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3.5. A participle or participle phrase. Usually this refers:a) to the perfect participleHavingfinished, he went home.b) to participial phrasesHaving done this, this (being) done, when interviewed. etc.This done, we took our leave.3.6. Absolute constructions - mainly the absolute * nominative:(His) hands in his pockets, he went out.He came to me hat in hand.3.7. A prepositional gerundial phrase:On taking him home, he found the boy was hungry.She had troubles at the officefor having quarelled with her boss.3.8. An infinitive or an infinitivalphrase:bought the book to read it (final - cf.2.g.)went home to eat (idem)I bought itfor you to read (usually called "for phrase + infinitive,,or"the for-to infi nitive").4'0' As regards the normal word-order in declarative sentences, one moreobservation is necessary' The most frequent combination of adverbial rnpdifiersbeing Manner, Place, Time, they occur precisely in this (alphabetical) order.

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XI. THE ATTRIBUTE0.1. English attributes follow the lines of attributes in most languages in many

respects. On the other lrand, as against Romanian affributes they differ mainlyihrorgn the great abundance and frequency of attributes expressed by the mere,i"tpf! juxtaposition noun + noun, rn which the first element discharges anattriUutiu. role towards the second noun whether it is written separately,lyphenated of solid-spelt. Su inations afe also frequent in Germanferp..iurry solid-spelt) while in butive noun is hardly ever foundin' ort, position; the increas very numerous noun + nouncombinations (e.g., casd-vagon, mobild ti, !a-tip, bloc turn, gris farin' etc')preserve the noun discharging a secondary, attributive role, in post-position'

0.2. The above-mentioned variation in spelling (the separation or juncturebetween the aftribute and the main noun) is not always relevant and anyhow usagehas not yet said its final word in this matter. Nor have dictionaries reached a.onr.nru, in this respect, fluctuations being ample and rather inconsistent both intexts of various natures and in reference works of all kinds.Nevertheless, as soon as we notrce a greater frequency of a solid-spelt noun +noun combination, we should assimilate it, for this semms to be the main tendencyin contemporary British usage (in spite of the divergences and in spite of thegreater laxiry perceptible in American usage)'

1.0. In terms of general logic, including that of English grammar, the attributemay be defined as tie secondary part of a sentence which delermines or modifiesthi subieit of the sentence or qny other noun or noun equivalent, iruespective ofthe syntactical role it discharges.Therefore, an attribute may modifo (the semantic value of) or determinellendprecision to/parlicularize the subject, the predicative, the direct' indirect orprepositional objecl as well as a noun which is part of a phrase used as anadv erb ial ntod ifi er, etc -To put it iifferently, any nontinal part of the sentence (any of the nomina inmorphofogy) may have its attribute (though personal pronouns for instance offersome constraints - their attributes being limited to appositions - see below).l.l. As attributes differ widely in their nature - denoting qualities, age,material, colour, nationality, etc., as well as determinative details such as: time,place, appurtenance, etc. - the questions answered by attributes are also numerousand diverse: what?:, what kind of, whose?, which?, how much?, how many?,belonging to whom?, etc.

1.2. Because of the variety of means for expressing the attribute, in Englishthe discrimination is sometimes difficult or fairly relative between attributes andoth., parts of the sentence, especially the prepositional obiect (cf. the discussion165

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in the respective chapter) and some adverbial modifiers. The guiding elementsshould be the specific questions answered by the respective parls of the sentenceand the theoretical conclusiort brought about by u close observation of 3p6meditation upon the main or secondary parts of the sentence, to which the elementunder review refers. (lf it is more closely connected with the action, state q1description present in the sentence, it must be part of the predicate group -therefore probably an adverbial modifier; if it is linked to the subject - or, on theother hand, to another noun in the sentence - it should be ari aftribute.) 4nadditional difficulry is provided by the utilization of such adverbial modifiers ofite en, today,, etc. after nan onnected with verbs).uat by' distinguishing thehicly in English any parl of sfun h applies to other parls ofwit ) the more specific ways ofthe (listed more or less in the o

2.1. The typical attribute in any language is the adjective, which holds goodfor English too. Adjectives are of several kinds:2.1.1. An anribute may be expressed especially by a ntodifl,,ing adjecthe of thesub-type "qualificative/qualifying" - e.g., beautiful, kind, nice, tall, etC.2.1.2. Relative adjectives (referring to ntaterial, colour, nature, epe, size, etc.)also holds an important part among attributes - e .8., a stone wall, -a silk dress,golden hair, brown eyes, etc.am '1lfuix"{,2'iff;di adjectives:

Among attributes expressed by a word ending in -ing, the distinction is usuallymade between "verbal adjectives" (e.g., singing bird - a bird which sings) and"verbal nouns" (e.g., she takes singing lessons : lessons in singing : leclii decanto/cint) with various distinctions, including the fact that most of the verbaladjectives may have also degrees of coinparison, which is impossible for aftributesexpressed by a noun of any nature whatever (cf. also the examples with the wordFrench below).2.1.4. Adjectives derived from a past participle (e.g., for all parties concerned: "pentru toate parfile/persoanele interesate/implicate") seem to originate in anabbreviated attributive clause:The book read by him.seems to derive fromThe book which was read by him.unlike most of the other attributes, this category takes mainlyespecially when the derivation from a clause is clearer. that166

post-Position,is when the

appear to English ears or minds as beingtire adjective concerned, two adjectivesa qualiiative/modifying one with the fulllar adjective, and a determinig one (as inclauie) which remains in post-position

alotte'2.1.5. Pos'.sessive ucljeclit,es are naturally frequent among determiningattributes: M\' father is yourrger than /uis cousln'

2.1.6. A dentonstratit,e adjectit'e is frequerrtly used with English nouns:That book is more interesting than t/zis one'

I don't much ltKe thent rlowers; rllsy srrr.;rr2.l.l.lndefinite adjectives of various kinds (any, either, neither' many' few'

several, some, etc.) are often used as attributes'Will you have sonte more sugar in your tea?Therearemanytreesoneithersideofthestreet.2.1.8. Interrogative acliecrives (what, which, whose) and their combinations

with noun s (uthatiind o7"t"') are also used as attributes:I4rhat book are You reading?Which book do You Prefer?ll'hose urnbrella did I take by mistake?Whot kinrt of flowers do You Prefer?

2.2. Nttmerals of various kinds may be used as attributes'2.2.1. Specifically they are ordinal numerals"Fromtheverylrs/momentlnoticedhewasjustababy.

Note 1: As is easily noticed, the numeral may be determined in its turn'Note 2: The function of the ordinal numeral is sometimes discharged by a cardinalnumeral, "rp."iutif when brevity is an important factor' for instance in titles:

Chapterl/IV/FourisrnuchshorterthanChapterFive,elc.2.2.2 Cardinal nunterals taken in themselves, with their specific function'often serve as attributes:Hecan'twriteortypemorethan.J0wordsaminute,whileinshorthandhecantakedownaSmanyas]20wordsaminute'

2.3. Nouns of various kinds can serve as attributes in the following situations:2.3.1.In the genitive either expressed/explicit - (a.) synthetic or (b.) analyic -or (c.) imPl icit/unmarked :

e adjectives, highly colloquial orsubstandard English records the improper f the pronoun thent instead of theseor those, especially with a slightly derogatory connotatlon:

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2.3.1.1. C omnton nouns :(a.) The Ll/ifr't Complaint.(a.) The Pilgrim's Progress.(b.) The edge of the table is rugged.(c.) The student hostel is close by.(c.) The United Nations Organization (implicit genitive in the plural)2.3.1.2. Proper nqmes:Peter's brothers are my best friends.

S t. P atr ic k's Cathedral.John's cousin's dog is wonderful (double genitive - the first for aproper name)IJncle Tom's Cabin.2.3.2.In the nominative (by mere juxtaposition, to be distinguished, however,from the implicit genitive - cf . 2.3.1 .).Evening Tales is a book by Sadoveanu.This is a solid gold watch.The research plan is successfully being carried out.Usually such "numeral + noun" attributive phrases do not employ the plural markfor the noun, that is they apply the same form as the implicit genitives (cf. 2.3.1.).Further examples: \.She takes French lessons three times a week.In this case French is a noun, standing for the French language: ia lec[ii de

francezd, germand, etc. to be distinguished from the adjective used attributively inFrench wines/fi lms/novels, etc.2.3.3. Nouns preceded by prepositions (therefore normally considered to be inthe Accusative/Object case - whi'ie in the case of the preposition ofgrammariansusually consider it is the genitive again).A report on the development of the village was tabled at the meeting.(Alternative order of words: A report was tabled at the meeting on thedevelopntent of the village - the predicate being brought closer to the subject andthe attributes being relegated to their subordinate ptace).The prospectsfor thefather were still very good.He is a man of substance (: un om cu stare\.Give me a glass of water, etc2.4. Apronoun preceded by a preposition can serve as an attribute:

A friend of mine said he would buy some of them.2.5. An infinitive and especially an infinitival phrase can serve as attributes:Theirs is a friendly desire to help (us in our work), etc.2.6- A gerundial phrase can also discharge an attributive rore:The thought came to him of buying a bicycle for Martin.2.7.Adver s may be used attributivelly, even more frequently in English thanin Romanian. Their function is usually determinative (all the more so as t[ev are in

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most cases adverbs of place or of defirrite time) but sometitnes modifyingi,npti.utions may be present (for instance now = present, current).r'--' The furnitute downstairs is very agreeableThe conditions here are even better than they used to be.The situation now is as stated below'The now Government of the country is influenced by the agreetnentssigned by the then Presidenr.We met at the junction but he wasLondra), while I was waiting for thein provincie).r ikirrg the up train (: trenul dedown train (: trenul care merge

2.8. By any word or group of words used in order to modifo on determine thesubject of another noun in the sentence'She is a regular stay-at-home wife (the hyphenation is current)'

Word for word translation should be avoided (the hyphenation is unusual).ly'clauses should be distinguished from whether-clauses (hyphenationnecessary).1ry11-qlestions are scientifically called special or particular questions, whileyes/no questions (also called yes or no questions) bear the scientific name ofgeneral questions.

2.9. Naturally, attributes may be stressedby attributive clauses, introduced byvarious elements, not only relative pronouns: which, that, who, whom' whose'when, where, whY, how, etc.The day (when) it rained, we stayed at home'The day will come when you will regret itt'The place where we gave the party was very nlce'My uncle v,ho livei at Buziu is older than my uncle who lives inCraiova.3.0. A particular type of attribute in various languages is the Apposition'3.1. Even in English, where nouns can be used attributively by merejuxtaposition to anothei noun, the apposition is distinguished as,an element which

renders the main noun more prec$e or definite or serves for identification' whilestanding in the same nominative case as the lalter'3.2. Appositions are subdivided in terms of their structure and the punctuation

they require'into simple and loose, irrespective of their function'3.3. The simple/close apposition is closely connected with the respective

noun, being used without commas, usually in the form ofjust one noun in order todetermine or explain or define names of persons, titles, professions, geographicalnames, etc.:

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Doctor Johnson was a prominent figure of English letters.Queen Elizabeth was the ruler of Slrakespeare's England.The American w,riter Theodore Dreiser is best knownnovel An American Tragedy. through hisThe River Thames is not very long but is navigable for the mosr partthanks to its broad estuary and to the tide.

3.3.1. Opiniolts differ as to the rnain/head noun in such cases. In ourconception the name of the profession, the specification of the kind of w.atercourse etc., in the above examples, is rather the subordinate, explanatory elementused to identify or clarify the narne used as a subject etc. On the other hand it istrue that in certain cases the situation may be reversed, especially by subjective oremphatic stress, used for contrast:Doctor 'Johrron, not Doctor'Sntith, was called. (involving contrast ofperson), while \Docror Johnson, not \Colonel Johnson, iung me up,(involving contrast of profession and therefore these nouns seem to bethe main/head element - thanks to emphasis - and not the name).

3.4. The loose apposition (in Romanian apozilie dezvoltatd) is separated bycommas, even if it does not include more than one word, the reason being that it rsconsidered parenthetical, less important or essential than the close/simpleapposition. \Mrs. crawley, The rector's wife, was a smaft little body, who wrotethe worthy divine's sermons. (Thackeray, Vanity Fair)Mr. Smith, the/our President, delivered a speech.NOTE l: Loose appositions may follow and determine also a whole clause:George's grand parents asked him to spend his holidays with them inthe country, w'hich he readily accepted. (Only the relative pronounwhich can be employed in such cases.)

NOTE 2: When the apposition is correlative, coreferential or resumed, it is usuallypreceded by the indefinite arlicle, whether it follows a noun or a clause:Engineer Popescu, an engineer v,ho graduated front BraSov, has nowassumed the management of the Craiova works.They asked me to have supper with them, an invitation which I gtadtyjumped at.

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xII.HoMoGENEOUSANDINDEPENDENTELEMENTSINTHESENTENCEICLAUSE1.0. A sentence rnay irrclude several eletnents of the same kind, (e.g'' subjects,-attributes. etc.) u hich are connected by co-ordinatiol (both b-v" me,ns ofco-orclincrting conjunctions - copulative or otherr,vise - and asynclenlic:ull1t. tlrat is

Ly juxtaposiiion,- with or without commas - cf. coordirration irr Cornpourrdsentences;.These elements which discharge tlre same role irr tlre sentence are called eithet','homogeneous pafts of the sentence/clause" or coordirrated subjects, attributes,direct objects, prepositional objects, etc'He and his brother are my best friends. (coordirrated subjects)He wrote novels, short stories (and) poems. (coordinated directobjects).He is very fond of sv,imming, dancing (and) skiing. (coordinatedprepositional obj ects)i adore to sing ind to pla1, 17, pianoil adore singing and plaving thepiurro. (coordinated d irect objects)He usually comes l'tere on Thursdal's and Saturduys' (coordinatedadverbial modifiers of definite time)The book is to be found in otr library, in the other librories of theuniversity, in school libraries and (practicallfl everytuhere in thecortntry. (coordinated adverbial modifiers of place)l.l. Several words discharging the same syntactical function and holding thesanre relations as to the other parts of the sentence, while appearing in identical orvery sirnilar syntagms are called homogeneous parts of the sentence'In order to be identified as such, they must answer identical or very sinrilarquestions, either specific Q+,here? v,hen? v,ho? etc.) or non-specific (by u'honr'')with v,hat? under v'hal circuttlstonces/conditions?)l.f.l If two or several parts of the sentence seem to fill the same place and todiscSarge the same roles in the sentence. but it is impossible to apply the same,ous, in spite of their appearence. Besidess of the sentetrce in the chaptels on the

nodifiers, the attribtrte, etc' here are'Pr$e

As the first prepositional phrase never answers the question by wh.at? it is veryeasily identihed as a prepositional object of mea-ns of transportation -wlrile the,..ond prepositiorral pirrase cannot answer a similar question, the right questionapplying to it being how?, thus, identifying it as an adverbial modifier of manner).He came home late rtnd drunk'171