Class 8 GDSS

8/4/2019 Class 8 GDSS

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Group Decision Support andGroupware Technologies



A Bit of History

• The existence of support mechanisms for MDMactivities predates the technology (Churchill’s cabinetwar room and its wall of maps).

• The 1960s and 70s saw the addition of slide projectorsand overheads.

• The computer was the next logical step in the 1970sand 80s.

• Today there are entire facilities (UA and Claremont)devoted to MDM activities



Group Decision Making

Holsapple suggests we use the term multiparticipant decision maker (MDM)

• A group is the MDM structure where multiple decisionmakers completely interact

• A team is the MDM structure where members adviseone decision maker but do not interact

• A committee is the MDM structure with a single decision

maker and member interaction



Hierarchical Classification of MDM

StructuresDecision

Structure

Collaborative Non-Collaborative

Group Team Individual

Consensus MajorityCommittee

Consensus Majority

Implementation

Communication among non-

decision-makers is relevant

Communication among non-

decision-makers is irrelevant

Formal Participants

Multiple Decision-makers

Formal Participants

Single Decision-maker No formal sources

Single Decision-maker

All must agree Stated % must agree

All must agree Stated % must agree

Collective

communication

between participants

& Decision-maker

Interactive

communication between

non-decision-maker

participants

Results directly from decision Results directly from recommendation



Basic MDM Structures

GroupMultiple DMs

withcomplete interaction

TeamSingle DM w

ith noparticipant interaction

CommitteeSingle DM with complete

participant interaction



Basic Communication Network

Structures

Wheel Network Circle Network

Completely Connected

Network

Chain Network



Principal Characteristics of Network

Structures Highly Centralized – Wheel, Chain

Efficient for routine and recurring decisions

They tend to strengthen the leadership position of the central members

They tend to result in a stable set of interaction among the participants

They tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction among theparticipants

Highly Decentralized – Circle, Completely Connected

They tend to produce higher levels of satisfaction among theparticipants

They facilitate non-routine or nonrecurring decisions

They promote innovative and creative solutions



Group Behaviors and Norms

• MDMs establish norms that guide the decision-making process

• A norm specifies what group members are expectedto do under given circumstances

• Norm ―sending‖ can be through examples, peerreview or sanctioning



Factors Used in Determining Decision

Structure The importance of the quality of the decision

The extent to which the DM possesses the knowledge andexpertise to make the decision

The extent to which potential participants have the necessary

information The degree of structuredness of the problem context

The degree to which acceptance or commitment is critical tosuccessful implementation

The probability of acceptance

The degree of motivation among the participants to achieveorganizational goals

The degree of potential conflict among the participants



Matrix for MDM Structure Selection

Factors Individual Team Committee GroupHigh Importance

DM Expertise

Participant Expertise

High Structuredness

Acceptance Critical

Acceptance Probable

Participant Motivation

Potential for Conflict



The Problem With Groups

• Size: in general, member satisfaction andcohesiveness decreases with group size. In

large groups, subgroups or internal coalitionstend to form.

• Groupthink: in large groups, people tend tothink in ways that achieve unanimity insteadof creativity.



Other Sociological Issues

• Conflict: the desire to be seen as a good teammember can lead to conflict avoidance.

• Anonymity: one method used to control sources ofconflict is to allow members to participateanonymously.

• Gender Issues: males and females tend to placedifferent values on different skills, but this may be astrength in an MDM setting.



Negotiating and Deciding

• The decision may involve multiple viewpoints, thuscreating the need for negotiation.

• The design of the support mechanism for the MDMmust accommodate the activities of negotiation.

• These activities include equitable access toinformation and support for a wide variety ofcommunication structures.



Effects Related to MDM Size

Participant interaction tends to decrease withincrease in size

Affective or emotional relationships tend todecrease with increase in size

Central, dominant leadership tends to increasewith size

Conflict is resolved with political rather thananalytical solutions as size increases



Potential Consequences of Groupthink

Tends to preclude a complete and open-minded analysis ofopportunities in the development of objectives

Inhibits a meaningful search for information and tends to biasany searches toward a self-fulfilling selectivity

Limits the participants’ ability to impartially appraisealternatives

Often results in a complete failure to consider possibilitiesassociated with cost of failure which, in turn, tends to result inchoice selections that are more risky than is warranted by the

payoff. Tends to eliminate the formation of contingency or fallback

positions



MDM Support Technology Variables

Personal Factors

Attitude

Abilities

Individual motives

Background

Situational Factors

Reasons for group membership

Stage in group development

Existing social networks

Background

Group structure

Work group norms

Power relationships

Status relationships

Group cohesiveness

Density (group size, room size, interpersonal

distance)

Anonymity

Facilitator

Contextual Variables

Technological support

Degree

Type

Task characteristics

Complexity

Nature

Degree of uncertainty

I. Situational Factors

Depth of analysis

Participation

Consensus reaching

Time to reach the decision

II. Communication Characteristics

Clarification efforts

Efficiency of the communication

Exchange of information

Nonverbal communication

Task-oriented communication

III. Interpersonal characteristics

Cooperation

Domination of a few members

IV. Structure imposed by the technology

I. Characteristics of the decision

Quality

Variability of quality over time

Breadth

II. Implementation of the decision

Cost

Ease

Commitment of participants

III. Attitude of participants toward decision

Acceptance

Comprehension

Satisfaction

Confidence

I. Attitude toward group process

Satisfaction

Willingness to work with participants in the future

Group Process

Task-related Outcomes

Group-related Outcomes



MDM Support Technology Categorization

DSS



Objectives of MDM Support

Technologies• Process support mechanisms focus on facilitating

interaction

• Process structure mechanisms govern thecommunication activities

• Task support mechanisms can select, organize or

derive information

• Task structure mechanisms provide access totechniques that filter, combine and analyzeknowledge relevant to the task



Sources of Gains in MDM Activities

Collective has greater knowledge than any singleparticipant

Allows for synergistic results otherwise not obtainable

Interaction stimulates the generation of knowledge orinformation otherwise unavailable

Participants can improve individual performancethrough learning from others

Improved evaluation over individual decision-makingstructure



Sources of Losses in MDM

Activities Relative allocation of speaking time is reduced with MDM size

Can result in idea production blocking

Can produce information overload much faster

Participants may not be able to remember all the contributions of

others Pressures resulting in conformity can be exacerbated

Can increase evaluation apprehension in participants

Allows for “free-riding” or social loafing of lazy or non-participativeindividuals

Can promote cognitive inertia or groupthink

Increases opportunity for socialization over goal focus

Increases decision context coordination activities

Can allow for partial task or knowledge analysis



Classes/Types of MDM Support

TechnologyClassification by feature – DeSanctis and

Gallupe proposed a three-level schemebased on the features offered:

– Level 1: primarily intended to facilitatecommunication among members

– Level 2 : designed to reduce uncertainty

– Level 3: help regulate the decision process



DeSanctis and Gallupe MDM System

ClassificationMDMLevel Participant Needs System Feature

1Red

uceCommunication

Barriers

- message passing among participants- access to data files during meeting- simultaneous display of ideas, graphs,

votes, etc. to all participants- relaxation of inhibitions to contribute- control for free-riders-

organization and analysis of ideas andvotes- preference quantification- agenda planning- schedule coordination

- Electronic messaging- Computer networking- Large shared viewing screen or public

display window- Anonymous contribution- Active solicitation of ideas-

Summarization and tabulation- Rating/ranking scales- Agenda templates- Continuous display of progress

2Reduce

Uncertainty andNoise

- problem structuring and solutionscheduling

- uncertainty analysis- analysis of resource allocation problems- data analysis- preference analysis

- structured guidance of deliberations

- Automated planning methods (PERT, etc.)- Decision tables, trees, etc.- LP and optimization modeling- Statistical tools- Subjective probability methods- MDM coordination methods (nominal, etc.)

3RegulateDecision

Processes

- enforcement of formal decisionprocedures

- increased clarity of options for decisionprocedures

- structuring and filtering of messages toadhere to rules

- development of deliberation governancerules

- Automated procedure mechanisms- Automated advisor for providing advice

regarding various approaches- Structuring and filter agents

- Rule set construction and inferencemechanisms



Supporting Groupwork

with Computerized Systems



Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology

(cont.)Classification by technology – Kraemer and

King focused on the technology applied:

– Electronic Boardroom – Teleconference Room

– Group Network

– Information Center

– Collaboration Lab – Decision Room



Kraemer and King MDM

Classification by TechnologyMDM Type

Facility andHardware Software

SpecificConsiderations

Electronic Boardroom Conference room withcomputer-controlledaudiovisual wide-screenprojection capabilities

Application for storage andretrieval of previouslyprepared presentations

Same time-same placesynchronous interaction.Requires audiovisualtechnician to be present

Teleconference Room Conference room with

computer-controlledaudiovisual transmissionbetween locations

Application to control digital

transmission of audio,video, and data

Same time-different place

synchronous interaction.Requires teleconferencingtechnician to be present

Group Network Separate office facilitiesconnected via a computernetwork

Applications to allow foreither real-time orasynchronous desktopconferencing and exchangeof video, audio, and data

Same time or different time-different place interactionwith one participant servingas coordinator or chair

Information Center Conference room with videoprojector for wide-screenviewing. Individualcomputers with display

terminals

Applications for databasemanagement, statisticalanalysis, graphicsgeneration, and word

processing

Same time-same placeinteraction. Requiresspecialists in modeling andspecific application software

to be present

Collaboration Laboratory Conference room withelectronic whiteboard andnetworked computers

Applications forcollaborative interaction andinformation exchange

Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present

Decision Room Conference room with videoprojector for wide screenviewing and networkedcomputers

Applications to supportbrainstorming, topiccommentary, voting,modeling, decision analysis,collaborative interaction anddata exchange

Same or different time-same place interaction.Requires MDM processfacilitator to be present



Decision Room MDM Support Functions

Electronic brainstorming

Topic commentary

Issue analysis

Voting and preference indication

Policy formation Stakeholder analysis

Organization of ideas

Evaluation of alternatives

Survey and Questionnaire creation and administration

Multiple format file readers

Participant dictionary

Enterprise analysis of decision outcome on organization

MDM session management



Groupware

• Software designed to support collaboration, includingcapturing and storing the information exchanged

• Current market leaders are Lotus Notes and Domino,Microsoft Exchange, Novell GroupWise and OracleOffice

• Individual tools inside the software suite include ameeting manager (Lotus Sametime) and messageexchange (Lotus Notes Mail)



A Lotus Sametime Meeting Center Screen



A Typical Lotus Notes Messaging Screen

Layout



Groupware Classification

Ellis, et al proposed a classification systembased on type of support it provides:

1. Messaging systems

2. Conferencing systems

3. Collaborative authoring systems

4. Group DSS

5. Coordination systems

6. Intelligent agent systems



Forces Driving Groupware

DevelopmentSome of the major factors include:

– Increased productivity

– Reduced number of meetings – Increased automation of routine workflow

– Need for better global coordination

– Availability of widespread networks

Coleman and Khanna list 10 other factors.



Forces In Favor of Groupware Adoption

Increased cost control

Increased productivity

Improved customer service

Support for total quality management (TQM) activities

Reduced number of meetings

Increased automation of routine workflow processes Desire to extend the organization to include both supplier and customer

Need to integrate geophysically dislocated teams

Increased competitive advantage through faster time to market

Need for better global coordination

Creation of services that differentiate the organization

Leveraging of professional expertise and knowledge

Availability of widespread network infrastructures (i.e., Internet, WWW)

Improved price/performance ratios of both hardware and software necessary

Increased use of ad hoc teams



Common MDM Coordination

Methods

Nominal Group Technique

Delphi Technique

Arbitration

Issue-based Information System

Nemawashi



Nominal Group Technique

1. Each participant writes down ideas about what thedecision should be.

2. In turn, each participant presents his or her ideas,which are recorded on a whiteboard. No discussionoccurs here.

3. After all ideas are presented, participants mayquestion others.

4. Each participant votes on each idea.



Delphi Technique

• Essentially the same as nominal grouptechnique except the participants never meet.

• A survey instrument is used to collect initialinput from members.

• A second survey is sent with a summary ofthe collective results.

• These steps repeat until either a consensusor majority view is reached.



Arbitration

• Most appropriate when the members of theMDM represent opposing factors.

• Participants agree that if mutually agreeablealternatives are not found, an outsidearbitrator will get involved.

• The arbitrator then selects the alternative he

or she deems most appropriate.



Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)

• A structured argumentation method.

• An IBIS is represented as a graph with nodes

and links.• The IBIS begins with selection of a root issue

node, then the various position nodes arelinked to the root.

• These position nodes are then evaluatedbased on the arguments attached to them.



Nemawashi (widely used in Japan)

1. One or more members of the MDM aredesignated as coordinators. Thecoordinators then select remaining

participants.2. Coordinators construct a choice set and

then experts rate the choices.

3. Coordinator selects a choice based onresults in 2.



Nemawashi (cont.)

4. The alternative is circulated; the coordinatorseeks consensus through persuasion andnegotiation.

5. If consensus is reached, coordinatorscirculate a document that each MDMmember signs off on.



The Virtual Workplace

• Many worldwide organizations are tradingreal estate for collaborative technology.

• Work is becoming a thing you do rather thana place you go.

• The biggest changes brought about by thevirtual workplace may be cultural orsociological rather than technological.



Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and

Successful Implementation

Organizing a GSS session—Face-to-face, sametime/same place electronic meetings generallyfollow a common progression

1. The group leader meets with the facilitator to plan themeeting—select the software tools and develop anagenda

2. The participants meet in the decision room, theleader poses a question or problem to the group

3. The participants type their ideas or comments (i.e.,brainstorm), and the results are displayed publicly





• Organizing a GSS session4. The facilitator, using idea organization

software, searches for common themes,

topics, and ideas and organizes them intorough categories, the results are publiclydisplayed

5. The leader starts a discussion, the

participants prioritize the ideas6. The top 5 or 10 topics are sent to idea-

generation software following a discussion;the process can be repeated or a final vote

can be taken





• GSS success factors

– Organizational commitment

– An executive sponsor

– An operating sponsor

– User involvement and training

– A user-seductive interface





• GSS success factors

– Crafting a collaborative culture—three stepstoward creating a work environment that

supports collaboration1. Know what you want

2. Determine resource constraints

3. Determine what technologies can be used to

overcome resource constraints





• Implementation issues for onlinecollaboration

– To connect business partners, an organizationneeds an effective collaborative environment;provided by groupware suites

– The need to connect collaborative tools with filemanagement products on an organization'sintranet

– Automatic language translation

– Protocols are needed for easy integration ofdifferent applications and to standardize

communication



Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP

to Wikis

• Voice over IP (VoIP) (Internettelephony)

Communication systems that transmitvoice calls over Internet Protocol-basednetworks




to Wikis

• Voice over IP (VoIP) – Benefits of VoIP for business

• Allows CIOs to explore different deployment

options for company’s communications needs• Lowers total cost of ownership

• Lowers operational costs

• Reduces hardware requirements on the serverside for certain applications

• Provides a holistic approach to security

• Helps streamline workflows

• Enables optimized conferencing tools toreplace business travel




to Wikis

• Voice over IP (VoIP)

– Benefits of VoIP for users

• Eliminates unwanted interruptions and

unproductive actions by intelligently filteringcommunications

• Speed decision making by providing access toreal-time presence information,

• Initiates ad hoc conferencing/collaborationsessions

• Enables participation in conferencing sessionsquickly and easily via a variety of mobile

devices




to Wikis

• Collaborative workflow

– Wiki

A piece of server software available in a Website that allows users to freely create and editWeb page content using any Web browser

– Wikilog

A blog that allows everyone to participate as apeer; any one may add, delete, or changecontent




to Wikis

• Collaboration hubs

The central point of control for an e-market. A single c-hub, representingone e-market owner, can host multiplecollaboration spaces (c-spaces) inwhich trading partners use c-enablers

to exchange data with the c-hub




to Wikis

• Collaborative networks

– In a collaborative network , partners at anypoint in the network can interact with each

other, bypassing traditional partners

• Corporate (enterprise) portal

A gateway for entering a corporate Web

site, enabling communication,collaboration, and access to companyinformation



Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning,

and Project Management

• Collaborative design and productdevelopment

– During product development, engineering and

design drawings can be shared over a securenetwork among the contract firm, testingfacility, marketing firm, and downstreammanufacturing and service companies





• Collaborative planning, forecasting, andreplenishment (CPFR)

Project in which suppliers and retailers

collaborate in their planning and demandforecasting to optimize the flow of materialsalong the supply chain

• Vendor-managed inventory (VMI)

The practice of retailers making suppliersresponsible for determining when to order andhow much to order





• Project management

– Developing large-scale projects requirescollaboration of a large number of units and

individuals inside and outside an organization – Effective and efficient communication and

collaboration is a must



Creativity, Idea Generation,

and Computerized Support

• Creativity

– Personality-related creativity traits include:

• Inventiveness

• Independence

• Individuality

• Enthusiasm

• Flexibility

C i i G i





• Creativity – Creativity can be learned and improved‖

• Some specific creativity measures in

brainstorming: – The quantitative (number of ideas)

– The qualitative (quality of ideas) components

• Stimulation by other creative people in theenvironment can push a group forward

• Stimulation can come directly from excitingideas developed as a consequence ofassociation among creative people

• Stimulation may even come from friction

among employees

C i i Id G i





• Idea generation through electronicbrainstorming

– Idea generation

The process by which people generate ideas,usually supported by software; for example,developing alternative solutions to a problem

– With collaborative computing-support tools,the individuals do all the thinking, and thesoftware system encourages them to proceed

C i i Id G i





• Creativity-enhancing software

– Computer programs that exhibit creativebehavior

– Electronic idea generation for problem solving

– Software that facilitates human creativity

Class 8 GDSS

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