Chapter 12

Prelude:

Music and the Enlightenment

Key Terms

• Enlightenment• Rococo• Divertimento• Opera buffa• Classical style• Classical orchestra• Classical

counterpoint

• Repetition• Cadences• Sonata form• Minuet• Rondo• Theme and

variations

Classical Timeline 1700 1750 1800

Late 18th Century

• Enlightenment flourished

• New Classical style emerged

• Vienna a center for music

• Rise of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven

The Enlightenment

• Intellectual movement centered in France

• Rooted in a faith in reason and science

• Applied rational methods to social sphere

• Attacked social injustice and religion

• Major figures: Voltaire and Rousseau

Emperor Joseph II

• “Enlightened” ruler– Emancipated peasants– Furthered education– Reduced power of clergy– Supported music and literature– Encouraged free press

• Reigned during Vienna’s golden years (1780–1790)

Vienna as Musical Center

American Contribution to the Enlightenment

• Declaration of Independence and Federalist Papers

• A new state founded on rational principles

• Emphasis on human rights– “life, liberty, and the pursuit of

happiness”

Art and Entertainment

• An age of good living– Valued intelligence, wit, sensitivity– Invented salon, coffee house, public concert

• Arts meant to entertain, to please• Rococo style• Similar style in music

– Light, charming, frivolous– Divertimento—designed to divert and entertain

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• The first “alienated” intellectual– Emphasized nature and the individual– Blasted social institutions– Wrote articles on politics and music

• Attacked Baroque opera– Advocated simpler, more natural music

that focused on real life– Encouraged development of comic opera

The Novel

• Genre took hold around 1750

• Literary equivalent of the new comic opera– Realistic observation of contemporary life– Sensitive depiction of feeling– Could be sexually explicit, sentimental, and

moralistic all at once

The Rise of Concerts

• Prompted by growing middle class• Proliferated throughout Europe

– Lent new importance to orchestral works

– Composers began to write for public concerts (Haydn, Mozart)

– Church and court patronage, opera houses still important

Two Central Concepts

• The “natural” and “pleasing variety”• Can work hand in hand• Can also oppose each other

– “Natural” can be too simple, boring– “Pleasing variety” can invite “unnatural”

complexity• Appear in all elements of Classical

technique• Create a new expressive quality

Rhythm

• “Pleasing variety” dominates• New flexibility valued

– Gradual increase or decrease in energy– Sudden contrasts– Sudden stops– Smooth, continuous motion– Pressing forward by fits and starts

• Real contrasts become possible

Dynamics

• “Pleasing variety” dominates

• New precision in notating dynamics

• New emphasis on gradations of volume

• Rise in popularity of the pianoforte

Tone Color

• “Pleasing variety” dominates

• Increasing attention to tone color

• Orchestra developed into subtle, versatile instrument

The Classical Orchestra

• Strings still at the heart

• Woodwinds and brass given clearly defined roles

• Percussion used in new ways

• Offered enormous variety in musical elements and overall effect

Development of the Classical Orchestra

Melody: Tunes

• The “natural” dominates

• Baroque melody now “unnatural”

• New preference for clear, simple tunes– Some works use tuneful phrases– Others use entire tunes (theme and

variations)

Texture: Homophony

• The “natural” dominates

• A single melody dominates the texture

• Simple but flexible accompaniment– Continuo fell out of use– More control over specific color and

spacing of chords

Classical Counterpoint

• Homophony was dominant• Polyphony still offered expressive

possibilities– Creating tension and intensity– Creating contrast with homophony

• Contrapuntal texture frequent in sonata form development sections

Baroque vs. Classical Style

Baroque• Repetitive, dance-influenced

rhythms• Only two dynamics (f, p)• Same colors throughout• Basic or festive Baroque

orchestra• Complex, ornate melodies• Unequal phrase lengths• Polyphonic texture• Constant continuo support• Homogeneous—single affect

expressed in each work

Classical• Flexible, constantly changing

rhythms• Many dynamic gradations• Variety of colors in one piece• Larger orchestra, regular use of

brass and winds• Clear, memorable tunes• Regular phrase lengths• Homophonic texture• Constantly varied accompaniment• Heterogeneous—variety of

feelings express in each work

Form in Classical Music

• The problem:– How can you extend a musical work over a

long time span when music must be “natural,” simple, and easy to understand?

• The Classical solution:– Repetition and return– Transitions between themes– Clear cadences

Repetition and Return

• First theme repeats immediately

• First theme often returns later

• Other main themes handled the same way

• Makes themes easy to remember

• Return provides a “homecoming” feel

Transitions between Themes

• Themes connected with transitions– Prominent; distinct from surrounding

themes– Not very melodic—no clear tune, no

repetition– Create urgency to get to next theme

• Transition lends emphasis to beginning of next theme

Clear Cadences

• Themes often end with repeated cadences

• The more important the theme, the more emphatic the repetitions

• Clear cadences strengthen the ending of a theme

Repetitions and Cadences

• Haydn, Symphony No. 95, II

• Mozart, Don Giovanni, “Ho capito”

Classical Forms

• A frame of reference for composers and audiences

• Permit contrasts—“pleasing variety”• Control, even tame contrasts• Clarified by repetitions, transitions, and

cadences• Sonata, minuet, rondo, theme and

variations