nervous system, causing changes in pulmonary and cardiac functions, headache, fatigue, sleepiness, respiratory problems, and even death. Specific effects of this pollutant on general human health have also been detected.Effects of Carbon-monoxide

Particle Matter (PM) and Aerosols: A persistent haze blankets the city, especially during winter, and there is great concern among residents and visitors about the effects of suspended particles on health. Aerosols that contribute to this visibility degradation are usually a combination of primary and secondary particles. Primary particles are directly emitted from different sources (these ultrafines are found in the size range below 1μ in diameter), while secondary particles form in the atmosphere from gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, and heavy organic gases. Secondary aerosol formation may occur under stagnant air conditions, after gaseous emissions from different sources have mixed and aged, and when pollutants generated on previous days accumulate or are recycled by winds and are stored overnight in surface-based inversions.It is well known that dust and particle bound emission are causes of acute and chronic bronchio-pulmonar illnesses in the environment. They often are associated with PAH (poly-aromatic hydrocarbons), PCB (penta-chlor-phenol) and furanes / dioxins, as they readily attach on non-volatile aerosols. These particles tend to condense in the bronchio-pulmonar area where they are easily absorbed by the tissue. Furthermore, as these particles often contain heavy metals, PM represent a significant source of the toxic load taken up by humans, and are directly related to cardio-vascular diseases. Unfortunately, current PM-detectors register only particle mass. However, studies have hown that particle number is much more relevant than their mass. Thus, standard detection equipment focuses on mass only, thereby detecting only a fraction of the particle inventory. State-of-the-Art equipment shows that even when ultrafine numbers are high, their mass is practically zero. Hence, PM-inventories recorded by weighing machines such as TEOMs - used by governmental health authorities - go largely undetected.Diesel fumes are especially problematic as they contain nitro-aromates; a group of chemicals that are used to accelerate the combustion process of diesel fuel. Nitro-aromatic compounds are known for their potentially mutagenic effect within the GIT(gastro-intestinal tract). Initially they cause diarrhoea (fig.3.10).Indeed, both short- as well as longterm exposure seem to affect the Epigenome and thus increasingly underline the relevance of aer

A part of the acid molecules produced in the reactions above - particularly HNO2and HNO3 reach the surface by dry deposition owing to turbulent movements in the near surface air. Further, HNO3 can be removed from dry air by cloud and precipitation elements (wet deposition) or it can condense to form nitrate aerosols. Since nitric acid vapour changes phase together with naturally occurring ammonia (NH3), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is an important compound in the range of fine particles:

NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3 (solid)

 

Ammonium nitrate forms at lower temperatures (during cold nights) and decomposes at higher temperatures (during the day). It is indicated that in summer gas phase nitrate has a greater concentration than particulate nitrate, while in winter the inverse situation can be observed.

 

a) Energy Production and Consumption

Most of Mexico City's energetic requirements are met by fossil fuel derivatives; i.e. petroleum. It is a complex mixture of organic compounds, mainly hydrocarbons, with smaller quantities of other organic compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and other trace elements. The usual first step in the refining or processing of petroleum is the separation of the crude oil into fractions on the basis of their boiling points (fig.4.1). Only certain fractions are taken from that mixture. The fractions that boil at higher temperatures are made up of molecules with larger numbers of carbon atoms per molecule. The fractions collected in the initial separation require further processing to yield a usable product. In the case of gasoline, modifications must be made to render it suitable for use as a fuel in automobile engines. Similarly, the fuel oil fraction may need additional

processing to remove sulfur before it is suitable for use in an electrical power station or domestic heating system.

National Oil Production: The production of national oil company PEMEX (Petróleos Mexicanos), represents the main energy production of the country and amounts to about 4.5% of total world production.Composition of the produced oil-fractions within the fuel sector: The main commercial fuels are LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), gasoline (petrol), diesel and fuel oil (production figures for 1995, 1996 and 1997 in thousands of barrels per day, were obtained from PEMEX.Consumed Oil Products: The volume of internal purchases of oil products and natural gas are shown in the plot. It is important to mention that oil production from sources in Mexico is not only for national consumption but a significant volume is also exported world-wide.Distribution of Energy Consumption in Mexico (1995): The main consumers of energy produced in Mexico are transportation and industry, as showed in the following graphics; the domestic sector does contribute considerably as most electrical energy is produced by coal-combustion reactors.Type of Fuel Consumed by Sector at the ZMCM (1994): Energy consumption distribution is similar to the rest of the country, with transportation as the main energy consuming sector.Energetic Consumption by Type of Transportation (1989): Private vehicles accounted for 78% of energy consumption, followed by 9% on collective taxis, 7% on suburban transport, 4% on public buses, 1% on the Metro system, and finally, less than 1% on trams.Number of Vehicles in Mexico City. Being the biggest urban population center in the world, it spreads over a large area, thus has very demanding transportation requirements. 84% of its inhabitants use public transport, which accounts for 7% of the total number of vehicles on the roads. Private vehicles make up 71%.This situation creates the following urban problems: heavy vehicle circulation in urban areas, crowds of pedestrian in the downtown area, overloaded roads, intense pollution due to fossil fuel powered and lowered efficiencies of public services.

b) Common Fuels

A fuel is defined as any substance, solid, liquid or gas which may be easily ignited and burned to produce heat, light or other useful forms of energy. For example, coal, charcoal, gasoline, kerosene, light oils, fuel oils, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), are the most common fuels used in Mexico.As fossil fuel products do contain the highest energetic value per volume unit, the principal fuels used in Mexico are derived from petroleum (a mix of hydrocarbons) that undergoes refining to obtain the desired fraction, fossil fuels (hydrocarbons) obtained from oil refining.Gasoline & Petrol: Petrol is a mixture of lighter (volatile) hydrocarbons, whereas gasoline contains the heavier ones. Depending on the source of the crude oil, it may contain varying amounts of cyclic alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons in addition to alkanes. Straight-run distillate consists mainly of straight-chained hydrocarbons, which in general are not very suitable for use as fuel in an automobile engine as they burn too rapidly; i.e. the piston receives a single hard slam rather than a strong smooth push. The result is a "knocking" or pinging sound; the efficiency with which the energy of gasoline combustion is converted to power is reduced.Thus fuel is rated according to octane number. Fuel with high octane numbers burn more slowly and smoothly, and thus are more effective fuels, especially in engines in which the gas-air mixture is highly compressed. It happens that the more highly branched alkanes have higher octane numbers than the straight-chain compounds. Because straight-run gasoline contains mostly straight-chain hydrocarbons, it has a low octane number. It is therefore subjected to a process called "cracking" to convert the straight-chain compounds into more branched molecules. Cracking is also used to convert some of the less volatile kerosene and oil fractions into compounds with lower molecular weights that are suitable for use as automobile fuel. In the cracking process, the hydrocarbons are mixed with a catalyst and heated. The catalysts used are naturally occurring clay minerals, or synthetic Al2O3-SiO2 mixtures. In addition to forming molecules more suitable for gasoline, cracking results in the formation of hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight, such as ethylene and propene (used in a variety of processes to form plastics and other chemicals).In past decades, the octane number of a given blend of hydrocarbons was improved by adding an antiknock agent

(a substance that helps control the burning rate of the gasoline). The most widely used substances for this purpose were tetraethyl lead (CH3CH2)4Pb, and tetramethyl lead (CH3)4Pb. Such gasoline contained 0.5 or 1 mL of one of these lead compounds per liter with a resultant increase of 10 to 15 in octane rating. Because of the environmental hazards associated with lead, their use in gasoline has been drastically curtailed. This metal is highly toxic, and there is hard evidence that the lead released from automobile exhausts is a general health hazard.

Although other substances have been tried as antiknock agents in gasoline, none of these has proved to be an effective and inexpensive antiknock agent that is environmentally safe. Therefore, engine-manufacturers since 1975 were forced to redesign engines in order to make them operate with unleaded gasoline. The gasolines blended for these cars are made up of more highly branched components and more aromatic components, because these have relatively high octane ratings (increased aromaticity).The introduction of unleaded fuels in Mexico induced more serious photochemical smog because of the enhanced degree of reactivity (aromaticity) of the emissions. This is particularly true if the change is not accompanied by the introduction of catalytic converters; for example, dramatic changes took place in Mexico City after the introduction of a new fuel in September of 1986. There was a rapid increase in ozone concentrations immediately after the fuel change.

This new fuel was unleaded because of a desire to reduce the lead concentrations in the atmosphere of the city. Petróleos Mexicanos has been reluctant to release information on the formulation of its gasoline, but it has been widely assumed that the octane rating of the new unleaded fuel was maintained through the addition of more reactive hydrocarbons. In fact, the experience in Mexico City has emphasized the sensitivity of the urban photochemistry to fuel formation.

The Internal Combustion Engine:Internal combustion engines are devices that generate work from combustion reactions. Combustion products under high pressure produce work by expansion through a turbine or piston (Carnot-cycle). The combustion reactions inside these engines are not necessarily neutralizing or complete and air pollutants are produced.There are three major types of internal combustion engine in use today:

1. The spark ignition engine, which is used primarily in automobiles.2. The diesel engine, which is used in large vehicles and industrial systems where cycle efficiency offers

advantages over the more compact and lighter-weight spark ignition engine.3. The gas turbine, which is used in aircraft due to its high power/weight ratio and is also used for stationary

power generation.

Each of these types of engine is an important source of atmospheric pollutants. Automobiles are the major source of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides.Diesel engines are notorious for the black smoke they can emit, and gas turbines because of soot emission.The ideal efficiency of an ordinary automobile engine is about 56%, but in practice the actual efficiency is about 26% (fig.4.6). Engines of higher operating temperatures (compared to sink temperatures) would be more efficient, but the melting point of the material the engines are made of suppresses the upper temperature limit at which they can operate. Higher efficiencies await engines made with new materials with higher melting points as already proved with ceramic engines.

As can be see in the representative image, an average car (at sea level) uses only about 26% of the provided energy,

the remaining 74% are lost. However, at altitudes of 2240 m with reduced partial oxygen pressure, the combustion process is even further restricted, and along with it, resulting in a reduced energetic output of the engine; in Mexico City it can be as low as 20%!

Furthermore, the use of a built-in air-conditioner, lowered tire pressure, speeds exceeding 90 km/h, and aggressive driving pushes efficiency even further down. In Mexico City the idling and coasting losses are probably excessively elevated, as countless "stop and go" intervals in clogged roads are chronically; an average poorly maintained Mexican car could run on an efficiency level of less than 15%!

Until the traditional combustion engine will be replaced by newer cleaner alternatives, like the Hydrogen Fuel Cell, the design of automobile engines is now being guided by requirements to reduce emissions of these pollutants.

 Control Strategies:

As in many other big cities of the world, Mexico City has made important efforts in order to reduce air pollution. Recognizing that transportation has proved to be a major pollution source within the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (ZMCM), any strategy that aims to reduce or control atmospheric pollution has to include a transportation improvement program. The main programs to combat air pollution in the ZMCM are:

Reduce the use of private vehicles: To control the number of private cars in use at a given time, the government has implemented a one day stop program called "HOY NO CIRCULA" (today my car doesn't move).

Stopping days are randomly distributed to encourage car owners to use public transport and/or adopt car-pooling.

Control of vehicle conditions: As incomplete combustion in old or poorly maintained engines is a direct cause of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon emissions, the enforcement of engine maintenance standards has been another goal of ZMCM local government. The major compulsory program implemented in this direction is called the 'verification program'.

Change of fuels: Many reformulated fuels have already been tested in the metropolitan area but only small changes in gasoline quality have been accepted so far. This is due mainly to the fact that current engine technology, combined with the meteorological and geographic characteristics of the Mexico City area are seen as the main reasons for high levels of ozone precursor emissions (and not fuel quality).

Finally, some important successes already achieved in Mexico City have to be mentioned. Although these strategies alone will not bring air pollution under control, they are making an important contribution towards reducing it. The two major programs already working within the Mexico City Metropolitan Area are:

Reduction of lead and sulfur in fuels; Compulsory implementation of catalytic converters.

Urban Transportation System:

In order to reduce the fleet of fossil fuelled vehicles on the road, it is essential to pay special attention to the Urban Transportation System. It is thus not surprising that the collective transport subway net with its 11 lines, is one of the biggest transfer system in the world. The total length of Mexico City subway is currently 202km (that does not include a light rail line serving the southern part of the city with its 18 stations). All 11 lines are rubber tyred like some lines in Paris and the metros of Montreal and Santiago de Chile; except Line A which has standard steel track. It is one of the first systems that uses symbols and colors for identifying their metro stations and is by far the cheapest subway system in the world (1 ticket = US$0.15 as of July 1999).

Passengers: The number of passengers within the Metropolitan Area is continuously increasing, although the rate of increase is slowing.Reasons for using Public Transport: The main reason to travel is to move from home to work or school, and back again. Peak traffic occurs at 8:00, 14:00 and 18:00 hours on weekdays.According to information provided by the city government, in 1997, most people travelled around Mexico City using public transportation (74%). It is important to note that private traffic is not only is about a quarter, but uses the total energy provided by PEMEX. Although private cars are more common than any other type of vehicle on the roads (2,327,930), they are only used by a small portion of the total urban population. The most important transportation system for the majority of people within the ZMCM is the METRO (Metropolitan Transportation System) which carries more than 4 1/2 million passengers every day.In addition to the METRO , there are two other electric transportation systems:i) a small tram network and the so-called 'light train' which accounts for about 2% of journeys by the public.i) there is also a trunk system transportation (mainly diesel engines) sponsored by the government of Mexico.

The objective of the Mexican government is to improve and regulate the suburban transport that circulates within the counties of the State of Mexico and in the Metropolitan Area. Furthermore, there are a considerable number of suburban buses powered by diesel engines. Many are in poor conditions, have old engines, and are poorly maintained. This is a general problem of most vehicles circulating on urban roads.

Prior to the 1940s, Mexico City was known for its clear air and spectacular views of snow-capped volcanoes. Today, the city's mountains are only rarely visible due to some of the worst air pollution in the World. Many factors have contributed to this situation national policies that have promoted industrial growth and a concentration of wealth and employment in Mexico's capital; a population boom from 3 million in 1950 to roughly 20 million today; and heavy reliance on motorized transportation. The city sits in a basin 2,240 meters above sea level, and is surrounded by mountains that rise one kilometer or more above the basin (a former lake bed). High elevation and intense sunlight are key factors in ozone formation. Air pollution is generally worse in the winter, when there is less rain and events of thermal inversion are more common.Winds tend to blow across the city from the northeast, where a slight opening in the mountains allows moisture and winds from the Gulf of Mexico to enter the basin. These winds blow pollution from the region of heaviest industrial development towards downtown and the residential areas southwest of the city are pressed against the southern mountain chain.Because of private interests, corruption, indulgence, ineptitude and decisions more political than scientific quick improvements have obstructed the fight against air pollution.

Pollution in Athens

Physical and climate profile

Fig. Smog Blanket over Athens.

Greece has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The average temperature during summer is approximately 28°C in Athens and southern Greece, while lower in the north. In general, temperatures are higher in the southern part of the country. Except for a few thunderstorms, rainfall is rare from June to August, and days are dry and sunny, a typical characteristic of the Mediterranean climate. Summers in the lowlands are hot and dry with clear skies. Dry hot days are often relieved by a system of seasonal breezes. The 1990s was the warmest decade of the 20th century in Greece; evidence from meteorological observations thus indicate that in Greece the temperature over recent years has increased, while there has been a decrease in precipitation. There is evidence of more frequent incidence of heat waves and higher maximum temperatures. A 1–2 mm increase in sea level per year was recorded for the Mediterranean coast. Because of the alkaline nature of its soils, Greece does not face large-scale acidification problems relating to domestic air pollution. The prevailing north winds make Greece generally a net importer of most air pollutants in general and of sulfur oxides (SOx) in particular, while heavy metal deposition (chrome, nickel, copper, and manganese) from lignite fired power plants is systematically being monitored.

Monitoring of air pollutants/emissions

Greece, as an EU Member State (MS), has incorporated into its national legislation all air quality related EU Directives. These include: (i) Directive 1996/62 for the assessment and management of the ambient air quality, (ii) Directive 1999/30 for threshold values for SO2, nitrogen oxides (NOx) air quality standards, particulates and lead, (iii) Directive 2000/69 for threshold values for benzene and CO air quality standards, (iv) Directive 2002/3 for O3 air quality standards, and (v) Directive 2004/107 for arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This legislative framework, apart from setting threshold values for measuring and assessing ambient air quality, it also defines the number and location of sampling points for each air pollutant, the minimum requirements for results quality assurance as well as the measuring and reference methodologies etc. Based on these legal enactments that set limit values and requirements for air pollution monitoring, Greece has designed a “National Network for the Control of Atmospheric quality and Pollution” (NNCAP); the modernised NNCAP was set up and put into operation in 2001. Its supply and setting up has been partially funded by the 2nd EU Community Support Framework (CSF) complemented by national funds. The NNCAP encompasses 33 automatic measuring stations in areas characterised as urban, residential, commercial and semi-industrial, located in 8 Greek cities plus 1 background station located in a rural area: Athens (16 stations), Thessaloniki (8 stations), Kozani (3 stations), Patra (1 station), Larissa (1 station), Volos (1 station), Megalopoli (1 station), Herakleion/Crete (1 station) and Aliartos (background

station). Measurements of all air pollutants stated in the related legislation, including 03, NO2, SO2, CO, smoke and PM10, are measured automatically on hour and daily basis and are reported on the internet (www.minenv.gr). Apart from measuring values and quantitative results, the operation of the NNCAP is also providing levels of specific air pollutants measured nationwide and particularly in urban areas. This specific application, that is also expected to be further expanded together with the expansion of the network in the near future, has been financially supported, inter alia, by the 3rd Community Support Framework (CSF). The Public Power Corporation (PPC S.A.) contributes to the monitoring of ambient air quality in the vicinity of power plants under its operation, with 53 measuring stations, performing systematically air quality measurements. Most of these measurements are electronically transmitted to the interested parties, such as Prefectural Administrations and Local Authorities of the regions where PPC S.A. operates, according to the environmental terms and conditions imposed on power plants. An official report is annually submitted to the Directorate for Air Pollution and Noise Control of the Hellenic Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (YPEHODE). Furthermore, PPC S.A. is currently exploring possibilities for establishing an on-line connection to the database of the NNCAP, in cooperation with YPEHODE, in order to complement data from both sources.

Overall Greenhouse Gas Emissions profile GHG emissions:

Greece’s overall Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions’ profile shows a clear domination by the energy sector, with CO2 as the main GHG. In 1990, CO2 accounted for 76% of the total GHG emissions (without taking into account the Land-Use Change and Forestry sector - LUCF), followed by N2O (13%) and CH4 (8%). A similar pattern was reported in 2002, when the proportion of CO2 was 78%, followed by N2O (10%) and CH4 (8%). Total GHG emissions (excluding CO2 from LUCF) increased by 26% between 1990 and 2002, while total GHG emissions including net removals from LUCF increased by 23%. This was mainly attributed to CO2 emissions, which increased by 27% over this period. Emissions of CH4 also increased by 27%, while emissions of N2O decreased by 1%. A major part of these increases was experienced during 1995–2002. Emissions of fluorinated gases accounted for about 1% of total GHG emissions in 1990 and 3% in 2002.

GHG emission trends by gas, 1990 and 1995-2002

Carbon dioxide: Total CO2 emissions in Greece were 105,504 Gg in 2002. The major emitters were energy industries (52% of total CO2 emissions), followed by transport (19%), energy use in other sectors (12%), energy use in industry (10%), and industrial processes (7%). The trend in CO2 emissions between 1990 and 2002 increased steadily broadly following the trend of CO2 emissions from energy industries, accelerated growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and energy consumption, with stagnation in the years 1999 and 2002 due to stable or declined coal-fired power production. Between 1990 and 2002, CO2 from energy industries grew by 27% (+11,807 Gg), mainly driven by a 55% increase in power production; about two thirds of electricity was produced from domestic lignite. The trend in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion also showed notable increases in transport (+32% or 4,943 Gg) and energy use in other sectors, e.g.

residential and services (+53 % or 4,239 Gg). Methane: Emissions of CH4 amounted to 11,440 Gg CO2 eq in 2002. Solid waste disposal on land (46%)

and enteric fermentation (26%) accounted for the largest share. Between 1990 and 2002 overall CH4 emissions increased steadily by 27%, mainly due to an increase in emissions from solid waste disposal on land (+88%).

Nitrous oxide: Emissions from N2O reached about 14,000 Gg CO2 eq in 2002. Major sources were emissions from agricultural soils (63%) and fuel combustion (28%). During the period 1990 to 2002, total N2O emissions decreased by 1%. The main reductions were reported for the chemical industry (– 147 Gg from 1990 to 2002) and for agricultural soils (–915 Gg), whereas increases were reported for energy industries (+427 Gg), transport (+282 Gg) and energy use in other sectors (+165 Gg). The main reason for declining N2O emissions from agricultural soils was a 25% decrease in nitrogen input from synthetic fertilizers and manure.

Fluorinated gases: Emissions of fluorinated gases increased by 243% between 1990 and 2002, when they still accounted for less than 3% of total GHG emissions. In particular, emissions of HFCs, mainly from production of HCFC, but in recent years also from consumption of halocarbons, increased notably, by 328% from 1990 to 2002 (+19% since the base year 1995). Emissions of PFCs, which originate from metal production, declined by 66% between 1990 and 2002 (+ 7% since the base year).

Atmospheric concentrations of air pollutants in 2 key Greek Metropolitan areas: an indicative presentation

i) The Athens area Concentrations of air pollutants in the greater metropolitan area of Athens, where approximately 50% of the population of Greece resides, have been measured and reported, in recent years, as depicted in the graphs that follow. In general, despite the various annual fluctuations, concentrations indicate a general declining or stabilisation trend. These trends can be mainly Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 8 attributed to the technological upgrade of passenger vehicles and public transport on-road fleet, the introduction of the measure of the «exhaust gas emission inspection Card» as well as the introduction of various other emissions control measures, the use of higher quality fuels, the further promotion of railway transportation, the further penetration of natural gas in the tertiary sector and households etc.

ii) In particular: Carbon monoxide: Atmospheric concentrations between 1984 and 2005 show decreases or

stabilization trends, especially in more recent years (1994-2005). It is noted that for 1992, measurement resulted from only a small number of stations, hence it is not regarded as representative. CO air pollution is thus evaluated as significant only as regards the city centre where the related EU threshold in force since January 1, 2005 has been exceeded only at one sampling station.

Sulfur dioxide: Atmospheric concentrations between 1984 and 2005 show considerable declining trends. This is mainly attributed to the decrease in the sulfur content in heating and transport diesel, the introduction of unleaded gasoline as well as the installation of 2 desulfurisation units in 2 PPC S.A. plants. Therefore, even though SO2 was considered in the past as an important pollutant, in recent years no exceeding of thresholds has been reported.

Nitrogen dioxide: Atmospheric concentrations between 1984 and 2005 indicate stabilisation or declining trends over recent years. However the measured values for Athens exceed thresholds that will be put into force from January 1, 2010 according to new amended EU legislation, thus, pollution arising from NO2 for Athens is estimated as significant.

Particulate matter 10 (PM10): Between 2001 and 2005, measured values have been reported to

exceed thresholds in several cases, thus pollution from PM10 is considered significant. It should be, however, noted that exceedances reported for Athens, Thessaloniki and Patra in 2001 can be wholly or to a very large extent attributed to the intense construction works that were underway in those areas at the time. These works, in addition to the infrastructure works for the Athens Olympic Games 2004 as well as the consequent changes in traffic loads and routes resulted in high values for both NO2 and PM10. Moreover and particularly with regard to PM10, it has been noted that in many cases measured values exceeding thresholds are attributed to south winds and transfer of dust from north Africa to Greece.

Ozone: Atmospheric concentrations have exceeded set limits in several cases. These exceedances are mainly attributed to the geographic location and particularities of Greece in general and of Athens in particular (i.e. intense sunshine and high temperature that contribute to ground-level photochemical ozone formation). In particularly, for 1997, measured value resulted from few number of measurements, hence is not regarded as representative. Therefore, ozone pollution in Athens has been classified as substantial.

Smoke: Atmospheric concentrations indicate declining trends. Benzene: Systematic measurements for this pollutant have started only recently. Pollution from benzene is considered significant for the city centre due to exceedances of set thresholds that will be put into force on January 1, 2010.

. The Thessaloniki area Pollution from CO and SO2 is not considered as significant for Thessaloniki since measured levels fall within set EU limits, for the period 1989-2004. However, pollution from NO2, O3 and PM10 is characterized as considerable due to certain exceedances of the set thresholds.

Emission trends and projections

The 3rd National Communication of Greece (3 NCC, 2002) to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change for reviewing the Greek National Action Plan for the Abatement of CO2 and other GHG emissions, indicates that according to the “with measures” scenario, emissions will be 35.8% and 56.4% above base-year levels (1990 has been used as the base year for CO2, CH4 and N2O; 1995 has been used as the base year for HFCs, PFCs and SF6) by 2010 and 2020, respectively. The energy sector accounts for more than 75% of total GHG emissions while CO2 emissions account for more than 80% of total emissions. However, f-gases emissions are estimated to increase with a mean annual rate more than 4 times higher than that of total emissions for the time period 2000–2020 (5.1% for the f-gases compared to 1.2% for total emissions).

The main assumptions made for the projection of energy consumption and associated GHG emissions in the "with measures" scenario are presented below.

As a result of additional policies and measures (“with additional measures” scenario) set out in the “2nd Climate Change National Programme of Greece for the Abatement of CO2 and other GHG emissions, 2000-2010” (NAPCC) prepared in 2002 and currently under revision, the increase of GHG emissions in Greece could be restricted to 24.5% by 2010, compared to base-year levels.

Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments and Measures

Based on the related legislative framework, responsibility for the operation of the NNCAP in Greece are the corresponding Regional Authorities, whereas for the Attica Region, where Athens is located, responsibility falls under the jurisdiction of YPEHODE. YPEHODE is also responsible for the coordination of climate change activities in Greece, whereas other ministries are responsible for integrating environmental policy targets and implementing the existing and future NAPCCs within their respective fields. The Council of Ministers is responsible for the final approval of all policies and measures relating to the mitigation of climate change. The national legislation for air pollution control in Greece is based on and incorporates all related EU legislative acquis. This includes EU Directives 1996/62, 1999/30, 2000/69, 2002/3 and 2004/107 for stationary sources, Directives 1991/441, 1994/12 and 1998/69 regarding emissions and limits on vehicle exhausts as well as Directives 2001/80 for large combustion plants, 2001/81 for the setting of national emissions’ ceilings and 1999/13 for the use of solvents in the industrial sector. Greece ratified the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in August 1994 and has submitted three national communications, in 1995, 1997 and 2003, while a 4th NCC was drafted in March 2006. Greece signed the Kyoto Protocol in April 1998 and ratified it jointly with the other EU MSs in May 2002. Greece’s Kyoto target under the EU burden-sharing agreement is to keep total GHG emissions during the period 2008–2012 below 125% of the 1990 level (the base year for the fluorinated gases, i.e. HFC, PFC and SF6, is 1995). In this context, the 2nd NAPCC was compiled in 2001 and adopted in May 2002 while it was consequently approved by the Council of Ministers in February 2003 (Ministerial Council’s Act 5/2003). The 2nd NAPCC, which is currently been revised (see below) aims at achieving the Kyoto target and mainly built on cost-effective policies and measures that were already integral parts of national sectoral policies, including the promotion of natural gas, renewable energy sources (RES) and energy efficiency. Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 11 In December 2004, Joint Ministerial Decision (JMD) 54409/2632 entered into force transposing into the national legal order EU Directives 2003/87 and amended 1996/61 on GHG emission trading. Based on this JMD, the designing of a national system for the trading of GHG emissions allowances was initiated and a National Allocation Plan (NAP) for GHG emission was compiled, allocating 213.5 million t CO2 (i.e. 71.14 million allowances per year over 2005-2007) to 141 industrial and power generation units for the period 2005-2007. This first NAP was approved by the EU with a Decision in June 2005. The NAP was enacted in Greece and set under implementation based on a JMD (Ministers of Environment and Development) that was based on the outcomes of the public consultation process launched on July 4, 2005. Moreover, a new NAP for GHGs emissions for the period 2008-2012 was set for public consultation on June 15, 2006; the final draft has consequently been prepared and submitted to the CEU in September 2006 while its final approval is pending. At the same time, a new updated and revised 2nd NAPCC will be set for public consultation at the end of November 2006 until end of January 2007. The Draft revised 2nd NAPCC is based on new data that emerged since its initial adoption in 2002, regarding actual progress, emission levels, trends, economic parameters etc. Therefore, the aim of adopting a Reviewed NAPCC 2 years before the commencement of the first commitment period under Kyoto, stems from the need to assess actual progress in implementation of initial measures and to re-orient policy options and priorities so as to ensure achievement of targets and, inter alia, make better use of Kyoto’s flexible mechanisms. Greece has also ratified the Montreal Protocol as well as its London and Copenhagen amendments with Laws 1818/1988, 2110/1992 and 2262/1994 respectively; the ratification of the Beijing amendment has been completed with Law 3425/2005. Regarding ozone-depleting substances, Greece is also implementing EU Regulation 2037/2000. Greece has also ratified the Geneva Convention for longdistance transboundary air pollution under the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and has signed or/and ratified all its Protocols (see also under Section “Cooperation”). The following table presents in brief the related national legislative framework and the respective objectives set for air pollution control regarding the whole Greek territory, with particular emphasis on the main metropolitan areas, i.e.

Athens, Thessaloniki and Patra.

Moreover, regarding the implementation of EU Directives 1996/62 and 1999/30, YPEHODE has assigned 13 studies under the general title “Elaboration and designing of Operational Action Plans for the air pollution abatement throughout the country according to EU Directive 1996/62”, through an international tendering procedure, that have been partially funded by the 3rd CSF/3rd Operational “Environment” Programme (OEP, 2000-2006) of YPEHODE. The implementation of the Action Plan for Athens and Thessaloniki started in 2003, whereas the respective study for Patra was completed in late 2005. In more detail, based on the above mentioned legislative framework and taking into account the objectives set by Greece for air quality control, specific measures can be further analysed as follows:

Plans to deal with severe air pollution incidents In the case of severe air pollution incidents in the Athens area, YPEHODE is responsible for implementing preventive and abatement measures to address intense air pollution exceedances aiming mainly at protecting human health and in particular vulnerable groups (e.g. overage people, patients, children, infants). For pollution incidents in other parts of Greece, the responsibility for immediate measures falls under the jurisdiction of the various Regional Authorities. Urgent measures are also taken in the case where measured values exceed or are at the emergency limits (population information level) in combination with specific climatic conditions that favour maintenance of such levels during the following day/s. According to the extent of exceedance, urgent measures follow a 2-step approach: (i) recommendations for controlling of emissions and safeguarding population from exposure to atmospheric pollution, and (ii) restrictive measures regarding the circulation of private vehicles, transportation of fuels and solvents, operation of industrial plants etc. Such strict measures are taken alone or in combination with other restrictive measures according to the magnitude of the incident. It should be, however, noted that since 1997, no emergency measures where required and taken in Greece. It should also be noted that according to legislation, data is widely and publicly provided for ozone exceedances over 180 μg/m3 and measures are taken in case of exceedance of 240 μg/m3 for more than 3 hours.

Control of air pollution from stationary, mobile and other pollution sources :

Transport

The increase in demand in the transport sector in Greece today accounts for 40% of total energy consumption and a continuously increasing share in GHG emissions and noise levels, like in most other EU countries; in 2002 in Greece, fuel combustion in domestic transport accounted for 15.5% of total GHG emissions, while emissions from international bunker fuels (mainly marine transport) equalled to 9.1%. Even though transportation demand in Greece is below the 40% of EU average, the need for decoupling transportation from economic growth is still a major challenge. To this end, a series of interventions aiming mainly at reducing air pollution have been introduced over recent decades in the largest metropolitan areas of the country with great success. Since the mid 1980s an alternate license plate system in Athens (odd-numbered plate cars used only on odd numbered-days and even-numbered plate cars used only on even-numbered days) restricts the use of private passenger cars in the central city between 7am-8pm Monday through Thursday and between 7am-3pm on Fridays. Moreover, in the early 1990s, the introduction of an extended vehicle scrapping Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 13 programme to reduce the number of old-technology vehicles in the fleet resulted in a considerable fleet renewal through significant discounts on the purchase of new catalytic converter cars. Furthermore, the introduction of the “exhaust gas emission inspection Card” for in-use road vehicles put in place in mid 1990s by YPEHODE and the Hellenic Ministry of Transport and Communications, is still in operation and extended in almost all Prefectures of the country. As previously mentioned, Greece, as an EU MS has transposed into its national legislation and implements all vehicle exhaust emission limits Directives, i.e.: EURO I (EU Directive 1991/441), EURO II (EU Directive 1994/12), EURO III (EU Directive 1998/69), EURO IV (EU Directive 1998/69, under implementation since January 1, 2005). Regarding the quality of fuels and in particular the specific measures designed to reduce the lead content in gasoline, the following are, inter alia, implemented: - Segregation of diesel in heating diesel and transport diesel (1992) - Reduction of the sulfur content in heating diesel and transport diesel from 0.3% to 0.2% (1994) - Reduction of benzene content in gasoline from 5% to 4% (1995) - Reduction of the sulfur content in transport diesel to 0.05% (1996) - Implementation of EU Directive 1998/70 regarding fuel standards in Greece (2000) included, inter alia, the reduction of sulfur content in unleaded gasoline to 150 ppm and reduction of sulfur content in transport diesel to 350ppm - Reduction of benzene content in gasoline from 4% to 1% (2000) - Abolition of the use of leaded gasoline - Implementation of EU Directive 2003/17 regarding

zero sulfur fuel content (2003); since January 1, 2005 sulfur content in unleaded gasoline reached 50ppm whereas on January 1, 2009 will be further reduced to 10ppm. Regarding railway transport, the Hellenic Ministry of Transport and Communications, seeking to increase the share of railway transport in Greece, promotes the modernization of railway infrastructure, mainly through EU funding, with a view to increase the competitiveness of railway transport and the upgrade of their role compared to road transport. During the last decade, even though a rapid increase of the total transport demand has occurred, railway transport in Greece had been rather neglected over the ever increasing flexibility of road transport. The sustainability and maintenance as well as the further expansion of the railways share in the transport market requires the improvement of services (better transport quality, faster transport, reliability, safety) as well as the reduction of functional costs. One of the main national development objectives, at the moment, entails the modernization of the Greek railway system which includes an upgraded infrastructure combined with the proper vehicular material and its development to a modern competitive mean of transport able to provide high level services to users. The construction of an extended high speed Suburban railway network in the area of Athens, in 2003- 2004, resulted in reducing travelling time (e.g. Piraeus to International Airport Eleftherios Venizelos: 47 minutes, Athens city centre to International Airport Eleftherios Venizelos: 35 minutes), improvement of traffic conditions, improvement of environmental conditions in the urban areas due to lower exhaust emissions, lower noise levels, decongestion of on-road traffic as well as energy savings. The Athens Metro that was constructed between 2000-2003, entailed the construction of 2 new lines (lines 2 and 3) that complemented the existing old and only line until 2000 (line 1). In 2003 and 2004, a major reconstruction and refurbishment was conducted for all stations of line 1. The ever expanding Athens Metro is planned to be coupled, in 2007, with 6 new stations (3 of which intermediary) for line 3 and 2 new stations for line 2. By 2009, the Athens Metro will be further expanded with 4 additional stations for line 2 and 3 additional stations for line 3. Currently, approximately 580,000 passengers use the metro lines 2 and 3. The impact of the operation of the extended Athens Metro system to the city’s air quality was extensively documented in year 2000, right after the commencement of its operation (lines 2 and 3). At that time, Metro operations substituted about 100,000 car trips per day. The positive impact on pollutants’ reductions from its operation is indicatively depicted in the following table (Table 6), where pollutant concentrations from the period from January 30, 1999 to January 29, 2000 (before the opening of Metro lines 2 and 3) are being compared to those of period from January 30, 2000 to January 29, 2001 (after the opening of Metro lines 2 and 3); for each pollutant, the average value of all measurements from all stations in the Athens region has been calculated, in order to cancel out any deviations that occur dew to differences in location. Further positive impacts from the Metro’s operation since, can thereinafter be extrapolated.

Figures demonstrate a reduction in all pollutants. This reduction is more evident in the pollutants that are emitted almost exclusively from on-road traffic (carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and smog). These results should be viewed in the context of the 8% increase of the car fleet size in Athens during the same period. The Athens Metro network has grown even further in size since the above measurements were made (new additional stations, air-rail link with the International Airport Eleftherios Venizelos). In view of its further expansion, it is expected that it will constitute an extensive fixed route transit network that will greatly contribute to the further improvement of the air quality of the greater Attica region. Currently, the initiation of the construction of a similar Metro system for the city of Thessaloniki is underway. In July 2004, 2 Tram lines were put to circulation in Athens, with a total track length

of 25.5 km and 47 stops. The vehicle fleet is composed of 35 vehicles with carrying capacity of 200 persons each. Athens modern tramway started its commercial operation in August 2004 and is currently carrying around 55,000 passengers per day. According to the related environmental impact assessment and by comparing the scenarios “Without” and “With” the Athens Tram, air quality around the Tram area is relatively improved due to a decrease of on-road traffic, reduction of bus lines in the region and attraction of new users. This reduction is expected to rise annually and be highest by year 2020.

Regarding interventions and measures taken to improve the energy performance of buses and the reduction of corresponding air pollution emissions, a drastic renewal of the buses fleet started in 1993 with the procurement of new thermic buses and is still on-going: between 1993 – 1995, 628 diesel buses according to EURO I standards were put into circulation; between 1998 – 2000, 750 diesel buses according to EURO II standards were put into circulation; between 2000 – 2001, 295 natural gas buses were put into circulation; in 2004, 283 diesel buses according to EURO III standards were procured while at the end of 2005, procurement of 120 additional natural gas buses was made. The renewal of the electrified buses’ (trolleys) fleet started in 1998, with the procurement of 224 vehicles and another procurement, in 2004, of 142 more vehicles. The improvement of the country's passenger vehicles of public use (TAXIs) energy performance is carried out according to Law 3109/2003 that revised the age limits for the withdrawal of Taxis, that are now varying from 10 to 21 years depending on the vehicle's engine/cylinder capacity (cc), the region of operation and its population. The same law introduced financial incentives to Taxi owners (purchase subsidies) in order to replace their vehicles with modern ones. The output, since the implementation of the measure, was the replacement of approximately 9,300 vehicles, while the total number of Taxis that circulate nationwide today is around 35,000. Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 15 The use of hybrid vehicles for the needs of YPEHODE and the promotion of their use in other parts of Public Administration, is a measure that is contributing further to the reduction of atmospheric pollution. More specifically, since July 2004, YPEHODE has procured and is using 10 hybrid on-road vehicles. This activity has been completed in March 2006 with a total cost of EUR 214,582. This activity aiming to introduce the use of cleaner and environmental-friendlier vehicles in public authorities, is expected to be extended to other Ministries apart from YPEHODE. Other highly important policies and measures regarding on-road vehicles recently introduced indicatively include: - Law 2963/2001 that introduced the establishment of private Centres for the Technical Inspection of vehicles. Up to date, 9 such Centres are in operation, whereas at least 30 more Centres are under licensing procedure. At the same time, the modernization of the existing Public Vehicle Technical Inspection Centres devices and machinery is being promoted and upgraded. - The establishment of a programme for the renewal of the circulating motorcycle and moped fleet. The programme combines incentives for permanent withdrawal from circulation and destruction of motorcycles (carrying engines over 50 cc) and moped and which have been used for more than 10 and 12 years respectively and their replacement by new modern technology motorcycles and motorbikes. This programme was introduced by Law 3245/2004 as amended by Law 3333/2005 and JMD 37687/4039/2004 as amended by JMD 8304/895/2006. Similarly, fiscal and financial measures implemented in Greece in the fuels and on-road vehicles fields that are being promoted by YPEHODE and the Hellenic Ministry of Economy and Finance include, inter alia: - road vehicles that do not respect exhaust limits may be fined; revenue from fines goes to the Green Fund managed by YPEHODE to help finance environmental investment; - annual vehicle circulation fees are applied to passenger cars, motorcycles and trucks according to engine’s capacity; a one-time fee is paid to obtain a licence plate after purchasing a car; - lower and differentiated consumer tax rates for unleaded gasoline in comparison to unleaded

gasoline with special additives that substitutes conventional/leaded gasoline since 2002; - excise taxes are applied to gasoline and diesel fuel; part of revenues are channelled to the Green Fund to help finance air pollution control measures; - reduction in the taxation and classification fees for new on-road passenger vehicles and motorcycles aiming at a faster fleet renewal; - exemptions from classification fees for electric and hybrid on-road passenger vehicles as well as for electric trucks; - promotion of biofuels: the construction and operation of two biodiesel plants in Kilkis and in Volos with a total capacity of 80,000 tons is completed as well as the use of compressed natural gas (CNG) for bus fleets are recently adopted measures based on the EU Directive for the promotion of biofuels. Law 3340/2005 introduced in Greece the exemption of excise duty for certain amounts of biodiesel. Finally, regarding combating aviation emissions (mainly GHGs), Greece has fully adopted Annex 16 of the «Chicago Convention» of the International Civil Aviation Organisation, part of which refers to air emissions/pollution from aircrafts, with Presidential Decree 252/1986 on «Monitoring and Control of air pollutants and smoke emissions from aircrafts». The Greek Civil Aviation Service, being a member of the European Aviation Safety Agency, fully complies with related EU Regulations (e.g. Regulations 1592/2002, 1702/2003, 2042/2003) concerning, inter alia, the certification of aircrafts and engines regarding emissions levels. In the years to come and within the formulation of a more specialised EU legislative framework, Greece’s activities regarding monitoring and analyses of aviation emissions as well as regarding certification of aircrafts according to their respective emissions, will be further developed and enhanced.

Energy

In 2002, the energy sector (including energy production industry, energy use in residential and commercial sector, energy use in industry and energy use in transport) in Greece accounted for 77% of total GHG emissions. The reduction of GHG emissions from the energy sector has been one of the key objectives of the Operational Programmes for “Energy” (OPE) during 1994-2001 as well as of the Operational Programme for “Competitiveness” (OPCOM) that encompasses a Sub-Programme (i.e. 2 priority axes) on “Energy” for the period 2000-2006, partially funded by the 3rd CSF. Its main aims include: reduction of carbon intensity in power production, improvements in the conventional power system, introduction of natural gas, promotion of RES, promotion of combined heat and power systems, improvements in the thermal Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 16 behaviour of existing buildings, promotion of energy-efficiency appliances and heating equipment as well as introduction of related incentives and environmental management systems (see Chapter II: Energy). Regarding emissions reduction from existing large power production combustion plants operated by PPC S.A., under EU Directive 2001/80 for Large Combustion Plants (LCP), measures taken include: (i) units I and II of the Megalopolis A plant will enter the status of limited hours of operation (20,000 hours) from 01.01.2008 till 31.12.2010 at the latest, (ii) immediate measures for addressing the operational problems of the flue gas desulphurization plant in unit IV of the Megalopolis plant, (iii) by the end of 2007, all necessary modifications for using low sulphur heavy fuel oil, in certain existing oil fired plants, will be implemented. These emission reduction measures have been incorporated in the “National Scheme for Emissions Reduction”, complied according to the provisions of the abovementioned EU Directive. In order to reduce dust emissions from lignite power plants, PPC S.A. implements a programme for the replacement and upgrading of the existing Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) as well as for the installation of new state-of-the-art high performance ESPs. The implementation of the programme so far has led to an improvement in the quality of the ambient air in the power plants’ regions. In order to reduce dust produced at the mines during transportation of the excavated materials with conventional means, PPC S.A. has also constructed special permanent wetting networks along the main road networks or special tanker trucks for secondary roads are used. In addition, large sections of the mines secondary roads are being asphalted. PPC S.A. has also cooperated, in line with the EU legislation and European Investment Bank’s requirements, for the installation of flue gas desulphurization (FGD) plants in lignite fired units aiming at the effective abatement of sulphur dioxide emissions. Two FGD plants are already in operation: (i) at Unit IV, 300 MW, in the Megalopolis Steam Electric Station (SES) and (ii) at the new Meliti SES, 330 MW, in the Florina region (Northen Greece). Since 1996, a special tax of 0.4% has been applied to the revenue of PPC S.A.; the proceeds fund environmental protection and economic development activities in regions where the PPC S.A.

operates its lignite-fired power stations. The above measures, coupled with measures for the introduction of natural gas to the national energy balance (see below), resulted in the reduction of particulates emission specific factor from large combustion plants by approximately 85% (1990-2002). Greece has been actively supporting the development of natural gas sector. Introduction and sale of natural gas into Greece commenced in 1997 by the Public Gas Corporation, PGC S.A. owned by Greek State and Hellenic Petroleum Corp. with stakes 65% and 35% respectively. Gas is being purchased from Russia as pipegas and from Algeria as LNG at an approximate portion of 80% to 20%. Sales in 2005 totaled about 2,7 billion m3 . Almost 70% of total gas quantity is consumed in gas fired power generation plants, another 20% is being consumed by industrial sector and the remaining 10% is consumed by the Local Gas Distribution Companies, the so called Gas Supply Companies already established for the areas of Attiki, Thessaloniki and Thessaly (see also Chapter II: Energy). Significant progress in the introduction of natural gas in Athens for the year 2005 is reported as follows: (i) number of new Business-to-customer signed contracts: 6952, (ii) number of new Business-tobusiness signed contracts: 89, (iii) total number of m3 of natural gas consumed: 125 million, of which 20% replaced heating diesel, 30% replaced transport diesel, 12% replaced electricity and/or Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and 38% replaced heavy fuel oil. The above success rate are indicative of the efforts for improving air quality in the broader Athens area, since with each converted customer, from diesel or heavy fuel oil to natural gas, a significant decline is achieved in terms of: (i) particles, by 24 and 1.5 times respectively, (ii) nitrogen oxides, by 1.7 and 1 times respectively, (ii) sulphate dioxide, by 4,700 and 733 times respectively and (iv) carbon monoxide, by 3 and 3 times respectively. The promotion of natural gas in electricity generation was estimated to reduce GHG emissions by 9.64 Mt CO2 eq in 2010; plans to further increase these efforts would result in emission reductions of additional 3.35 Mt CO2 eq.

Industry

Energy use in manufacturing industries and construction accounted, in 2002, for 7.9% of total GHG emissions, while emissions from industrial processes (including use of solvents and other products and emissions of fluorinated gases) accounted for 9.1%. In detail, direct GHG emissions from industrial Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 17 processes in 2002 were reported as follows: CO2 from mineral products, mainly cement production, (5.4 % of total), HFCs from HCFC-22 production (2.4 % of total), HFCs from HFC consumption (0.6 % of total) in residential refrigeration and air-conditioning, and N2O from chemical industries (0.4 % of total). Measures under implementation aiming to reduce these emissions include, inter alia, the closure of a HCFC-22 production plant before 2008, which is estimated to reduce emissions by 3.7 Mt CO2 eq per year as well as the recovery of fluorinated gases from discarded equipment, with an estimated mitigation effect of 0.9 Mt CO2 eq in 2010. The implementation of the proposed EU-wide regulation on certain fluorinated gases is expected to support efforts in this field. Regarding emissions of CO2 and of particulates from cement production plants, they have been reported to increase in Greece by 33% between 1990 and 2002. However, these emissions are projected to remain stable between 2002 and 2010 due to the provision that cement or clinker will be imported in the likely case of continued increases in cement consumption up to 2010 based on the constrains imposes by the Emission Trading System (ETS) that is being put in place in Greece.

Agriculture

Agriculture (without CO2 emissions from agricultural soils) accounted, in 2002, for 9.4% of total GHG emissions. It accounted for 31.6% of total CH4 emissions, mainly from enteric fermentation of animals, and for 65.2% of N2O emissions, mainly from the use of nitrogen fertilizer on agricultural soils. Between 1990 and 2002, GHG emissions from this sector decreased by 6.4 per cent due to a 24% decrease in the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers between 1990–2000 and the lack of changes in the livestock populations. Adopted and implemented policies and measures in the agricultural sector are in line with the provisions of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and have already resulted in restrictions on agricultural activity and thus on corresponding emissions’ reduction. In particular, measures include, among others, the better manure management and the use of organic farming practices. The

mitigation effect of these planned policies has been estimated at 0.1 Mt CO2 eq. Regarding LUCF, net GHG emissions from this sector totalled 1,607 Gg CO2 eq in 1990 and 4,587 Gg CO2 eq in 2000, whereas in 2001 and 2002 the net removal from this sector equalled 1,233 Gg and 1883 Gg CO2 eq, respectively. It should be however noted that emissions of CO2 from LUCF, in 1990 and 2000, were mainly attributed to forest fires, a phenomenon which is gradually in recent years being contained, with the exception of the extensive fires, in summer of 2006, especially in the Chalkidiki area, in Northern Greece.

Waste Management

GHG emissions from waste management (including waste-water handling) accounted, in 2002, for 4.5% of total GHG emissions. It accounted for 49.5% of total CH4 emissions, mainly from solid waste disposal on land, and for 2.7% of N2O emissions, mainly from wastewater handling. The requirements under the EU Landfill Directive (1999/31) were introduced into Greek law with JMD 29407/3508/2002. The implementation of this legislation has been estimated to reduce emissions from waste management by 5.9 Mt CO2 eq by 2010. Legislative measures for solid waste management also include the recently adopted JMD 22912/1117/2005 on waste incineration and JMD 37591/2031/2003 on the management of medical and hospital waste; the implementation of these enactments is also contributing to the reduction of air emissions from this sector. Moreover, in 2004, CH4 collected from municipal solid waste disposal sites, covering about 80% of total managed sites, was flared while using CH4 collected for energy production, especially in large engineered landfill sites, is in the planning stage. The construction of municipal wastewater plants and CH4 recovery from wastewater treatment are also included in the adopted measures in this field. Because of an increase in aerobic wastewater treatment plants and CH4 recovery, emissions are projected to decline by 89% during 2000–2010. According to the current National Strategy for Sustainable Development (NSSD,2002) and in the context of the Sixth EU Environmental Action Programme, Greece has also promoted further measures for the expansion and organization of related infrastructure, while delegating the responsibility of planning and management of waste to the administrative Regions. Also, a “National Plan for the Integrated and Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 18 Alternative Management of Solid Waste” has been completed and is being implemented, according to Law 2939/2001. This plan aims at the safe disposal of waste and the maximization of recycling, as well as a reduction in the total amount of solid waste in the long term. Fiscal and financial measures implemented in Greece and promoted by the Hellenic Ministry of Economy and Finance include the exemption from Value Added Tax (VAT) for the enterprises that buy or collect recyclable material aiming at their reselling according to Law 3091/2002. Education and training of local municipalities and raising the awareness of decision-makers and the general public completes the national waste management policy.

Other measures

In addition to the abovementioned measures, a major step forward in air pollution control was the establishment of the “Hellenic Environmental Inspectorate”, under the competences of YPEHODE, according to article 9 of Law 2947/2001. Recognising the need for putting in place an adequate and integrated inspection and enforcement mechanism in Greece, the Hellenic Environmental Inspectorate, is responsible, inter alia, for inspection and monitoring of compliance with environmental conditions set for the realisation of projects and operation of activities by the public sector, the private sector and local authorities as well as for the proposal for the application of sanctions in cases of violation of the set environmental standards including air emissions. The Inspectorate, which jurisdiction covers all environmental inspection requirements foreseen in the whole EU acquis, is also responsible for the collection and evaluation of data resulting from inspections concerning compliance as well as for the proposal of models and measurement methods of all emission types, including those with adverse effect on ambient air quality. Air pollution fines are imposed on stationary combustion sources that are found to exceed air pollution limits. Other measures designed include the reduction of VOCs emissions at all stages of storage and transportation of fuels with the introduction of a vapours recovery system as well as the quality control of fuels through the establishment of specialised mobile inspection units. YPEHODE also gives particular emphasis on the extension of

existing green spaces in the urban grid, particularly in Athens; the extension of pedestrian streets network in the city centres; the creation of high capacity parking areas; the rehabilitation of non in-use quarries especially in urban and peri-urban spaces etc. Moreover, systematic emission control and inspections are being conducted at stationary/area sources that encompass combustion units or large heating systems (e.g. bakeries, swimming pools, hospitals). In particular, the control of air pollution sources from combustion units has been reinforced, inter alia, through the procurement of around 60 integrated mobile exhaust gases analyser systems, and their consequent allocation to the country’s Regions, for controlling pollution emissions from central heating installations, industrial boilers, bakeries etc. This activity commenced on July 2006 whereas its completion is scheduled for the end of 2006. The activity’s budget rises to around EUR 400,000. The utilisation of the equipment still requires the setting up of related Perfectural Control/Inspection Units and the rendering of the equipment’s ownership to the country’s regions.

Strategies, Plans, Programmes and Projects The existing National Strategy for Sustainable Development (NSSD) of Greece, elaborated and adopted in 2002 and now under revision, besides the aim of economic development has three main objectives: environmental protection, social cohesion and the integration of sectoral policies. Air pollution abatement and climate change mitigation were two of the 7 targets for action of the NSSD for the reduction of environmental pressures in Greece. According to the NSSD, the introduction of adequate economic instruments aiming at “getting the prices right” and, on the long-run, the change of unsustainable consumption and production patterns were considered, in this respect, as key priorities. The 2002 NSSD gives emphasis to the reduction of air pollutants, since their increased concentrations are responsible for the phenomena of acid rain and eutrophication that threaten the equilibrium of ecosystems, while air pollutants are also proven to be related with severe adverse effects on human health. The target of the current NSSD of 2002 for the abatement of air pollution generally coincides with the targets resulting from the implementation of NECD EU Directive for the period ending at 2010. In order to ensure a continuous reduction of air pollutants and to achieve the targets that have been set by EU and nationally, further progress is, however, needed. Although most pollutants’ concentrations in Greece (with the exception, in some cases, of O3 and PM10) are lower than the respective levels for the whole of the EU, a fact that reflects the level of development and the structure of the energy system of Greece, the compliance with these measures have led to the designing and implementation of “National Scheme for Emissions Reduction” with specific measures per sector aiming at promoting environmental friendlier practices. Special attention is paid, in this context, to the releases of non methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) that show the greatest divergence from the target that is set for 2010. The existing NSSD will soon be revised in order to readjust national targets and better encompass national priorities and particularities, also in line with new EU acquis and standards. The key fields for action of the NSSD regarding air pollution abatement are: - Reform and diversification of energy offer - Rational use and conservation of energy in the building sector - Measures for the transport sector - Measures for industry - Institutional and organizational measures Measure taken within the above key fields aim at radically changing the existing trends and achieving a substantial de-coupling of improved energy quality and other relative services from the increase of negative effects on air quality. The NSSD also aims at incorporating these measures under a long term planning scheme that will effectively manage the transportation system, along the directions of EU’s Common Transport Policy. Within this scheme, the designed activities include: development and extension of public transport infrastructure with special focus on the promotion of fixed route transportation modules i.e. train, metro and tram; upgrading and extension of road networks for decreased traffic congestion and increased onroad safety; promotion of more environmentally friendly fuels and technologies (e.g. electric cars, use of fuel cells); promotion of rail and sea transports (e.g. short sea shipping); enhancement of traffic flows management with the introduction of more bus lanes, one-way streets and use of telematics; as well as introduction of measures for regulating the use of private passenger cars and the long-term change of behavioural and consumption patterns of drivers. These measures, coupled with awareness raising campaigns, public dialogues and information dissemination will additionally lead to an increased spatial and social cohesion, since special focus is given on the integration of all areas including disadvantaged ones (e.g. mountainous

and island regions) in a new integrated viable transport system. The means for implementing this scheme are being provided mainly from the 3rd CSF (2000-2006). Specific parts of this scheme have been integrated, since 2000, into the various Operational Programmes of the cocompetent Ministries in Greece, i.e. OEP managed by YPHODE as well as Operational Programmes “Railways, Airports and Urban Transports” and “Road axes, Ports and Urban Development” managed by the Hellenic Ministry of Transport and Communications. Regarding specific interventions in the transport sector and in particular aiming at promoting the share of railway transportation in Greece, the Hellenic Railway Organisation is implementing a programme for developing and modernizing the main railway axes in Greece with special focus on the Patra - Athens – Thessaloniki connection. The biggest part of the scheduled activities have been financially supported through the 1st and 2nd EU CSF or are currently being funded through the 3rd EU CSF as well as through national resources. One of the main objectives of the works that are being carried out, is the completion of the Athens – Thessaloniki axis in full extend with a double high-speed lane (200 km/h), according to European standards. This lane is being complemented by proper signalling (more than 70% of which is already completed), telemanagement, telecommunication and electro motion. The modernisation of the regional railway network of Peloponnesus and Northern Greece are also underway. The construction of the new high-speed double lane for the Athens - Patra section is also being completed. Realisation of specific railway works have also been carried out for reorganising the transport system and developing a new railway network, replacing the old existing one, in regional parts of Athens. Works include the extension of the new modernised Suburban Railway network for the connection of Athens with its neighbouring cities i.e. Korinthos (this connection line has already been completed since late 2004), Thebes and Chalkida. Programmes for old on-road vehicles, motorcycles and Taxis scraping, in terms of incentives and discounts for fleet renewal, have been introduced at various stages since the early 1990s in Greece with significant results with regard to air pollution emissions reduction (see also Section “Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments and Measures”). Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 20 Regarding the abatement of air pollution form the energy and industry sectors, a specific Operational Programme has been compiled for 2000-2006 managed by Hellenic Ministry of Development, namely Operational Programme “Competitiveness” (OPCOM) with a Sub-Programme on “Energy” (i.e. 2 priority axes). Regarding power production, since 1987, PPC S.A. has initiated a programme for the replacement and upgrading of the existing ESPs, as well for the adding of new state-of-the-art high performance ESPs: at 4 lignite units of the Kardia SES; at 4 units of Ptolemais SES; at 2 units of the LIPTOL SES; and both the fly ash and lignite ESPs at 1 unit of the Megalopolis SES. These replacements have been coupled with interventions to the electronic and construction features of several existing ESPs; in 2004, the ESPs at the 4 lignite fired Units of Agios Dimitrios SES were upgraded and a new one was added. Furthermore, a project for the reduction of particulate matter emitted from oil-fired plants was implemented through the use of combustion improvement additives as well as the replacement of the existing oil burners with new ones (of the steam atomization type). In parallel, PPC S.A. implements the following projects, regarding FGD, at 2 of the Megalopolis SES units, for the further improvement of environmental quality at Megalopolis area: (i) Retrofitting of flue gas with a desulphurization plant with a budget of EUR 80 million and (ii) Upgrading of the flue gas desulphurization plant, with a budget of EUR 10 million (see also Section “Decision-Making, Legal and Regulatory Framework, Policy Instruments and Measures”). PPC S.A. also conducts several specific studies aiming at achieving full compliance with the legislation in force, such as, indicatively: - Elaboration of the Emissions Reduction Plan under EU Directive 2001/80 for the emission of SO2, NOx and particulates emitted from the large combustion plants of PPC S.A. - Elaboration of Safety Studies for Thermoelectric Power Plants, pursuant to the EU Directive SEVESO II (1996/82). As an EU MS, Greece participates to the EU-Emission Trading System (ETS) JMD 54409/2632/2004 established an emissions trading scheme in Greece according to the EU Directive 2003/87 and in mid 2005 the first NAP for CO2 emission allowances under the EU-ETS for the period 2005–2007 was established. The NAP covers installations in the sectors of electricity generation (73% of total allowances), cement production (15%), refineries (5%), and some other sectors (7%), including the production of iron and steel, lime, glass, ceramic, and paper, as well as sintering and other combustion processes. Of the 71.14 million allowances allocated per year as an average of the period 2005-2007, 96% were granted free of charge to 141 existing installations, while the remaining 4 per cent were reserved for 27 known and for unknown new entrants. According to the NAP, the number of total allowances was

2.1% below the CO2 emissions in a business-as-usual scenario for the period 2005– 2007. The participating entities are expected to achieve these reductions in CO2 emissions through the implementation of domestic measures in the framework of the 2nd NAPCC. Moreover, a new NAP for GHGs emissions allowances for the period 2008-2012 has been set for public consultation on June 15, 2006, a final draft was consequently prepared and submitted to the CEU and its final approval is now pending. The installation and operation, according to the EU standards and specifications, of the national Registry system for emissions trading was launched in Greece in April 2006, under the National Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development (NCESD) (see more details in Chapter II: Energy). Aiming at reducing ozone-depleting substances and promoting alternatives under the Montreal Protocol and EU Directive 2037/2000, YPEHODE is implementing a specialised programme for addressing national obligations for the protection of the stratospheric ozone layer that has been incorporated into the OEP of YPEHODE. The programme is expected to finish during the fist half of 2007. It includes, inter alia: - creation of a national information bank, including data on the production, use and transportation of specific ozone-depleting substances; - establishment of an integrated system for the recovery, recycling and destruction of controlled substances; - systematisation of the compilation of national reporting regarding implementation of Montreal Protocol and related EU legislation as well as proposals for specific activities and measures that should be designed and implemented in Greece for the ozone-layer protection; - measurements of the ozone-layer width and UV radiation soil levels as well as the creation of related databases.

Information, Capacity-Building, Education, Training and Awareness Raising YPEHODE is responsible for managing the National Environmental Information Network (NEIN) which is a horizontal mechanism for storing, processing and providing environmental information. Its content concerns mainly state-of-the-environment data for 10 environmental topic areas with their respective legislative framework, including analytical and spatial data on air pollution in Greece. It is a wide area network including nodes at YPEHODE, 3 Regional Authorities and 2 environmental institutions in the country. NEIN aims at supporting environmental policy planning and efficiency assessment as well as assisting Regional Authorities in implementing national environmental policy. Moreover, as a pool of and an interface to environmental information it serves the Aarhus Convention requirements for public information as well as the environmental part of the obligations resulting from the EU INSPIRE initiative. NEIN is currently being reviewed in order to be updated based on innovative information technologies and to extend its geographical coverage. Another new dimension of NEIN is the ongoing development of the Hellenic EIONET network encompassing the national Main Component Elements of the respective European Network and the environmental components of the INSPIRE. NEIN plays also a role in supporting administrative functions like the issuing of environmental permits. The Network can be publicly accessed through YPEHODE’s website “www.minenv.gr”; data is also presented by means of a Geographic Information System which can be accessed through http://hermes.edpp.gr. YPEHODE is also responsible for preparing and reporting Greece’s GHG inventory. On behalf of YPEHODE, the National Observatory of Athens (NOA) collects and archives the data, compiles the inventory and develops its quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) system. The National Statistical Service and other organizations provide NOA with activity data and emission factors. The national inventory provides data on the GHG emission for CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, as well as for NOx, CO, SO2, and NMVOCs. The national GHG emissions inventory is currently further complemented with more detailed data on emissions of SF6, emissions from all industrial processes, HFCs from refrigeration in commercial and industrial use as well as CH4 recovery from landfills. Data collected by the NNCAP are also publicly available. In particular, for the area of Athens, where responsibility lays within the competencies of YPEHODE, measurement values (on an hourly or daily basis, according to the pollutant) are made available on-line though www.minenv.gr; thus, the public can be automatically informed for the levels of key air pollutants (O3, NO2, SO2, CO, smoke, PM10) measured at various stations in the area. YPEHODE’s website also provides threshold values per pollutant, general assessments of the emissions levels as well as projections and guidance / recommendations in case of

exceedances. Various information reports and printed material compiled by YPEHODE in collaboration with other competent Ministries and Agencies on related issues, e.g. “2nd National Action Plan for the Abatement of CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2000-2010” (NAPCC, 2002), “National Allocation Plan for GHG allowances for 2005-2007” (NAP, 2005), are also made publicly available in hard copy and in electronic format through the Ministry’s website to interested parties. Measure 5.2 of the OEP 2000-2006 is dedicated to the funding of environmental awareness activities, with a total budget of EUR 2.8 million. In this context, activities aiming at public awareness and information regarding the ozone-layer depletion and ways to protect it (e.g. organisation of conferences, meetings for the general public and specialised professionals, printing of brochures and books) have been incorporated and are under implementation by YPEHODE. On June 2002, YPEHODE launched an awareness campaign and widely disseminated a “do your bit” brochure containing educational material, questionnaires etc, focusing on awareness raising of all ages, with emphasis on providing school children with practical information for protecting the environment, in everyday life. Awareness raising on air quality protection and simple tips for emissions reduction from everyday habits are included in the brochure and campaign that has been repeated on an annual basis since 2002. Publication and diffusion of information material as well as information exchange through related activities, e.g. organisation of meetings and public dialogues, websites’ keeping, is also carried out by the NCESD and several NGOs and Institutes throughout the country. The NCESD has also published a comprehensive report entitled “Environmental Signals: A report on Sustainability Indicators”. This report provides substantial information by means of various simple or synthetic indicators to highlight environmental status and pressures, trends, performance as well as assessment of weaknesses and strengths. The report encompasses indicators on 5 environmental and sectoral issues including air pollution, climate change, energy, transport and industry as well as recommendations, policy options and guidance for improving performance and decoupling economic growth from environmental pressures Chapter I: Atmosphere - Air Pollution 22 according to findings per field, aiming at strengthening the environmental pillar of sustainable development in Greece. The report has been widely circulated in greek and english and is expected to be republished and updated. Greece participated in several international programmes concerning environmental education for students, and environmental education has been introduced as a specific course mainly in the Education Faculties of Universities. Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs has incorporated into its planning the establishment of 20 Centres of Environmental Education throughout the country. Services at these centres included special programmes of environmental education for groups of students, training seminars for teachers and other interested population groups, the publication of tutorial material, coordinating networks of environmental education and cooperating with the regional administration, universities and environmental organizations at the national and international level. School and university curricula provide an understanding of environmental problems and actions, and include reference to air pollution, climate change and their impacts. Important aspects of climate policy and GHG mitigation, including energy security, energy conservation and RES, are in the list of curricula topics. The National Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES), the PPC S.A. and other industry players actively integrate public information activities in their environmental performance, e.g. through the publication and dissemination of informational materials. Public participation in addressing air pollution and climate change also takes place through a number of environmental and business NGOs. Press articles, TV and radio programmes, TV commercials, brochures, CD ROMs and other media have been used to raise public awareness (e.g. promotion of use of public transport). The level of public awareness of climate change in Greece’s population has risen significantly recently due to the occurrence of international and regional extreme weather events. Headed by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (HNMS), Greece also takes part in the systematic observation of climate-related parameters in the fields of hydrology, oceanography, ground characteristics and landmass. The HNMS operates a network of 26 GSN stations, all of which were equipped with updated devices in 2003/4. Greece is a member of the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), and supported neighbouring Balkan countries bilaterally in the establishment and operation of a monitoring network.

Difference in Air Quality Index of different cities of the world

PARIS

DELHI

BEIJING

MEXICO

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