CHAPTER 1

5

E SOT E R

I C F

OR

MS O

F PE R

SUA S I O

N

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D 1Prepared by Robert Gass and John Seiter

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

COLOR AS PERSUASION

Color has symbolic meaning At birth, girls are wrapped in pink blankets, boys

in blue Patriotic colors Executives wear “power “colors Fans identify with sports teams through color Jobs are categorized as “white collar,” “blue

collar,” “green collar,” “pink collar,” etc.

2

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

COLOR AND ATTITUDES

Colors have attitudinal associations In old westerns, good guys wear white hats,

bad guys wear black Brides wear white to symbolize purity Red is associated with sexiness Black attire signifies formality Going “green” is trendy and eco-conscious

3

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Negative connotations of the word “black”black sheepblackballblacklistblack catblack heartblack humorblack comedyblackmailblack dayblack eyeblack widowblack mark

Positive associations with the word “black”black tie eventlittle black dressin the blackblack beltblack Friday______ is the new black

4

COLOR AND ASSOCIATIONS

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

SEEING RED

Attitudinal associations with the color red A red dress is associated with sexiness The “red pen” effect in grading papers Stereotypes about redheads or “gingers” Red is associated with danger, hazards, warnings A red cross symbolizes a hospital

5

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

COLOR AND BRANDING

McDonald’s Golden arches

T-Mobil Bright magenta

Tiffany Robin’s egg blue

Livestrong Foundation Yellow bracelets

Susan G. Komen Foundation Pink ribbon

Product Red

6

John Deere tractors are easily recognizable by their patented green and yellow colors

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Colorism

Colorism refers to the use of skin tone as a status marker

Interracial prejudice surrounds skin color

“Whiteness” is often privileged over “Blackness”

Slavery and segregation in the U.S.

India’s caste system

Brazilian expression, “Money whitens”

Color complex Refers more to intra-

racial color prejudice

Belief in the superiority of light skin, European hair, Anglo facial features

Phenomenon known as “passing”

“bleaching syndrome” using products to lighten one’s skin

7

COLOR AND RACE/ETHNICITY

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

We often equate colors with moods

seeing red green with envy feeling blue tickled pink

Ambient colors can affect moods ,emotions

Primary colors: bold, lively, energetic Pastels: calming, relaxing Warm colors; red, yellow, orange Cool colors; blue, green, purple

8

COLOR AND EMOTION

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Color and behavior Food coloring is used to

make many foods more appealing; cheese meat, produce Food color signifies

freshness, quality, taste Flavor preference

People snacked more when eating from blue plates than red plates

Hot chocolate tasted better in an orange or dark cream cup than a red or white cup (Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence (2012)

Red pen effect; exposure to the color red activates negative attitudes, harsher grading

Color-aggression link Some evidence suggests

that wearing black uniforms correlates with aggressive behavior

Color and traffic tickets Despite conventional

wisdom, red cars are not more prone to traffic tickets

9

COLOR AND BEHAVIOR

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE

75% of Americans believe that subliminal messages are omnipresent in advertising, and that they work (Rogers & Seiler, 1994)

Why? James Vicary’s alleged movie theater experiment in 1957 Wilson Brian Keys claims of planted images in advertising Subliminals in Disney movies and other media Media spoofs of subliminals

10

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

TYPES OF SUBLIMINAL MESSAGES

1. Embedded images: pictures or words that are hidden or flashed quickly (in 100ths of a second)

2. Sub-audible messages: sounds or words that are too faint to be heard, or are played at extremely high frequencies

3. Electronically altered signals: backward masking and other voice alterations

11

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Subliminal message

Below (sub) the threshold (limen) of human perception

Example: a message flashed so quickly that it can’t be recognized

Example: a sound played so faintly that it can’t be heard

Embedding is a form of subliminal influence

Supraliminal message

A message that is consciously recognized and processed

Example: an image so faint that it is difficult to see

Example: a sound that is played quietly, yet is still audible

Product placement is a form of supraliminal influence

12

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUALIZATIONS

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

THE EARLY YEARS: A MYTH IS BORN

James Vicary claimed to have flashed the words “eat popcorn” and “Drink Coca-Cola” on a movie screen

He claimed popcorn sales increased 58% and Coke sales increased 18%

Vicary’s experiment was never successfully replicated

He later acknowledged the study was a hoax

13

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

The prospect of “mind control” is frightening

It’s fun to entertain conspiracy theories

The popular press sensationalizes the issue

There are just enough isolated cases to keep the myth alive

However, the mere existence of subliminal images, does not prove their effectiveness

Methodological shortcomings

lack of control groups

lack of double-blind procedures

possibility of bias or cueing

lack of replication

lack of rigorous “blind” review

14

WHY THE FASCINATION?

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

WHAT ADVERTISERS REALLY DO

Product placement is commonplace

Product placement is a form of supraliminal persuasion

Product placement may be subtle, but it is not subliminal

The brand’s sponsors want viewers to recognize their brands

15

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Subliminal priming has been well documented in controlled laboratory settings

Stimuli can be perceived or processed without conscious awareness

Priming can produce changes in beliefs, attitudes, and behavior

Commercial applications of subliminal priming have not been demonstrated

Flashing “Starbucks” will not make a consumer buy that brand of coffee

16

SUBLIMINAL PRIMING

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

SUBLIMINAL PRIMING

Priming occurs when a word is flashed quickly, then masked or covered up

The primed word is shown too quickly to be consciously recognized

The mask is removed and subjects see how quickly they recognize the word

Subjects who are primed recognize the word faster than subjects who are not primed

17

SALT####

mask prime

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

AN EXAMPLE OF A PRIMING STUDY

Patton (1992) exposed “normal” and “bulimia prone” females to one of three subliminal messages:

A. “Mama is leaving me” (Separation anxiety message)

B. “Mona is loaning it”

C. “Mama is loaning it”

Afterward, the females were invited to participate in a taste-test involving crackers

The “bulimia prone” females who were exposed to message A ate twice as many crackers as the females in the other two groups

18

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

CAUTIONS REGARDING SUBLIMINAL PRIMING

priming effects are short-lived

The subliminal prime must still be perceived, even if perception is without awareness

There is no proof of commercial viability

Beware of the fallacy that “presence” implies “effectiveness”

Even in controlled laboratory settings, subliminal effects tend to be weak and transitory

Difficulty of proving a negative (e.g. that there aren’t subliminals everywhere)

19

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP)

NLP is touted by motivational speakers and self-help books

Proponents claim that certain words possess nearly hypnotic power

People supposedly rely on internal representations which favor one sense over another

Words can appeal to visual, kinesthetic (tactile and visceral), auditory, olfactory, gustatory (taste) senses

Representational systems can be “read” via nonverbal cues or “accessing cues” A person who looks up is relying on visual

processing A person who looks horizontally is relying on

auditory processing

20

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP)

There is no evidence that certain words have a hypnotic effect on people

The direction of a person’s gaze is not a reliable sign of his/her thinking process

7 out of 8 studies examining a link between information processing and eye movements found no evidence supporting NLP’s predictions (Witkowski, 2012, p. 36)

“the vast majority of research studies have not supported either the fundamental tenets or the techniques of NLP” (Witkowski, 2012, p. 37)

21

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

MUSIC AS PERSUASION

Music can function as a mnemonic device or memory aid

Background music can affect shopping pace enhance moods improve task performance

22

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

MUSIC AS PERSUASION

Music can function as both a central and peripheral cue

Music is widely used in advertising

The mere exposure effect Repeated exposure to a novel stimulus, such as a jingle,

increases liking for the stimulus.

Music as a mnemonic device

Like a good neighbor________ is there

Break me off a piece of that _________ bar

Background music

Affects mood, shopping behavior

Risk of habituation (desensitization)

23

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

Critics charge that rock and rap videos promote:

materialism drug use violence sexual objectification

of women

Advocates claim music videos:

empower subcultures offer social

commentary mirror problems

already present in society

24

MUSIC VIDEOS

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

WEAPONIZING MUSIC

Loud, blaring music was used during enhanced interrogations

Unpopular music has been used to discourage loitering

Driving away adolescents with classical music

25

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

AROMA AND PERSUASION

The fragrance industry is selling romance in a bottle

Fragrances function as peripheral cues

Studies on the effectiveness of fragrances are mixed

Aromas have been shown to: alter moods improve task performance make shoppers linger in stores

26

C O PY R I G H T © 2 0 1 4 P E A R S O N E D U C AT I O N I N C . A L L R I G H T S R E S E RV E D

AROMA AND PERSUASION

Caveats and cautions Smell preferences are highly idiosyncratic Overreliance on smells could produce

desensitization Smells may result in counter-conditioning

(boomerang effect) Some people are sensitive to smells

(allergies, gag reflexes, etc.)

27