Carbon.doc

7/26/2019 Carbon.doc

1/21

NO. MATRIKULASI :

NO. KAD PENGENALAN :

NO. TELEFON :

E-MEL :

PUSAT PEMBELAJARAN :


2/21

ISI KANDUNGAN

1.0 Introducton 1

1.1 Objective of study 1

!.0 Pro"#rt#$ o% &'r(on A))otro"#$2

2.1 Properties of Graphite 3

2.2 Properties of Diamond 6

*.0 T+# U$',# o% D'ond 'nd Gr'"+t# 10

.0 &onc)u$on 17

RUJUKAN 18


3/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

1.0 Introducton

Although the !"#o$e%& o' #(%)o* !" e(%l!e% th(* +e e,-e#t !t !" "t!ll u**o+* u*t!l Ho+le%012345 e'!*e #(%)o* (" ( #he6!#(l ele6e*t +!th "&6)ol C (to6!# *u6)e% o' 3 (* ele#t%o*

#o*'!gu%(t!o* o' 7He89s99p9. The *(6e #(%)o* o%!g!*(te '%o6 L(t!* carbo (* F%e*#h

charbon6e(*!*g #h(%#o(l. :(%)o* !" the 'ou%th 6o"t ()u*(*t #he6!#(l ele6e*t !* the

u*!$e%"e )& 6("". It !" (l"o the "e#o* ()u*(*t ele6e*t )& 6("" !* hu6(* )o&. :(%)o* h("

)ee* *o+*"!*#e -%eh!"to%!# t!6e.;oo" 6(!*l& #o*"!"te o' #(%)o* h($e )ee* +!el& u"e

'o% +(%6!*g (* #oo!*g '%o6 -%eh!"to%!# t!6e. D!(6o* (*othe% (llot%o-e o' #(%)o* h("

)ee* t%e("u%e (" ge6"to*e" )e#(u"e o' %e6(%()le o-t!#(l #h(%(#te%!"t!#" (* +!el& (--l!e

!* !*u"t%& )e#(u"e o' "u-e%!o% h(%*e"" (* goo the%6(l #o*u#t!$!t&.

Peo-le '%o6 the e(%l& #!$!l!(t!o* h( !"#o$e%e #(%)o* (* the '!%"t *o+* u"e o' (#t!$(te

#(%)o* (te" )(# to the A*#!e*t Eg&-t!(*" +ho ut!l!e !t" ("o%)e*t -%o-e%t!e" 'o% -u%!'&!*g

o!l" (* 6e!#!*(l -u%-o"e". :e*tu%!e" l(te% the e(%l& o#e(*=go!*g $e""el" "to%e %!*!*g

+(te% !* +ooe* )(%%el" the !*"!e o' +h!#h h( )ee* #h(%%e. B& the e(%l& 12th #e*tu%& )oth

+oo (* )o*e #h(%#o(l +(" !* l(%ge="#(le u"e 'o% the e#olo%!(t!o* (* -u%!'!#(t!o* o' #(*e

"ug(%. Ho+e$e% !t +(" *ot u*t!l the )eg!**!*g o' the F!%"t ;o%l ;(% th(t the -ote*t!(l o'

(#t!$(te #(%)o* +(" %e(ll& #(-!t(l!e u-o*. The ($e*t o' g(" +(%'(%e *e#e""!t(te the

e$elo-6e*t o' "u!t()le %e"-!%(to%& e$!#e" 'o% -e%"o**el -%ote#t!o*. G%(*ul(% (#t!$(te

#(%)o* +(" u"e to th!" e* (" !*ee !t "t!ll !" to(&. B& the l(te 12?@" the%e +("

#o*"!e%()le !*u"t%!(l="#(le u"e o' #(%)o* 'o% g("eou" (* l!u! -h("e (--l!#(t!o* (* *e+

6(*u'(#tu%!*g -%o#e""e" h( )ee* e$elo-e to "(t!"'& the *ee" o' !*u"t%&. Du%!*g the

122=124 +(% ( 'u%the% "!g*!'!#(*t e$elo-6e*t too -l(#e = the -%ou#t!o* o' 6o%e

"o-h!"t!#(te #he6!#(ll& !6-%eg*(te #(%)o* 'o% e*t%(-6e*t o' )oth +(% (* *e%$e g("e".

1.1 O(3#ct4# o% $tud5

The 6(!* -u%-o"e o' th!" "tu& !" to '!* out the !"oto-e" o% the (llot%o-e" o' #(%)o* +h!#h !"

!(6o* (* g%(-h!te. B& u"!*g the !*'o%6(t!o* o' the (llot%o-e" +e #(* (l"oC=

!. Ie*t!'& the -h&"!#(l (* #he6!#(l -%o-e%t!e" o' the (llot%o-e"

!!. L!"t o+* the 6(!* (--l!#(t!o*" o' the (llot%o-e"

1


4/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

!.0 Pro"#rt#$ o% &'r(on A))otro"#$

:(%)o* h(" "e$e%(l (llot%o-e" o% !''e%e*t 'o%6" !* +h!#h !t e,!"t". I*te%e"t!*gl& #(%)o*

(llot%o-e" "-(* ( +!e %(*ge o' -h&"!#(l -%o-e%t!e" the h(%e"t *(tu%(ll& o##u%%!*g "u)"t(*#e

0!(6o*5 (* o*e o' the "o'te"t *o+* "u)"t(*#e" 0g%(-h!te5 (%e )oth (llot%o-e". D!(6o* !"

t%(*"-(%e*t the ult!6(te ()%("!$e (* #(* )e (* ele#t%!#(l !*"ul(to% (* the%6(l #o*u#to%

#o*$e%"el& g%(-h!te !" o-(ue ( $e%& goo lu)%!#(*t ( goo #o*u#to% o' ele#t%!#!t& (* (

the%6(l !*"ul(to%. Allot%o-e" o' #(%)o* (%e *ot l!6!te to !(6o*" (* g%(-h!te" )ut (l"o

!*#lue )u#&)(ll" 0'ulle%e*e"5 (6o%-hou" #(%)o* gl(""& #(%)o* (* *(*otu)e".

9


5/21

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!.1 Pro"#rt#$ o% Gr'"+t#

I. Ph&"!#(l P%o-e%t!e"

G%(-h!te h(" ( l(&e%e (* -l(*(% "t%u#tu%e. I* e(#h l(&e% the #(%)o* (to6" (%e (%%(*ge !* (

he,(go*(l l(tt!#e +!th ( l(tt!#e -(%(6ete% o' ?.149*6 +h!le the !"t(*#e )et+ee* -l(*e" !"

?. *6 6(!*g !t the "o'te"t *(tu%(l 6(te%!(l" +!th Moh" h(%*e"" o' 10Setto* 9??95.

E(#h g%(-h!te l(&e% !" #o*"!"t" o' -u%esp9h&)%!!e #(%)o* (to6" (* $(* e% ;((l" 'o%#e

hol" the l(&e%" togethe%.G%(-h!te !" 6(!*l& (--l!e !* !*u"t%& 'o% lu)%!#(t!o*. The 6!*e%(l

g%(-h!te !" "teel g%(& to )l(# !* #olo% (* !" oo%le"". It !" o-(ue (* h(" ( "u) 6et(ll!#

lu"te%. G%(-h!te !" $e%& "o't (* h(" ( g%e("& te,tu%e. It #(* )e )%oe* e("!l& (* le($e" (

)l(# "t%e( o* the h(* +he* tou#he. Although g%(-h!te !" "o't (* 'le,!)le !t !" *ot el("t!#

!* *(tu%e.

G%(-h!te !" #%&"t(ll!*e !* *(tu%e ho+e$e% -e%'e#t #%&"t(l" o' g%(-h!te (%e %(%el& 'ou*. The

#(%)o* (to6" !* g%(-h!te (%e (%%(*ge !* ( he,(go*(l 6(**e% !* ( -l(*(% #o*e*"e %!*g

"&"te6. Th!" g!$e" the g%(-h!te #%&"t(l" ( he,(go*(l "h(-e. D!''e%e*t l(&e%" o' g%(-h!te (%e

"t(#e togethe% (* hel )& +e( #o$(le*t 'o%#e" to 'o%6 ( g!(*t #o$(le*t "t%u#tu%e.

G%(-h!te h(" ( h!gh 6elt!*g -o!*t ()o$e ??? l!e th(t o' !(6o* the othe% (llot%o-e o'

#(%)o*. He*#e !t !" "t()le o$e% ( +!e %(*ge o' te6-e%(tu%e". A" the%e !" ( lot o' $(#(*t "-(#e)et+ee* the g%(-h!te "heet" hel )& the +e( #o$(le*t )o*" the e*"!t& o' g%(-h!te !" 9.?2


6/21

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to 9. g/## +h!#h !" lo+e% th(* th(t o' !(6o*. The 6e("u%e "-e#!'!# g%($!t& o' g%(-h!te

!" (--%o,!6(tel& 9.93 g/## ho+e$e% !t e-e*" u-o* the -u%!t& o' g%(-h!te. G%(-h!te +!th (

h!ghe% ("h #o*te*t "ho+" ( "-e#!'!# g%($!t& h!ghe% th(* 9.93 +h!le *(tu%(l g%(-h!te h(" (

lo+e% "-e#!'!# g%($!t& o% e*"!t& ue to the t%(--e -o%o"!t&

G%(-h!te !" !*"olu)le !* +(te% (" +ell (" othe% o%g(*!# "ol$e*t". The%e (%e *o (tt%(#t!$e 'o%#e"

th(t o##u% )et+ee* the "ol$e*t 6ole#ule" (* the #(%)o*" (to6" !* g%(-h!te (* "o !t '(!l" to

!""ol$e !* (*& o' the o%g(*!# "ol$e*t". The%e !" $("t elo#(l!(t!o* o' ele#t%o*" +!th!* the

#(%)o* l(&e%" o' g%(-h!te. The elo#(l!e ele#t%o*" (%e '%ee to 6o$e (* (%e ()le to #o*u#t

ele#t%!#!t& thu" 6(!*g g%(-h!te ( goo #o*u#to% o' ele#t%!#!t&.

4


7/21

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II. :he6!#(l -%o-e%t!e"

Pu%e g%(-h!te !" o*e o' the 6o"t #he6!#(ll& !*e%t 6(te%!(l". It !" %e"!"t(*t to 6o"t (#!"

(l(l!e" (* #o%%o"!$e g("e". Ho+e$e% !6-u%!t!e" (%e (l6o"t (l+(&" -%e"e*t to "o6e eg%ee !*

)oth *(tu%(l (* (%t!'!#!(l g%(-h!te" (* o'te* h($e (* !6-o%t(*t #(t(l&t!# e''e#t +!th %e"ult!*g

!*#%e("e !* the #he6!#(l %e(#t!$!t&. The (*!"ot%o-& o' the g%(-h!te #%&"t(l !" %e'le#te !* !t"

#he6!#(l )eh($!o%. Re(#t!o* +!th g("e" o% $(-o%" o##u%" -%e'e%e*t!(ll& (t (#t!$e "!te" !.e.

the e* o' the )("(l -l(*e" o' the #%&"t(l +h!#h (%e the !g(g '(#e (* the (%6=#h(!% '(#e

(* (t e'e#t "!te" "u#h (" !"lo#(t!o*" $(#(*#!e" (* "te-". Re(#t!o* +!th the )("(l -l(*e

"u%'(#e" !" '(% "lo+e%. The %e("o* !" th(t the g%(-h!te #%&"t(l e,h!)!t" l(%ge !''e%e*#e" !*

"u%'(#e e*e%g& !* the !''e%e*t #%&"t(llog%(-h!# !%e#t!o*" the"e e*e%g!e" (6ou*t to J/69 !*

the -%!"6(t!# -l(*e )ut o*l& ?.11 J/69 !* the )("(l -l(*e. The"e !''e%e*#e" (##ou*t 'o% the

!''e%e*t %(te o' %e(#t!o* !.e. "lo+ (t the )("(l -l(*e (* %(-! (t the ege 0o% -%!"6(t!#5

"u%'(#e" 'ou* (t the te%6!*(t!o* o' the )("(l -l(*e" o% (t e'e#t" +!th!* the )("(l -l(*e.

:o*"eue*tl& g%(-h!te 6(te%!(l" +!th l(%ge #%&"t(l" (* 'e+ e'e#t" h($e the )e"t #he6!#(l

%e"!"t(*#e.


8/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

!.! Pro"#rt#$ o% D'ond

D!(6o*" (%e 'o%6e +he* #(%)o* e-o"!t" (%e e,-o"e to h!gh -%e""u%e (* h!gh

te6-e%(tu%e 'o% -%olo*ge -e%!o" o' t!6e. Dee- +!th!* the e(%th" #%u"t the%e (%e %eg!o*" th(t

h($e ( h!gh e*ough te6-e%(tu%e 02??: to 14??:5 (* -%e""u%e 0 to 3 GP(5 th(t !t !"

the%6o&*(6!#(ll& -o""!)le 'o% l!u!'!e #(%)o* to 'o%6 !*to !(6o*". D!(6o* #o*"!"t" o'

-u%e sph&)%!!e #(%)o* (to6". It !" %e*o+*e 'o% !t" e,t%e6e h(%*e"" 0h(%e"t *(tu%(l

6(te%!(l" +!th Moh" h(%*e"" o' 1? "!*#e (*t!u!t&5 o%!g!*(t!*g '%o6 the "t%o*g #o$(le*t

)o*!*g )et+ee* #(%)o* (to6" (* 'o% !t" %el(t!$el& h!gh o-t!#(l !"-e%"!o* o' $!"!)le

"-e#t%u6 #o$!*g 1. e (* the%6(l #o*u#t!$!t& 02??99?;/6/K 0;(le% 1225 .

D!(6o* !" 6(!*l& (--l!e !* !*u"t%!(l #utt!*g (* -ol!"h!*g tool" )e"!e" (" the6o"t

-o-ul(% ge6"to*e !* ou% l!'e.

I. Ph&"!#(l P%o-e%t!e"

Stu& )& ;(le% 01225 e'!*e !(6o* (" ( t%(*"-(%e*t #%&"t(l o' tet%(he%(ll& )o*e

#(%)o* (to6" !* ( #o$(le*t *et+o% l(tt!#e 0"-5 th(t #%&"t(ll!e" !*to the !(6o* l(tt!#e

+h!#h !" ( $(%!(t!o* o' the '(#e #e*te%e #u)!#"t%u#tu%e. D!(6o*" h($e )ee* 6o!'!e 'o%

6(*& u"e" )e#(u"e o' the 6(te%!(l" e,#e-t!o*(l -h&"!#(l #h(%(#te%!"t!#". Mo"t *ot()le (%e !t"

e,t%e6e h(%*e"" (* the%6(l #o*u#t!$!t& 02??99? ;61K15 (" +ell (" +!e)(*g(-

(* h!gh o-t!#(l !"-e%"!o*. N(tu%(ll& o##u%%!*g !(6o*" h($e ( e*"!t& %(*g!*g '%o6 .1

. g/#6 +!th -u%e !(6o* #lo"e to .9 g/#6. The #he6!#(l )o*" th(t hol the #(%)o*

3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedral-octahedral_honeycombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_hybridisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_hybridisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_cubichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_centered_cubichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandgaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedral-octahedral_honeycombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_hybridisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_cubichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_centered_cubichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandgap


9/21

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(to6" !* !(6o*" togethe% (%e +e(e% th(* tho"e !* g%(-h!te. I* !(6o*" the )o*" 'o%6

(* !*'le,!)le th%ee=!6e*"!o*(l l(tt!#e +he%e(" !* g%(-h!te the (to6" (%e t!ghtl& )o*e !*to

"heet" +h!#h #(* "l!e e("!l& o$e% o*e (*othe% 6(!*g the o$e%(ll "t%u#tu%e +e(e%.

A##o%!*g to P. G. 09??5 +!th the Moh" "#(le o' 1? !(6o* !" the h(%e"t *o+* *(tu%(l

6(te%!(l o* the Moh" "#(le o' 6!*e%(l h(%*e"" +he%e h(%*e"" !" e'!*e (" %e"!"t(*#e to

"#%(t#h!*g (* !" g%(e )et+ee* 1 0"o'te"t5 (* 1? 0h(%e"t5. D!(6o*" h(%*e"" (* h!gh

6elt!*g -o!*t 6(e !t u"e'ul 'o% #utt!*g tool" "u#h (" the !(6o*=t!--e !"#" u"e to #ut

)%!#" (* #o*#%ete. He($&=ut& %!ll )!t" l!e tho"e u"e to %!ll th%ough %o#" !* the o!l

e,-lo%(t!o* !*u"t%& (%e 6(e +!th !(6o*" "o th(t the& "t(& "h(%- 'o% lo*ge%.

II. :he6!#(l P%o-e%t!e"

D!(6o* !" ge*e%(ll& !*e%t to 6o"t #he6!#(l e*$!%o*6e*t" +!th the *ot()le e,#e-t!o* o'

o,!(t!o*. I* -u%e o,&ge* the o*"et o' o,!(t!o* h(" )ee* "ho+* to "t(%t (t te6-e%(tu%e ("

lo+ (" 9?: 'o% '!*el& !$!e -o+e%" (* to )e#o6e %(-! ()o$e 3??:. D!(6o* )u%*"

)%!ghtl& !* (* o,&ge* et (t 9?:. D!(6o* !" %e"!"t(*t to (ll l!u! o%g(*!# (* !*o%g(*!#

(#!" (t %oo6 te6-e%(tu%e. Ho+e$e% !t #(* )e et#he )& "e$e%(l #o6-ou*" !*#lu!*g "t%o*g

o,!!e%" "u#h (" "o!u6 (* -ot(""!u6 *!t%(te" ()o$e ??: )& 'lu,e" o' "o!u6 (*

-ot(""!u6 #hlo%(te" (* )& 6olte* h&%o,!e" "u#h (" N(OH. It !" %e"!"t(*t to (l(l!" (*

"ol$e*t". At (--%o,!6(tel& 1???: !t %e(#t" %e(!l& +!th #(%)!e='o%6!*g 6et(l" "u#h (" Fe

:o N! Al T( (* B.


10/21

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&o"'r$on o% D'ond$ 'nd ,r'"+t#

Pro"#rt#$ D'ond Gr'"+t#

Ph&"!#(l (*

:he6!#(l

e%& h(% 0Moh" 1?5

Ele#t%!#(l !*"ul(to%

:olo%le""

Mo%e e*"e 'o%6

Le"" %e(#t!$e 'o%6

e%& "o't 0Moh" < 15

Ele#t%!#(l #o*u#to%

Bl(# !* #olo%

Le"" e*"e 'o%6

Mo%e %e(#t!$e 'o%6

U"e" G%!*!*g/()%("!$e"

Ao%*6e*t

Sol! lu)%!#(*t

Ele#t%oe"

:%u#!)le"

Neut%o* 6oe%(to% !* *u#le(% %e(#to%"

H!gh "t%e*gth #o6-o"!te"

Q


11/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

!.* Ot+#r '))otro"#$ (5 c'r(on

F,ur# 1 -Allot%o-e" o' #(%)o*. (From top left)D!(6o* G%(-h!te A6o%-hou" #(%)o*

S-he%!#(l 'ulle%e*e Ell!-"o!(l 'ulle%e*e Tu)ul(% 'ulle%e*e

2


12/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

*.0 T+# U$',# o% D'ond 'nd Gr'"+t#

Gr'"+t#

The te#h*olog& to 6(*u'(#tu% g%(-h!te !*to 6ole g%(-h!te !" $e%"(t!le !6-%o$e6e*t" !* the

6(*u'(#tu%!*g te#h*!ue" (%e #o*t!*uou"l& 6(e (* the "#o-e o' (--l!#(t!o*" !" g%(u(ll&

e,-(*!*g. Th!" e,-(*"!o* !" the !%e#t %e"ult o' ( "!e()le %e"e(%#h e''o%t #(%%!e out )&

6(*& +o%e%" !* u*!$e%"!t!e" go$e%*6e*t l()o%(to%!e" (* !*u"t%&. I* the l("t t+e*t& &e(%"

o% "o "e$e%(l 6(o% (--l!#(t!o*" o' 6ole g%(-h!te h($e e$elo-e !*to (* !6-o%t(*t

#o6-le, (* !$e%"e !*u"t%!(l 6(%et. Be#(u"e o' th!" !$e%"!t& the #l(""!'!#(t!o* o' the"e

(--l!#(t!o*" !" ( #%!t!#(l '(#to% !' ( -%o-e% -e%"-e#t!$e o' the !*u"t%& !" to )e o)t(!*e.

. A"")c'ton$ n t+# M#t') Proc#$$n, Indu$tr5

G(( 012215 -o!*t out th(t o*e the l(%ge"t u"e o' g%(-h!te !" (" ele#t%oe" !* the -%ou#t!o*

o' "teel !* ele#t%!#=(%# 'u%*(#e" 6o"tl& 'o% the %e#l(6(t!o* o' 'e%%ou" "#%(-. Th!" !" )e#(u"e

g%(-h!te ele#t%oe" h($e goo ele#t%!#(l #o*u#t!$!t& goo %e'%(#to%& -%o-e%t!e" (* lo+

#o"t. Be"!e "teel (lu6!*u6 (l"o -%o#e""e ele#t%ot&t!#(ll& (* the -%ou#t!o* o' the*e#e""(%& ele#t%oe" !" the "e#o*=l(%ge"t (--l!#(t!o* o' 6ole g%(-h!te. The (*oe" (%e

"!6!l(% to tho"e u"e !* ele#t%!#=(%# "teel -%ou#t!o* (* (%e (l"o 6(*u'(#tu%e '%o6

-et%oleu6=#oe '!lle% (* #o(l=t(% -!t#h. The (lu6!*u6 #olle#t" (t the #(thoe" +h!#h (%e

l(%ge )lo#" l!*!*g the ele#t%ol&t!# #ell. The"e #(thoe" +e%e o%!g!*(ll& 6(e o' )(e #(%)o*

)("e o* (*th%(#!te #o(l )ut !* %e#e*t &e(%" h($e )ee* u-g%(e (* (%e *o+ 6(e o'

6ole g%(-h!te '%o6 -et%oleu6 #oe.

1?


13/21

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&/EMISTR2 1

. Nuc)#'r A"")c'ton$

Although *o+* 'o% !t" )%!ttle*e"" (* #he6!#(ll& !*e%t M(*tell 0123Q5 "t(te th(t 6ole

g%(-h!te !" o*e o' the )e"t 6(te%!(l" 'o% *u#le(%='!""!o* (--l!#(t!o*" "!*#e !t #o6)!*e" h!gh*eut%o*=6oe%(t!*g e''!#!e*#& (* ( lo+ *eut%o*=()"o%-t!o* #%o"" "e#t!o* goo 6e#h(*!#(l

"t%e*gth (* #he6!#(l %e"!"t(*#e e("e o' 6(#h!*()!l!t& (* %el(t!$el& lo+ #o"t.

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. &+#c') '"")c'ton

G%(-h!te !" !*e%t to #he6!#(l %e(#t!o* thu" g%(-h!te (l"o h(" 6(*& (--l!#(t!o*" !* (%e(" +he%e

#he6!#(l %e"!"t(*#e !" the 6(o% '(#to%. Su#h (--l!#(t!o*" (%e 'ou* !* #he6!#(l %e(#to%" he(t

e,#h(*ge%" "te(6 et" #he6!#(l=$(-o% e-o"!t!o* eu!-6e*t (* #(tho!#=-%ote#t!o* (*oe"

'o% -!-el!*e" o!l %!g" D:=-o+e% l!*e" (* h!gh+(& (* )u!l!*g #o*"t%u#t!o*. The%e (%e

6(*& h!gh te6-e%(tu%e u"e" 'o% g%(-h!te !* the #he6!#(l !*u"t%& "u#h (" !* the -%ou#t!o* o'

-ho"-ho%u" (* #(l#!u6 #(%)!e !* (%# 'u%*(#e". G%(-h!te !" u"e (" (*oe" !* "o6e (ueou"

ele#t%ol&t!# -%o#e""e" "u#h (" !* the -%ou#t!o* o' h(loge*" 0#hlo%!*e (* 'luo%!*e.5

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D'ond

. Indu$tr') D'ond Po6d#r7 Grt7 'nd Ston#$

Stu& )& Au"t!* 012215 -%o$e th(t ("!e '%o6 *(tu%(l !(6o* "6(ll "&*thet!# #%&"t(l" 0


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. M#dc') '"")c'ton$

H(6!lto* 0122?5 "tu& o* :D 0#he6!#(l $(-ou% e-o"!t!o*5 !(6o* 'ou* out th(t !t !" (*

e,#elle*t 6(te%!(l 'o% +!*o+" o' ,=%(& "-e#t%o6ete%". I* th!* #%o"" "e#t!o* !t !" t%(*"-(%e*t

to the ,=%(&" ge*e%(te )& lo+=e*e%g& ele6e*t" "u#h (" )o%o* #(%)o* (* (* !" "u-e%!o% to

)e%&ll!u6 +h!#h !" the -%e"e*t "t(*(% 6(te%!(l. D!(6o* !" *o+* 'o% !t" le(=t!ght to

hel!u6 (* #(-()le o' +!th"t(*!*g (t le("t o*e (t6o"-he%e !''e%e*t!(l -%e""u%e.

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. M$c#))'n#ou$ u$',#

N(tu%(l !(6o* !" u"e (l6o"t e,#lu"!$el& 'o% (--l!#(t!o*" %eu!%!*g h(l' ( #(%(t o% 6o%e

"u#h (" he(t "!*" o-t!#(l +!*o+" *!$e" (* othe%" e"#%!)e )elo+. Although !(6o*

#(* )e #o*"!e%e (" the !e(l o-t!#(l 6(te%!(l !t h(" 'ou* l!ttle (--l!#(t!o*" !* o-t!#" "o '(%

)e#(u"e o' !t" %e"t%!#te "!e (* h!gh #o"t. It h(" )ee* u"e )& NASA (" (* o-t!#(l +!*o+

'o% the P!o*ee% e*u" "-(#e#%('t #le(%l& ( #("e +he%e #o"t !" "e#o*(%& to -e%'o%6(*#e. Se(l

012215 'ou* out th(t )e"!e u"e 'o% o-t!#(l -u%-o"e" *(tu%(l !(6o* (l"o #(* )e u"e (" (

"!*gle=#%&"t(l (*$!l th(t #(* ge*e%(te e,t%e6el& h!gh -%e""u%e" u- to 4.3 M)(% 0( -%e""u%e

"!g*!'!#(*tl& h!ghe% th(* the -%e""u%e (t the #e*te% o' the e(%th5.

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4. T+#ronc A"")c'ton$ 8Po6#r $u"")59

A !(6o*=#o(te #&l!*e% o' %e'%(#to%& 6et(l 0N) Mo ; o% Re5 6(& %e-l(#e the

#&l!*%!#(l #e%(6!# !*"ul(to%" u"e !* the%6!o*!# 'uel ele6e*t" 0TFE5 'o% "-(#e *u#le(%=

-o+e% "&"te6" (A(6" 12215. A TFE #o*$e%t" the the%6(l e*e%g& '%o6 ( *u#le(% %e(#t!o*

!*to ele#t%!#(l e*e%g& (* !" e"!g*e to -%o$!e -o+e% to ( "-(#e#%('t 'o% (" lo*g (" te*

&e(%". The u*!ue -%o-e%t!e" o' !(6o* +oul -%e$e*t -o+e% lo"" ue to ele#t%!#(l le((ge

+h!le "!6ult(*eou"l& %e6o$!*g the +("te he(t '%o6 the 'uel ele6e*t. A 6ol&)e*u6

#&l!*e% 13 66 !* !(6ete% (* 66 !* le*gth +(" #o(te +!th /!6 o' :D !(6o* )&

D: -l("6( 0G(%(#(e* 12215.

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.0 &onc)u$on

Allot%o-e" o' #(%)o* h($e "!6!l(% #he6!#(l -%o-e%t!e" )ut !''e%e*t -h&"!#(l -%o-e%t!e" ue to

the "t%u#tu%e o' the (llot%o-e". The #(%)o*=h&%oge* )o* -l(&" (" !6-o%t(*t -(%t !* the

6e#h(*!"6 o' -&%ol&"!" o' #(%)o* #o6-ou*" (* !* the 'o%6(t!o* o' g%(-h!te (* !(6o*.

The )o* o' #(%)o* h&%oge* (l"o (''e#t" the e*e%g& (" the le*gth" o' the #(%)o*=h&%oge*

)o* (%e %el(te to the t&-e o' h&)%!!(t!o* o' the #(%)o* (to6. Due to the !''e%e*t t&-e o'

)o* (* "t%u#tu%(l (%%(*ge6e*t $(%!et& o' #(%)o* (llot%o-e" +!th !''e%e*t -u%-o"e #(* )e

ut!l!e. A" ( #o*#lu"!o* !t !" u*e*!()le th(t #(%)o* !" ( u*!ue ele6e*t (" u(%te% o' the

u*!$e%"e (* the e(%th !" 6(e u- #(%)o* !t !" t%ul& ( 6(o% ele6e*t !* the u*!$e%"e. Although

th!" "tu& o*l& 'o#u"e" o* the (--l!#(t!o* o' g%(-h!te (* !(6o* "#hol(%" -%o$e th(t (ll

(llot%o-e" o' #(%)o* -l(& (* !6-o%t(*t %ole !* !*u"t%& te#h*olog& (* he(lth.

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RUJUKAN

A(6" S. F. (* L(*"t%("" 012215 M. I. A--l!#(t!o*" o' D!(6o* F!l6" (* Rel(teM(te%!(l" 0. Te*g et (l. e".5 1=3, Elsevier cience Publishers

Au"t!* G. T. 012215 :e%(6!# Bull. ?05CQ3?

G(( I. ;. 012295 T+e*t!eth B!e**!(l:o*'. o* :(%)o* U*!$. o' :(l. S(*t( B(%)(%( :A

H.;. Fo+le% F.G. Fo+le% 012345 The :o*#!"e O,'o% D!#t!o*(%& o' :u%%e*t E*gl!"h

Clarendon Press, O!ford.

H(6!lto* R. F. G(%g. D. ;oo K. A. (* Hoo$e% D. S 0122?5 P%o#. R(& :o*'. ol. 4

De*$e%

J. ;(le% 01225 O-t!#(l ()"o%-t!o* (* lu6!*e"#e*#e !* !(6o*. Re-. P%og. Ph&". 4901?5

13?L. ;e! P.K. Kuo R.L. Tho6(" T.R. A*tho*& ;.F. B(*hole% 01225 The%6(l #o*u#t!$!t&

o' !"oto-!#(ll& 6o!'!e "!*gle #%&"t(l !(6o*. Ph&". Re$. Lett. 00945

M(*tell :. L 0123Q5 :(%)o* (* G%(-h!te H(*)oo 21 =494 "nterscience Publishers,

#e$ %or&

R. Setto* P. Be%*!e% S. Le'%(*t 09??95 :(%)o* Mole#ule" (* M(te%!(l" C'C Press, #e$

%or&.

Re( P. G. 09??5. Ge66olog&.(utter$orth)*einemann. --. 42?.

Se(l M. 012Q25 I*te%!"#!-l!*(%& S#!e*#e Re$!e+, 14015C34=3

S-(!* I. L 0125 !* :he6!"t%& (* Ph&"!#" o' :(%)o*, 0P. L.;(le% (* P. A. Th%o+e%

e".5 ol. Q M(%#el Dee% I*#. Ne+ o%

;(le% J. 01225. O-t!#(l ()"o%-t!o* (* lu6!*e"#e*#e !* !(6o*.'eports on Pro+ress in

Physics!01?5C 13?132.

;u R. L G(%(#(e* A. (* Kee P. 012215--l!#(t!o*" o' D!(6o* F!l6" (* Rel(te

M(te%!(l"0. Te*g et (l. e".5 3=?Elsevier cience Publishers

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