Appendices

Appendix A: International Reference Values

(Indicator values 2004. The values arecontinuously changing so these give anindication on the levels)

International Reference Values: Soils

Peter Bobrowsky, Roger Paulen,Pauline Smedley, and Brian J. Alloway

Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Heavy Metals and

Metalloids in Soils (mgkg�1)

Element UK (1) UK (2) Netherlands USA AUS NZ Europe

Targ Int

Arsenic 20 50 29 55 – 20 10 –

Cadmium 1 (pH 6) 3 (pH >5) 0.8 12 20 1 (3 SA) 3 1–3

2 (pH 7)

8 (pH 8)

Chromium 130 (400prov) 100 380 1,500 100 600 –

Copper – 80 (pH 5–5.5) 36 190 750 100 (200 SA) 140 50–140

100 (pH 5.5–6)

135 (pH 6–7)

200 (pH >7)

Mercury 8 1 (pH >5) 0.3 10 8 1 1 1–1.5

Nickel 50 50 (pH 5–5.5) 35 210 210 60 35 30–75

Lead 450 300 85 530 150 150 (200 SA) 300 50–300

Zinc – 200 (pH 5–7) 720 140 1,400 200 (250 SA) 300 150–300

300 (pH >7)

Notes and references: UK (1)—Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment (CLEA) guidance values (to be used as part of a risk assessment for

contaminated sites), Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, R & D Publications SGV 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 10, Environment Agency,

Bristol, 2002. UK (2)—for normal agricultural soils and values for zinc and copper in all types of soil. The Soil Code: Code of Good Agricultural

Practice for the Protection of Soil PB0617, MAFF, London, 1998. Netherlands—Dutch Limits Targ target values (which it is intended that soil

should reach) and Int intervention values (when site needs to be cleaned up). These values are for assessing the need for remediation of land

suspected of being contaminated and apply to a—standard soil containing 10% organic matter and 25% clay. VROM (2000) circular on target

values and intervention values for soil remediation. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment, Department of Soil Protection

(VROM) The Hague, The Netherlands. DBO/1999226863. USA—Maximum concentrations for soils treated with biosolids (sewage sludge)

McGrath et al. 1994. Land application of sewage sludge: scientific perspective if heavy metal loading limits in Europe and the United States.

Environmental Reviews, 2, 108–118. Australia and New Zealand—Guidelines for controlling metal concentrations in soils for reuse of biosolids

(SA values used in the state of South Australia). McLaughlin et al. (2000). Review: A bioavailability-based rationale for controlling metal and

metalloid contamination of agricultural land in Australia and New Zealand. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 38, 1037–1086. Europe—for

countries of the European Union for soils receiving sewage sludge (assumes soil pH 6–7), lower value is guideline value, upper value is the

mandatory limit. Commission of the European Communities (1986) Council Directive (86/278/EEC) on the protection of the environment, and in

particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture. Official Journal of the European Communities, 15, 69–81.

O. Selinus et al. (eds.), Essentials of Medical Geology: Revised Edition,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4375-5, # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

755

International Reference Values: Water

Peter Bobrowsky, Roger Paulen, Brian J. Alloway,and Pauline Smedley

Regulations and guidelines: inorganic trace constituents in

drinking water, excluding radiological parameters. All Units

in mg/L unless other stated

Country or

Institution

Nature of

standards Comments Date Al Ag As B Ba Be Ca Cd Cl Cr Cu DO

Australia Guidelines Health-based guidelines 2011 100 10 4,000 2,000 60 2 50vi 2,000

Guidelines Aesthetic guidelines 2011 200 250,000 1,000 85% saturated

Canada Guidelines Health-based guidelines 2010 10 5,000 1,000 5 50

Guidelines Aesthetic guidelines 2010 100/

200a

250,000 1,000

Japan Regulations Drinking water quality

standards

2004 200 10 1,000 300,000 10 200,000 50vi 1,000

Guidelines Complementary items

for water

management

2004 10,000–100,000

EC

(European

Commission)

Regulations Maximum permissible

values

1998 10 1,000 5 50 2,000

Regulations Indicator parameters 1998 200 250,000

US EPA Regulations Primary standards

(Maximum contaminant

levels, MCLs)

2009 10 2,000 4 5 100 1,300~

Guidelines Secondary standards 2009 50–200 100 250,000 1,000

WHO Guidelines Guideline values 2011 2,400 700 3 2,000

Guidelines Provisional guideline

values

2011 10 50

DO dissolved oxygen

* Applies only to water from treatment plants using Al-based coagulants (100 mg/L conventional/200 mg/L other types)

~ action level

# short-term exposure

vi as Cr (VI)

i for infants, 100mg/L for adults and children over 3 months

p provisional

756 Appendices

F Fe Hardness Hg H2S I Mg Mn Mo Na NH3 Ni NO2 NO3 pH Pb Sb Se Si SO4 Tl U V Zn

as CaCO3 as

H2S

as

NH3

as NO2 as NO3 as

SiO2

as SO4

1,500 1 500 500 50 20 3,000 50000i 10 3 10 17

300 200,000 50 100 180,000 500 6.5–8.5 80,000 250,000 3,000

1,500 45,000 6 10 20

300 50 50 6.5–8.5 500,000 5,000

800 300 0.5 300,000 50 200,000 32,800 44,300 5.8–8.6 10 10 1,000

10,000–100,000 10 10p 164p ca. 7.5 15 2p

1,500 1 20 500 50,000 10 5 10

200 50 200,000 500 6.5–9.5 250,000

4,000 2 3,300 44,300 15~ 6 50 2 30

2,000 300 50 6.5–8.5 250,000 5,000

1,500 6 70 3,000# 50,000# 20

10 40 30

Appendices 757

Appendix B: Web Links and Other RelevantInformation

Annotated URLs for Chapter-Related Web Sites of Interest

Chapter 20

Ania BJ, Asenjo M (2002) Mycetoma. eMedicine J http://

www.emedicine.com/MED/topic30.htm. Accessed 2002

Cambridge University Schistosomiasis Research Group

(2002) Helminth infections of man. University of Cambridge,

Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK, http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/.

Accessed 2002

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

(1999) What is farmer’s lung. Canadian Centre for Occu-

pational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada,

http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/farmers_lung.html.

Accessed 1999

Carey J, Motyl M, Perlman DC (2001) Catheter-related

bacteremia due to Streptomyces in a patient receiving

holistic infusions. In: Emerging infectious diseases, vol 6,

no 6, Nov–Dec, 2001, Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/

eid/index.htm

CDC (2002) U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Preven-

tion, Atlanta, Georgia, http://www.cdc.gov/. Accessed 2002

DoctorFungus (2002) DoctorFungus.org, http://www.

doctorfungus.org/thefungi/index.php. Accessed 2002

Health Canada (2002) Material safety data sheets, Health

Canada Population and Public Health Branch, Ottawa,

Canada, http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/msds-ftss/

index.html#menu. Accessed 2002

MackDR (2001)Dientamoeba fragilis infection, eMedicine

World Medical Library, http://www.emedicine.com/

McGinnis MR (1998) Introduction to mycology. In:

Baron S (ed) Medical microbiology, http://www.ncbi.nlm.

nih.gov/books/NBK8471/

NASA (2001a) Soil science education home page,

Goddard Space Flight Center Laboratory for Terrestrial

Physics, NASA, Greenbelt, Maryland, http://soil.gsfc.nasa.

gov/index.php?section=7

National Cattleman’s Beef Association and Cattleman’s

Beef Board (2001) Transmissible Spongiform Encephalo-

pathies (TSE): BSE Info Resource, http://bseinfo.org/.

Accessed 14 Feb 2002

National Institutes of Health (2001) Parasitic roundworm

diseases fact sheet, National Institute of Health, Washington,

DC, http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/roundwor.htm

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

(2000) Antimicrobial resistance: fact sheet, office of com-

munications and public liaison, U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services, p 4, http://www.niaid.nih.gov/

factsheets/antimicro.htm

NRCS (1999) Soil biology primer, National Resources

Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, DC, 53p, http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/earth/

toms/microbes.htm

Pitetti RD (2001) Visceral larva migrans, eMedicine

World Medical Library, http://www.emedicine.com/

Soil Science Society of America (1998) Internet glossary

of soil science terms, Soil Science Society of America,

Madison, Wisconsin, https://www.soils.org/publications/

soils-glossary

Soil Survey Staff (1998) Keys to soil taxonomy, Natural

Resource Conservation Service, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, DC, 40 p, ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.

gov/NSSC/Soil_Taxonomy/keys/2010_Keys_to_Soil_-

Taxonomy.pdf

Standing Medical Advisory Committee (1998) The path

of least resistance: report of the sub-group on Antimicrobial

Resistance, Department of Health, London, U.K, http://

www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/

PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4009357

University of California (2002a) Bacteria: life history

and ecology, Copyright 1994–2002 by The University of

California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, and the

Regents of the University of California, http://www.ucmp.

berkeley.edu/bacteria/bacterialh.html. Accessed 2002

University of California (2002b) Schistosomiasis in

China, University of California, Berkeley, California, the

Regents of the University of California, http://ehs.sph.

berkeley.edu/china2/

Valley Fever Center for Excellence (2002) What is valley

fever?, University of Arizona and Southern Arizona Veteran’s

Administration Healthcare System, Tucson, Arizona, http://

www.valleyfeversurvivor.com/faq.html. Accessed 2002

World Health Organization (1998) Emerging and

re-emerging infectious diseases: fact sheet #97, World Health

Organization, Geneva, http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact097.

html. Revised Aug 1998

World Health Organization (1999) Removing obstacle to

healthy development, World Health Organization, Geneva,

http://www.who.int/infectious-disease-report/index-rpt99.html

World Health Organization (2002) Antimicrobial

resistance: fact sheet #194, World Health Organization,

Geneva, http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact194.htm. Revised

Jan 2002

Chapter 28

Selected Online Earth Science/Geospatial Journals

• Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing Provides index to

journal issues dating back to 1992.

758 Appendices

• ESRI Digital Chart of the World & Data Quality Project

Downloadable papers related to using ESRI’s Digital

Chart of the World data series.

• ESRI White Papers: Papers related to using ESRI

products as well as GIS in general.

• GeoInformatica—An International Journal on Advances

of Computer Science for Geographic Information Systems.

• geoinformatik online (Uni Munster).

• Geo-Informations-Systeme (Wichmann/Huethig).

• GIS World Magazine

• Grassclippings: The Journal of Open Geographic Infor-

mation Systems.

• International Journal of GIS (Taylor & Francis, London).

• National Research Council, Board on Earth Sciences and

Resources Online reports.

• Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing(American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote

Sensing).

• The Harlow Report: Geographic Information Systems

Newsletter covering current GIS-related topics.

• Biomedical/Health Information

• Selected Biomedical/Health Data Resources

• National Library of Medicine Developed by the

U. S. National Library of Medicine, this program

offers access to most of the MEDLARS databases

including: MEDLINE, HealthSTAR, AIDSLINE,

BIOETHICSLINE, HISTLINE (History of Medicine).

• NCBI PubMed Sponsored by the National Center for

Biotechnology Information, this search interface covers

all citations covered in MEDLINE and PreMEDLINE.

• NCI CANCERLIT Produced by the National Cancer

Institute’s International Cancer Information Center,

CANCERLIT indexes over 1.3 million citations and

abstracts from over 4,000 sources, including biomedi-

cal journals, books and doctoral theses.

• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

(ATSDR): An agency of the U. S. Department of

Health and Human Services. Monitors exposure to

hazardous substances from waste sites, unplanned

releases, and other sources of pollution present in the

environment. Access to theHazDat Database and full-

text to Public Health Assessments.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):

Includes the latest health information and news,

publications (such as the Morbidity and Mortality

Weekly Report), statistics, funding information and

public domain computer software for working with

public health data.

• National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and

Health Promotion: Clearinghouse for information on

chronic disease prevention. Access to various full-text

publications and reports.

• National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention:

Comprehensive guide to the prevention, treatment,

and elimination of HIV, STDs, and TB. Full-text of

the HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report and the STD Treat-

ment Guidelines as well as access to several databases

covering news releases, funding opportunities, and

health services.

• National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS): The

nation’s principal health statistics agency. Includes

several statistical publications for download, including

several fact sheets, news releases, and reports.

• National Center for Infectious Diseases: Develops

programs to evaluate and promote prevention and con-

trol strategies for infectious diseases. Includes informa-

tion about many infectious diseases as well as online

access to the publications Emerging Infectious Diseases

and Health Information for International Travel.• National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease

(NIAID): Includes news for consumers and

professionals, full-text newsletters, and consumer

fact sheets and booklets, as well as a list of research

activities and clinical trials.

• National Institutes of Health (NIH): Gateway to clini-

cal and consumer oriented resources including health

information, funding opportunities, and scientific

resources.

• U.S. Census Bureau: Social, demographic and eco-

nomic information. Includes full-text to the Statistical

Abstract of the United States.• Center for International Health Information Provides

timely, reliable, and accurate information on the Pop-

ulation, Health, and Nutrition (PHN) sector in devel-

oping countries assisted by USAID. Full-text of

Country Health Profile Reports, and Population,

Health and Nutrition Indicators.• World Health Organization (WHO): Promotes techni-

cal cooperation for health among nations, carries out

programs to control and eradicate disease and strives

to improve the quality of human life. Includes full text

to the World Health Reports and the Weekly Epidemi-

ological Record.• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

(ATSDR): An agency of the U. S. Department of

Health and Human Services. Monitors exposure to

hazardous substances from waste sites, unplanned

releases, and other sources of pollution present in the

environment. Access to theHazDat Database and full-text to Public Health Assessments.

Appendices 759

Appendix C: Glossary

a-axis a vector direction defined by the space group and

crystal structure for a particular crystalline form a term used

in crystallography.

absorption the process by which a substance or a xeno-

biotic is brought into a body (human or animal) or

incorporated into the structure of a mineral.

acanthosis increase in thickness of stratum spinosum

(specific layer in epidermis/skin).

acid rain contamination of rain by artificial pollutants or

natural emissions (such as sulfur dioxide from volcanic

activity) which produces an acid composition.

activity the thermodynamically effective concentration of

a chemical species or component.

acute myocardial infarction (AMI) gross necrosis of the

heart muscle as a result of interruption of the blood supply to

the area.

adsorption the binding of a chemical compound to a solid

surface.

advection a transport process in which dissolved

chemicals move with flowing groundwater.

albedo the percentage of the incoming solar radiation

reflected back by different parts of the Earth’s surface.

aldosterone a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal

gland that participates in the regulation of water balance by

causing sodium retention and potassium loss from cells.

aliquot a known amount of a homogeneous material,

assumed to be taken with negligible sampling error. When

a sample is “aliquoted”, or otherwise subdivided, the

portions may be called split samples.

alkali disease disease affecting animals that ingest feed

with a high selenium concentration, characterized by dull-

ness, lack of vitality, emaciation, rough coat, sloughing of

the hooves, erosion of the joints and bones, anemia, lame-

ness, liver cirrhosis, and reduced reproductive performance.

alkalinity the capacity of solutes in a solution to react with

and neutralize acid determined by titration with a strong acid

to an end point at which virtually all solutes contributing to

the alkalinity have reacted. In general the alkalinity in water

equates with the bicarbonate concentration.

allergy immunologic state induced in a susceptible subject

by an antigen (allergen).

alluvial deposited by rivers.

alteration (Earth science) a process due to high-

temperature fluids and gases that occurs within the Earth’s

crust and results in the formation of new mineral suites that

are in equilibrium with their environment. Alteration can

also occur at low temperatures.

aluminosilicate a mineral composed dominantly of alumi-

num, silicon, and oxygen, and lesser amounts of cations such

as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron.

amorphous a lack of crystallinity or the regular extended

three-dimensional order of the atoms in a solid.

anaerobic/aerobic environmental conditions in which

oxygen is absent/present.

analyte any substance whose identity or concentration is

being determined.

anemia any of several conditions in which the oxygen-

carrying capacity of the blood is below normal due to

reductions in the number of red blood cells (hypocytic)

and/or the amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell

(hypochromic).

aneuploidy cellular state where there is an abnormal

number of chromosomes, not a multiple of the haploid

number of chromosomes.

aneurysm localized ballooning of the aorta or an artery,

potentially causing pressure on adjacent structures and lia-

bility to rupture.

angiotensin a vasoconstrictive hormone.

antisense nucleic acid that has a sequence exactly opposite

an mRNA molecule made by the body binds to the mRNA

molecule to prevent a protein from being made.

apo without, especially metalloproteins without the metal/

metals.

apoptosis programmed cell death, in which a cell brings

about its own death and lysis, signaled from outside or

programmed in its genes, by systematically degrading its

own macromolecules.

aqueous speciation the partitioning of chemical

components between various aqueous species in a solution:

free species (e.g., Ca2+), ion pairs (e.g., CaCO30), and

complexes (e.g., Fe(CN)63�).

aquifer a water-bearing rock formation.

aquitard a rock formation with poor permeability and

hence a poor water-bearing unit.

archaea prokaryotes lacking a nucleus as bacteria, but

they are as different from bacteria as are humans they

760 Appendices

represent their own evolutionary pathway they live in

extreme places with high temperatures.

arenosols sandy soils with >65% sand-sized (0.05–2 mm)

particles these soils have lowmoisture and low concentrations

of most elements and are highly prone to causing deficiencies

of micronutrients in crops.

aridisol soils found in arid and semi-arid environments

characterized by a light color, poorly developed soil

horizons, high soluble salt content, little organic material,

and a coarse texture.

arrhythmia irregularity of the heart beat.

arthroconidia fungal spores released by fragmentation or

separation of the cells of a hypha.

asbestos a commonly used term for a group of fibrous

silicate minerals that includes extremely fibrous serpentine

(chrysotile) and the amphibole minerals crocidolite, amosite,

tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite.

asbestosis degenerative fibrosis of the lung resulting from

chronic inhalation of asbestos fibers.

ascariasis an infection caused by the parasitic worm

Ascaris lumbricoides that is found throughout temperate

and tropical regions. Intestinal infection may result in

abdominal cramps and obstruction, while passage through

the respiratory tract causes symptoms such as coughing and

wheezing. In children, migration of the adult worms into the

liver, gallbladder, or peritoneal cavity may cause death.

ascidian any minute marine invertebrate animal of the

class Ascidiacea, such as the sea squirt.

ash fine particles of pulverized rock ejected from

volcanoes.

asphyxiant gas which produces suffocation by replacing

oxygen in the respiratory system.

ataxia lack of coordination of muscle for voluntary

movement.

atelectasis absence of gas in lung tissue from

nonexpansion.

atherosclerosis irregularly distributed intimal deposits of

lipid.

atomization the dispersion of fluids into fine particles.

atrium the upper chamber of each half of the heart.

atrophy diminished cellular proliferation.

attribute information about geographic features contained

within GIS data layers, or themes.

auger effect phenomenon occurring when an electron is

released from one of the inner orbiting shells, thereby creat-

ing two electron vacancies of the residual atom and repeated

as the new vacancies are filled or X-rays are emitted.

autosome a chromosome not involved in sex determina-

tion. The diploid human genome consists of 46 chromosomes,

22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (the X

and Y chromosomes).

auxotroph a microorganism possessing a mutation in a

gene that affects its ability to synthesize a crucial organic

compound.

atypia reactive cellular state, which does not correspond

to normal form.

background the property, as applied to a location or

measurements from such locations, of being due to natural

processes alone and unaffected by anthropogenic processes.

In some instances the term natural background is used to

reinforce the non-anthropogenic aspect. With the global

atmospheric transport of anthropogenic contaminants, e.g.,

persistent organic pollutants (POPs), it is a moot point

whether background sites exist for some substances.

basal cell carcinoma slow growing, locally invasive neo-

plasm derived from basal cells of epidermis or hair follicles.

baseline a measure of the natural background or ambient

level of an element/substance. Some people also suggest that

baseline is the current background which could include

natural and anthropogenic components.

basolateral membrane part of the plasma membrane that

includes the basal end and sides of the cell.

basophilic degeneration pathologic change in tissue noted

by blue staining of connective tissue with hema- toxylin-eosin

stain.

beneficiation process of concentrating ores.

benign usual or normal the opposite of cancerous when

applied to cells or tumors.

bioaccumulation process by which an element is taken

into an organism, possibly transformed into another chemi-

cal species, and retained so that the element’s concentration

in the biota is greater than its concentration in the media in

which the biota is sustained.

bioapatite the name given to the complex calcium phos-

phate mineral that forms in biological tissues and is

characterized by extremely small crystallite size maxi-

mum dimension is typically less that 20 � 10�9 m

(200 A). Generalized chemical formula: (Ca,Na,Mg,. . .

[ ])10 (PO4, HPO4, CO3, SO4. . .)6(OH, F, Cl, CO3, O, [ ])2

Appendices 761

where. . .indicates the possible addition of other cations and

[ ] indicates vacancies in the crystal structure at the cation or

halogen sites.

bioavailability the property of a substance that makes its

chemical uptake by biota possible.

bioessential/bioessentiality present in sufficient amounts

to support essential biochemical processes imperative for

sustaining life.

Biogeochemical cycle model encompassing the movement

of elements (and some compounds) from the litho-sphere

through the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

biosphere the sum of all organisms on Earth.

birefringence the ability of anisotropic (non-isometric)

crystalline materials to split plane polarized light into two

non-equal rays of distinct velocities depending on the direc-

tion of the transmission relative to the orientation of the

atomic structure of the compound. When the two rays

emerge from the crystal, one is retarded relative to the

other. Precise measurements of the interference colors of

the rays define the optical characteristics and identify the

compound.

bisphosphonates a group of phosphorus- and carbon-

containing compounds that have carbon connected to the

phosphorus atom in place of one of the oxygen atoms of

the tetrahedral phosphate (PO4) groups.

blind staggers blind staggers occurs in cattle and sheep

ingesting high concentrations of selenium and is character-

ized by impaired vision leading to blindness, anorexia,

weakened legs, paralyzed tongue, labored respiration,

abdominal pain, emaciation, and death.

bombs (volcanic) clots of lava that are ejected in a molten

or semi-molten state and congeal before striking the

ground.

bone a term applied to one of the many individual organs

that make up vertebrate skeletons, or alternatively, to the

fragments or the tissues that are found within these organs.

Bowen’s disease an intraepidermal carcinoma char-

acterized as a small, circumscribed elevation on the skin.

buffer a chemical compound that controls pH by binding

to hydrogen ions.

bulk analysis chemical analysis of an entire body/sub-

stance of rock or soil or a subpart with little or no segregation

of specific areas or components.

c-axis a vector direction defined by the space group and

structure of a particular crystalline form. A crystallographic

term.

calcisols soils with a high content of free calcium carbon-

ate either developed on limestones, or which have become

calcified by the deposition of calcium carbonate in pores and

voids as a result of the evaporation of soil solution in arid

environments. These soils generally have neutral or alkaline

pHs and can adsorb some trace elements very strongly.

calcitonin hormone secreted by the thyroid gland impor-

tant in the homeostatic regulation of serum calcium levels.

capillary electrophoresis electrophoretic separation tech-

nique performed in a small fused silica capillary.

carbon dioxide a colorless odorless gas high concen-

trations CO2 acts as an inert asphyxiant in humans.

carbonatite an igneous rock composed of carbonate

minerals.

carcinogen a substance that can directly or indirectly

cause a cell to become malignant.

carcinogenesis the mechanism by which cancer is caused.

cardiomyopathy disease of the heart muscle

(myocardium).

cardiovascular disease (CVD) disease pertaining to the

heart and blood vessels, including, for example, both AMI

and cerebrovascular disease (stroke).

catecholamines category of compounds including the

neurotransmitters adrenaline and noradrenaline.

cation exchange exchange of cations between a solution

and a negatively-charged solid phase (e.g., a clay mineral) in

response to a change in solution conditions this is especially

important in geochemistry for major cations such as calcium

and sodium.

cation exchange capacity (CEC) the ability of a soil or

soil constituent (e.g., clay mineral or humus) to adsorb

cations on permanent, or pH-dependent, negatively charged

sites on surfaces. Cations of different elements can replace

each other as counter ions to the negative charges.

cDNA complementary DNA: a DNAmolecule copied from

an mRNA template by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

cementum the thin tissue that forms the outer covering of a

tooth below the gum line, similar in composition to dentine.

chaperones proteins that help in folding proteins correctly

and that discourage incorrect folding. Metallochaperones

assist in the delivery of metal ions to target proteins or

compartments.

chelate the complex formed through the bonding of a

metal ion with two or more polar groupings within a single

molecule.

762 Appendices

chitin a tough white to semi-transparent substance that

forms the major structural component of arthropod

exoskeletons and the cell walls of certain fungi.

chloroplast chlorophyll-containing photosynthetic organ-

elle in some eurkaryotic cells.

choroid plexus a network of intersecting blood vessels

of the cerebral ventricles that regulate intraventricular

pressure.

chromatin the complex of DNA and proteins that make up

eukaryotic chromosomes.

chromatography the separation of a mixture of

compounds using solid, liquid, or gas phases based on affin-

ity of molecules for the phase.

chromosome aberrations any deviation from the normal

number or morphology of chromosomes.

clay minerals phyllosilicate minerals with a small grain

size, commonly <4 mm but ranging down to colloidal

dimensions. When mixed with a limited amount of water

they develop plasticity. Clay minerals are formed by high-

temperature hydrothermal alteration processes, e.g., kao-

linite in altered granitic rocks or by low-temperature

weathering processes, e.g., montmorillonite, smectite,

chlorite, kaolinite, and illite.

clearance output of particles previously deposited in the

respiratory tract.

coccidioidomycosis a respiratory disease of humans and

animals caused by inhalation of arthroconidia of the soil-

inhabiting fungus Coccidioides immitis. Fever, cough,

weight loss, and joint pains characterize the disease, also

called valley fever.

code (biological) the presentation of the content (of a

molecule) in terms of symbols such as ATC and G for the

DNA code where ATC and G are nucleotide bases.

codon the fundamental unit of the genetic code consisting

of a triplet sequence of nucleotide bases which specifies the

ribosomal binding of a specific amino-acid-bearing tRNA

during protein synthesis or the termination of that process.

coenzyme a small molecule which binds to a protein to

create a catalytic center.

collagen protein making up the white fibers (collagenous

fibers) of skin, cartilage, and all connective tissue.

collimator a device for producing a beam of parallel rays.

compartment a separated solution volume of a cell by an

enclosing membrane not at equilibrium with any other

separated volume.

complex system natural or man-made system composed

of many simple nonlinear agents that operate in parallel and

interact locally with each other at many different scales. The

behavior of the system cannot be directly deduced from the

behavior of the component agents and the system sometimes

produces behavior at another scale, which is called emergent

behavior.

composite a mixture of several components or parts

blended together to form a functional whole.

condensation polymer a polymer formed by loss of water

molecules from monomers.

confined aquifer aquifer over- and underlain by imperme-

able or near-impermeable rock strata.

cooling the decrease of the activity of a radioactive mate-

rial by nuclear decay.

coordination the association of one atom with another in

three-dimensional arrays. The coordination number reflects

the atomic size of an atom. Octahedral or sixfold coordina-

tion is typical of metal atoms with oxygen.

coronary heart disease (CHD) disease caused by defi-

ciency of blood supply to the heart muscle due to obstruction

or constriction of the coronary arteries.

cortical the tissue that forms the external portions of bones

heavily mineralized with bioapatite-containing cells and

exhibiting a variety of textures.

Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary the Cretaceous

period was the last in the Mesozoic era and was succeeded

64 million years ago by the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic

era. It is marked by the sudden extinction of genera of living

organisms, most famously the dinosaurs.

crust the outermost solid layer of a planet or moon.

crystallinity the three-dimensional regular array typical of

solids with definite chemical composition and crystal structure.

crystalline basement solid igneous, sedimentary, or meta-

morphic rock may crop out at the ground surface or be

overlain by superficial deposits (unconsolidated sediments

or soils).

crystallite a general term applied to very small size

materials, usually minerals, in which a crystal form or crys-

tal faces may be observed, usually with magnification. The

morphology of a crystallite suggests a material with a regu-

lar crystal structure and may be used to identify a specific

compound or mineral species.

Cytochrome P-450 iron-containing proteins important in

cell respiration as catalysts of oxidation-reduction reactions.

Appendices 763

cytoplasm the central compartment of all cells that

contains genes and DNA as well as synthetic systems.

database a structured set of persistent data, that in a GIS

context, contains information about the spatial locations and

shapes of geographic features, and their attributes.

decay (radioactive) the disintegration of the nucleus of an

unstable atom by spontaneous fission or emission of an alpha

particle or beta particle.

deconvolution a mathematical procedure used for separa-

tion of overlapping peaks.

definitive host the host in which a parasite reaches sexual

maturity and reproduces.

dental calculus calcium phosphate mineral materials

deposited around the teeth at and below the gumline, proba-

bly the result of bacterial action.

dental caries cavities in teeth arising from tooth decay.

dentine the tissue composed of greater than 70%

bioapatite that forms the predominant segment of a tooth.

This tissue is capped by enamel.

deposition fraction of particles in inspired air that are

trapped in the lung and fail to exit with expired air. In

geology it is the laying down of sediments.

derivatization the chemical modification of a naturally

occurring compound so that it may be more volatile for gas

chromatographic separation.

dermis inner aspects of skin that interdigitate with epider-

mis and contain blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, glands,

and hair follicles.

desorption release of a bound chemical compound from a

solid surface (the opposite of adsorption).

detection limit minimum amount of the characteristic

property of an element that can be detected with reasonable

certainty under specific measuring conditions.

diagenesis changes to the original organic composition of

a material caused by low-temperature processes, often

involving bacterial action. It can occur in sediments where

minerals are altered as well as organic matter. It changes

the original chemistry of many minerals and bone when they

are buried.

dioxygenase a class of oxidoreductases that catalyze the

binding of diatomic oxygen to a product of the reaction.

DOC (dissolved organic compounds, or dissolved organic

carbon) the soluble fraction of organic matter in soils and

ground and surface waters comprising low molecular weight

organic compounds which have the ability to complex many

elements and render them more available to plants and more

prone to leaching down the soil profile.

dose a general term for the quantity of radiation. The

absorbed dose is the energy absorbed by a unit mass of

tissue whereas the dose equivalent takes account of the

relative potential for damage to living tissue of the different

types of radiation. It is also the quantity of a substance taken

in by the body in general.

dose response the relationship between an exposure dose

and a measurable biological effect.

dowagers hump the abnormal concave bending of the

upper or thoracic spine as a result of osteomalcia or osteo-

porosis often obvious in older women.

drift (analysis) a slow change in the response of an analyt-

ical instrument (geology) it is a superficial sediment.

dry matter (d.m.) remaining solid material after evapora-

tion of all water. Often used to express concentration of

minerals and trace elements to eliminate variation due to

differences in water content of plant material.

ectodermal relating to ectoderm, the outer layer of cells in

the embryo.

eco-district/eco-classification a relatively ecologically

homogeneous area of the Earth’s surface, an element of

a classification based on climatic, biological, pedological,

and geological criteria that becomes more specific from

eco-zones, through eco-provinces and eco-regions to

eco-districts.

effluent the material that is coming from a chro-

matographic separation. Can also be the waste outfall from

industries and is also the term for sewage (sewage effluent).

eggshell calcification a thin calcified layer surrounding an

intrathoracic lymph node.

elastosis degenerative changes of collagen fibers with

altered staining properties.

electromagnetic spectrum the full range of frequencies,

from radio waves to cosmic rays.

electrospray ionization (ESI) ionized molecules by

application of a high voltage (approximately 5 kV) to the

spray needle.

elimination how xenobiotics are removed from the blood-

stream, either by metabolism or excretion.

emissions (volcanic) any liquid, solid, or gaseous material

produced by volcanic activity.

enamel the tissue composed of greater than 96%

bioapatite that forms the outer surface of teeth.

764 Appendices

enantiomer one of two indistinguishable forms of a

compound that differ only in the orientation in space a

stereoisomer.

endemic Where a disease is confined to specific geograph-

ical areas.

endocytosis the process in which the plasma membrane

engulfs extracellular material, forming membrane-bound

sacs that enter the cytoplasm and thereby move material

into the cell.

endosome a small vesicle resulting from the invagination

of the plasma membrane transporting components of the

surrounding medium deep into the cytoplasm.

endospore an asexual spore formed by some bacteria,

algae, and fungi within a cell and released.

endothelium a tissue consisting of a single layer of cells

that lines the blood, lymph vessels, heart, and some other

cavities.

enterovirus group of viruses transient in the intestine

which includes poliovirus, echovirus, and Coxsackievirus.

entisol entisols are soils that formed recently and are often

found on floodplains, deltas, or steep slopes where soil

development is inhibited. They are weakly developed and

lack distinct soil horizons. Entisols have a wide geographic

and climatic distribution.

enzootic a disease that affects animals in a specific area,

locale, or region.

enzyme proteins that act as catalysts driving plant and

animal metabolism.

eosinophils a specific type of white blood cell.

epidemiology the study of the prevalence and spread of

disease in a community.

epidermis outer aspect of skin with multiple layers.

eruption (volcanic) the ejection of tephra, gas, lava,

or other materials onto the Earth’s surface as a result of

volcanic or geothermal activity.

erythrocyte a mature red blood cell. Erythrocytes are

the major cellular element of the circulating blood, and

transport oxygen as their principal function. An increase

in the number of cells normally occurs at altitudes greater

than 3000 m.

erythron a collective term describing the erythrocytes and

their predecessors in the bone marrow.

erythropoiesis the formation of erythrocytes in the bone

marrow.

estrogen category of steroid hormones produced by

ovarian and adipose tissues that can effect estrus and a

number of secondary sexual characteristics and is involved

in bone remodeling.

etiological the cause of a disease determined by etiology,

the branch of medical science which studies the causes and

origins of disease. The etiological agent of coccidioidomy-

cosis is Coccidioides immitis.

etiology the process underlying development of a given

disease.

eubacteria true bacteria so named to differentiate them

from archaea (earlier known as Archaebacteria).

eukaryote cells of organisms of the domain Eukarya

(kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia). Eukary-

otic cells have genetic material enclosed within a membrane-

bound nucleus and contain other membrane-bound

organelles.

eutrophication nutrient enrichment of waters that

stimulates phytoplankton and plant growth and can lead to

deterioration in water quality and ecosystems.

evapotranspiration transfer of water from the soil to the

atmosphere by combined evaporation and plant transpira-

tion. It results in a concentration of solutes in the remaining

water.

excretion excretion is the mechanism whereby organisms

get rid of waste products.

exon a DNA sequence that is ultimately translated into

protein.

Exposure response the relationship between how much of

a xenobiotic is presented to a person or animal and what

happens in their body.

extracellular space in tissue that is outside of cells.

FAO/Unesco Soil classification system the soil classifica-

tion system developed for the joint project by the UN Food and

Agriculture Organization and UNESCO to produce the Soil

Map of the World (1:5,000,000) published from 1974 onward.

felsic igneous rock rich in feldspar and siliceous minerals

(typically light-colored).

ferralsols reddish iron oxide-rich soils characteristic of

the tropical weathering and soil-forming environment

(humid tropics). These soils generally have a low fertility

with low CECs and nutrient contents. Also called oxisols

(U. S. Soil Taxonomy), ferralitic, or lateritic soils.

ferritin a soluble protein storage form of iron containing

as much as 23% iron.

Appendices 765

ferromagnesian a silicate mineral dominated by iron,

magnesium, sometimes with aluminum.

fibroblastic cells secretionary cells of connective tissue.

fibroblasts cells that produce collagen molecules.

fibrosis formation of fibrous tissue.

fluorapatite a mineral, ideal formula Ca5(PO4)3 F. One of

the members of the calcium apatite mineral group.

fluoride F�, the dominant form of fluorine found in water.

fluorite the dominant fluorine mineral, CaF2 occurs as an

accessory mineral in some sediments and igneous rocks and

in some hydrothermal mineral veins.

fluorosis disease affecting bones and teeth, caused at least

in part by exposure to high doses of fluoride. Dental fluorosis

causes weakening and possible loss of teeth, and skeletal

fluorosis causes bone deformation and disability.

fluvial pertaining to rivers and streams.

forestomachs two or three sac-like dilations of the esoph-

agus seen in ruminants and kangaroos. The physiological

function of these structures is to serve as fermentation tanks

to make cellulose and other carbohydrates in the feed avail-

able for absorbtion in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal.

fraction in this context, a term used in sedimentology,

pedology, and other physical sciences to describe the

mechanical size range of a material.

Fuzzy system a system that uses fuzzy sets and if-then

rules to store, compress, and relate many pieces of informa-

tion and/or data in order to build a model free estimator.

Gamma ray a distinct quantity of electromagnetic energy,

without mass or charge, emitted by a radionuclide.

genome the DNA (or for some viruses, RNA) that contains

one complete copy of all the genetic information of an

organism or virus.

genotoxic the ability of a substance to cause damage to

DNA.

geothermal pertaining to the internal heat of the Earth. Geo-

thermal zones are areas of high heat flow, where hot water and/

or steam issue at the Earth’s surface. They are found close to

tectonic plate boundaries or associated with volcanic systems

withinplates.Heat sources for geothermal systemsmaybe from

magmatism, metamorphism, or tectonic movements.

gleys soils under reducing conditions caused by permanent

or intermittent waterlogging characterized by pale colors

and low concentrations of iron oxides.

gliosis a chronic reactive process in neural tissue.

Glutathione peroxidase a detoxifying enzyme in humans

and animals that eliminates hydrogen peroxide and organic

peroxides it has a selenocysteine residue in its active site.

glycolysis the energy-yielding metabolic conversion of

glucose to lactic acid in muscle and other tissues.

gneiss banded, usually coarse-grained metamorphic rock,

having been modified from its original mineralogy and

texture by high heat and pressure (high-grade regional

metamorphism).

goitrogen a substance which causes or enhances the

symptoms of iodine deficiency, e.g., goiter formation.

granite a coarse-grained igneous rock, composed mainly

of quartz, alkali, feldspar, and mica. Accessory minerals

may also include apatite, zircon, magnetite, and sphene.

Granite characteristically has a high proportion of silica

(>70% SiO2) with high concentrations of sodium and

potassium.

granitization a metamorphic process by which sedimen-

tary and metamorphic rocks with a chemistry similar to

granites (granitoids) are transformed mineralogically into

rocks that look like the granites formed by igneous intrusive

processes.

granulomatous inflammation inflammatory reaction

where tissue cells of monocyte/macrophage cells predominate.

granulomatous reaction reaction leading to the formation

of granuloma, or chronic inflammatory lesions.

grazing feeding behavior of cattle, sheep, and horses con-

sumption of grass and other plants from the ground, mostly

rather indiscriminately.

groundwater subsurface water in the zone of saturation in

which all pore spaces are filled with liquid water (although

sometimes the term groundwater is used inclusively for all

water below the land surface, to distinguish it from surface

water).

half-life the time in which one-half of the atoms of a partic-

ular radioactive substance decay to another nuclear form.

hardness water the content of metallic ions in water,

predominantly calcium and magnesium, which react with

sodium soaps to produce solid soaps or scummy residue

and which react with negative ions to produce scale when

heated in boilers.

haversian bone the tissue type found throughout the skel-

eton in humans that signifies sites of resorption and

remodeling. Characterized in cross section by a circular

outline and a lamellar distribution of cells and mineralized

tissue around a central blood vessel, which is called the

haversian canal.

766 Appendices

heavy metal a metal with a density more than 4500kgm�3.

helminth a multicellular worm, generally parasitic, often

with a complex reproductive system and life cycle. Gener-

ally 50–2000 mm in length, but may be longer.

heme the protoporhyrin component of hemoglobin (in

erythrocytes) and myoglobin (in myocytes), the proteina-

ceous chelation complexes with iron that facilitate transport

and binding of molecular oxygen to and in cells.

hemolysis lysis of erythrocytes that potentially causes

anemia.

hemorrhage profuse bleeding from ruptured blood

vessels.

hemosiderin an insoluble iron-protein complex that

comprises a storage form of iron mainly in the liver, spleen,

and bone marrow.

hepatolenticular hepato, means belonging to the liver

lenticular means lens shaped and refers to the basal ganglia

of the brain.

herbivores animals normally feeding on plant material

such as cattle, horses, sheep, antelope, deer, and elephants,

but also rodents like mice, rabbits, and hares. As vertebrates

lack enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract that can digest

cellulose and other complex carbohydrates present in plants,

they utilize microorganisms living in their gastrointestinal

tract for this process. See also Ruminants and Large Intestine

Fermenters.

hexagonal a description of a specific crystallographic

form in which the c-axis is perpendicular to three axes,

usually designated as a axes, which are 120 degrees relative

to each other. Apatite crystals often show hexagonal prisms

with a 60 degree angle measured between adjacent vertical

or prism crystal faces.

histology science concerned with the minute structure of

cells, tissue, and organs, utilizing light microscopy.

histomorphometry the study of the textures of tissues

using sections of samples embedded in paraffin or epoxy.

The sections cut from the embedded blocks may be stained

to assist in the identification of specific tissue components,

i.e., collagen or special components in the nucleus of a cell.

histones the family of five basic proteins that associate

tightly with DNA in the chromosomes of eukaryotic DNA.

homeostasis the state of equilibrium in the body with

respect to various functions and the chemical compositions

of fluids and tissues, including such physiological processes

as temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, water content,

blood sugar, etc., and the maintenance of this equilibrium.

homeostatic control the ability or tendency of an organ-

ism or cell to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its

physiological processes.

homologue a member of a chromosome pair in diploid

organisms or a gene that has the same origin and functions

in two or more species. To an organic chemist this is series

of compounds that are similar in structure. For instance

methanol, ethanol, and the other alcoholsrepresent a homol-

ogous series of compounds.

hormone a circulating molecule released by one type of

cell or organ to control the activity of another over the long

term, e.g., thyroxine.

host a human or animal in which another organism, such

as a parasite, bacteria, or virus, lives.

humus the fraction of the soil organic matter produced by

secondary synthesis through the action of soil

microorganisms it comprises a series of moderately high

molecular weight compounds that have a high adsorptive

capacity for many metal ions.

Hydraulic conductivity the volume of water that will

move in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a

unit cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow.

Hydraulic gradient the change in static head (elevation

head + pressure head) per unit distance in a given direction.

It represents the driving force for flow under Darcy’s law.

hydrodynamic dispersion the irreversible spreading of a

solute caused by diffusion and mechanical dispersion

(which, in turn, is caused by indeterminate advective trans-

port related to variations in velocity about the mean).

hydroxylapatite name of the mineral, ideal chemical for-

mula Ca5(PO4)3(OH), one of the members of the calcium

apatite mineral group. Hydroxylapatite occurs naturally

throughout the different types of rocks on the surface of

the Earth and closely resembles the mineral deposits in

normal and pathological tissues. See also Bioapatite.

hyperchromatic excessive dark staining.

hyperkeratosis hyperplasia of the stratum corneum (spe-

cific layer in epidermis/skin), the outermost layer in the

epidermis.

hyperplasia an increase in the number of cells in tissue or

an organ.

hypertension high blood pressure.

hyphae the branching threadlike filaments, generally

2–10 mm across, characteristic of the vegetative stage of

most fungi.

Appendices 767

hyphenated techniques generally, two analytical

methods connected in series, e.g., a chromatographic tech-

nique directly connected to a spectroscopic technique.

hypoxia less than the physiologically normal amount of

oxygen in organs/tissues.

idiopathic describing a disease of unknown cause.

igneous rocks formed from the cooling and solidification

of molten rock originating from below the Earth’s surface,

includes volcanic rocks.

incidence quantifies the number of new cases/events that

develop in a population at risk during a specified time interval.

inductively coupled plasma (ICP) an argon plasma with

a temperature of approximately 7000–10,000 K, produced

by coupling inductively electrical power to an Ar stream

with a high-frequency generator (transmitter). Then plasma

is used as an emission source (atomic emission spectrome-

try) or as an ionization source (mass spectrometry).

inselberg an isolated peak of hard rocks that has

stubbornly resisted erosion most commonly found in the

tropics.

integrin a membrane protein that conveys information in

both directions across the plasma membrane.

internal dose amount of an agent penetrating the absorp-

tion barriers via physical or biological processes.

iodothyronine deiodinase selenoproteins responsible for

the production and regulation of the active thyroid hormone

from thyroxine.

ischemia ischemia occurs due to the disruption of the

supply of blood and oxygen to organs and cells.

isoform the descriptor for a specific form of a protein that

exists in multiple molecular forms also, for enzymes,

isozyme.

isotachophoresis separation mode in capillary electropho-

resis, separating according to analyte conductivity.

isotope one of two or more atoms with the same atomic

number but with different atomic weights.

Kashin-Beck disease an endemic osteoarthropathy

(stunting of feet and hands) causing deformity of the

affected joints occurs in Siberia, China, and North Korea.

keratinocytes cells of the epidermis that produce the pro-

tein keratin.

Keshan disease an endemic cardiomyopathy (heart dis-

ease) that mainly affects children and women of childbear-

ing age in China.

kinase an enzyme catalyzing the conversion of a pro-

enzyme, or zymogen, to its metabolically active form, fre-

quently via phosphorylation or proteolytic cleavage.

Km the Michaelis constant in enzyme kinetics.

lahar a hot or cold flow of water-saturated volcanic debris

flowing down a volcanic slope.

lamellar bone the tissue that shows sequential layers of

mineralized matrix, cells, and the blood system required to

maintain its viability. This tissue probably represents a sec-

ond stage after the initial deposition of woven bone.

large intestine fermenters different animal species

utilizing bacteria and protozoa in their large intestine

(cecum or colon) to digest cellulose and starch in plants

eaten so the nutrients can be absorbed in the gut of the

animal. Horses, donkeys, zebras, rabbits, and hares are

examples of animal species utilizing large intestine fermen-

tation to facilitate digestion.

lattice an array with nodes repeating in a regular three-

dimensional pattern. A crystal lattice is the array distinctive

for the chemical and physical structure of the crystalline

compound.

lava magma which erupts onto the Earth’s surface lava

may be emitted explosively, as lava fountains, or by oozing

from the vent as lava flows.

leachate a liquid that carries dissolved compounds from a

material through which it has percolated (e.g., water which

carries adsorbed elements from settled volcanic ash into soil

or water).

Lewis acid a chemical center which accepts electron pair

donation from a donor base, e.g., M2+ is a Lewis acid in the

complex M2+ ← OH2.

Lewy bodies intracytoplasmic inclusion seen in

Parkinson’s disease.

lichenoid accentuation of normal skin markings.

ligand a binding unit attached to a central metal ion.

limestone a sedimentary rock composed of calcium

carbonate.

lithosphere the solid Earth.

lOAEL the lowest dose at which adverse effects are

observed to occur in an experimental setting.

loess natural sedimentary formation made up of wind-lain

mineral dust, mainly in the silt size range (1–60 mm), most of

which accumulated, often in great thickness, during the

Quaternary (the last about 2.6 million years).

768 Appendices

lumen a cavity of passage in a tubular organ the lumen of

the intestine.

lymph nodes small nodes along the bronchi that drain the

tissues of lymph fluid.

lymphatic vascular channel that transports lymph, a clear

fluid with predominantly lymphocytes.

lysis destruction of a cell’s plasma membrane or of a

bacterial cell wall, releasing the cellular contents and killing

the cell.

macronutrient general term for dietary essential nutrients

required in relatively large quantities (hundreds of milligrams

to multiple grams) per day includes energy (calories), protein,

calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and

chloride.

macrophage mononuclear phagocytes (large leukocytes)

that travel in the blood and can leave the bloodstream and

enter tissues protecting the body by digesting debris and

foreign cells.

magma any hot mobile material within the Earth that has

the capacity to move into or through the crust.

marine black shales sedimentary rocks formed from

organic-rich muds which have developed under strongly

reducing conditions and are generally enriched in a wide

range of trace elements.

matrix the basis or collection of materials within which

other materials develop. The organic matrix is the base in

which mineral materials are deposited to form bone.

matrix effect the combined effect of all components of the

sample other than analyte on the measurement of quantity.

melanin dark pigment that provides color to hair, skin, and

the choroid of the eye.

mesothelioma a highly malignant type of cancer, usually

arising from the pleura, which is the lining of the thoracic

cavity, and characteristically associated with exposure to

asbestos.

messenger (transmitter) a molecule or ion used to con-

vey information rapidly in or between cells, e.g., Ca2+.

metabolism the enzymatic chemical alteration of a sub-

stance. In toxicology, how xenobiotics are converted chemi-

cally in life sciences generally, the pathways of chemical

reactions that occur in the body.

metabolome the small organic molecule composition in

concentration units of a cell or compartment.

metadata data about data, typically containing informa-

tion such as time and place of database creation, field and

record identifier information (attributes), data development

process, map projection, and person to contact regarding the

database also known as data dictionary.

metalliferous rich in metals.

metalloid an element which behaves partly as a metal

and partly as a non-metal, sometimes referred to as a

“semi-metal.”

metallome the element composition in concentration units

of a whole or a part of a cell where the element may be in

free or combined form.

metamorphic rocks rock formed from the alteration of

existing rock material due to heat and/or pressure.

micellar electrokinetic chromatography separation

mode in capillary electrophoresis, separating according to

the ability of apolar analytes to enter the (apolar) core of

surface charged micelles.

micronutrient general term for dietary essential nutrients

required in relatively small amounts (less than multiple

milligrams) per day includes the vitamins and trace

elements.

microradiograph a picture produced using X-rays or rays

from a radioactive source showing the minute internal

textures of a planar thin section of a mineralized tissue

sample.

mineral a naturally occurring compound with definite

chemical composition and crystal structure, of which there

exist over 4000 officially defined species.

mineral elements equal to elements. This term is used by

nutritionists.

mineral group an aggregate of mineral species that shares

structural and chemical affinities.

mineral nutrient a metal, non-metal, or radical that is

needed for proper body function and maintenance of health

also used in reference to plant nutrition.

mineralization the presence of ore and non-ore (gangue)

minerals in host rocks, concentrated as veins, or as replace-

ments of existing minerals or disseminated occurrences

typically gives rise to rocks with high concentrations of

some of the rarer elements.

mitochondrion subcellular organelle containing the elec-

tron transport chain of cytochromes and the enzymes of

the tricarboxylic acid cycle and fatty acid oxidation and

oxidative phosphorylation, thus, constituting the cell’s

primary source of energy.

mitogenic a factor that causes mitosis of cells.

Appendices 769

mitosis the division of a cell into two daughters with

identical complements of the nucleic material (chromosomes)

characteristic of the species.

model a conceptual, physical, or mathematical representa-

tion of a real system or process.

monoclinic the description of a special crystallographic

form for the structure of a compound in which the three

axes are not mutually perpendicular.

monooxygenase a class of oxidoreductases that catalyze

the dissociation of molecular (diatomic) oxygen such that

single oxygen atoms are bound to different products of

the reaction.

mT metallothionein.

mucosal cell cell of the mucous membranes of the gastro-

intestinal tract.

multichannel analyzer (MCA) an instrument that

collects, stores, and analyzes time- or energy-correlated

events.

multistage carcinogenesis model a mathematical model

that assumes a sequential series of DNA-damaging events is

necessary for a single cell to become malignant. The model

also assumes linearity at low doses.

mycelium the vegetative part of a fungus (or in some cases

bacteria), consisting of a mass of branching, threadlike

hyphae.

mycorrhizae symbiotic fungi which colonize the outer

layers of the roots of many plant species and whose external

mycelium effectively increases the effective absorptive

surface area of the roots.

myocyte a muscle cell.

myxedematous cretinism form of mental retardation

caused by perinatal iodine deficiency.

natural background a term used to describe the geo-

chemical variability and the range of data values due to

natural processes, that characterize a particular geological

or geochemical occurrence. See also Background and

Baseline.

nebulizer interface at plasma detectors for aerosol

production.

necrosis cell death.

nephrotoxin cytotoxin specific for cells of kidney.

neurotransmitter any of several compounds released by

neurons to stimulate other neurons.

neutrophil a specific type of white blood cell.

nOAEL the highest dose at which no observed adverse

effects occur in an experimental setting.

nuclide a general term applied to any atom with data on

the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

odds probability of disease divided by probability of no

disease (p/1-p) within a study group (e.g., exposed

individuals).

odds-ratio ratio between odds for exposed and odds for

non-exposed (odds+exp/odds�exp).

oligonucleotide a DNA polymer composed of only a few

nucleotides.

omnivores animals normally feeding on both plant and

animal material. Species considered omnivores are humans,

dogs, and swine.

oncogene a gene that controls growth and when aberrant

or when activated inappropriately may permit cancer to

develop.

operon a cluster of genes with related functions that

are under the control of a single operator and promoter,

thereby allowing transcription of these genes to be turned

on and off.

organ systems part of body performing a specific

function.

organelle a compartment found in eukaryotes derived

from captured bacteria and with residual independent

genes, e.g., mitochondria which create useful energy from

oxidation of sugars and chloroplasts which create useful

energy from light-generating oxygen.

organization a managed flow of material and energy in

contrast with static order.

orthogonal (analytical) speciation concept analytical

strategies which employ combinations of various separation

and/or detection methods are called orthogonal analytical

concepts.

ortholog a gene in two or more species that has evolved

from a common ancestor.

osteoblasts a bone-forming cell function with bone-

removing cells (osteoclasts) in the normal process of bone

remodeling.

osteoclasts multinucleate cells that destroy bone tissue.

osteomalacia impaired mineralization of bone tissues

resulting in areas where mineral is missing. One possible

cause of osteomalacia is a deficiency of vitamin D, the

hormone required for adequate calcium absorption and

deposition as bioapatite in bone tissues.

770 Appendices

osteon the bulls-eye pattern of concentric rings of lamellar

bone around a vascular canal. This structure is detected

in tissue sections that form as a result of bone tissue

remodeling. See Haversian Bone.

osteoporosis a generalized term for the loss of bone

tissues in bone organs. There are multiple possible causes

of osteoporosis and the loss may occur at any age, but it

is more prevalent in older individuals. The variations of

osteoporosis remain active areas for investigation.

osteosclerosis disease characterized by abnormal harden-

ing of bone due to excessive calcification.

oxalic acid a dicarboxylic acid (ethane dioic acid,

C2H2O4) found in some plants and produced by molds

forms stable chelation complexes with divalent cations

(Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Cu2+) rendering them unavailable

from the diet.

oxidation chemical process which can lead to the fixation

of oxygen or the loss of hydrogen, or the loss of electrons the

opposite of reduction.

oxidoreductase an enzyme that catalyzes an oxidation-

reduction reaction.

p53 gene a tumor-suppressor gene that codes for a tran-

scription factor involved in preventing genetically damaged

cells from proliferating.

Paget’s disease a disorder in which the normal resorption

and sculpting of bone is compromised and superfluous or

more dense mineralized tissue is deposited.

parakeratosis retention of nuclei in the cells of the

stratum corneum.

parasitimia the condition of having parasites within the

bloodstream. Usually the parasite is a protozoan.

parathyroid hormone hormone secreted by the parathy-

roid gland important in the homeostatic regulation of serum

calcium levels.

parent material the weathered rock material on which

a soil is formed. Can be either fragments of the underlying

solid geology or transported drift material overlying the

solid geology.

parenteral administration of substance into organism

not through gastrointestinal tract but through intramuscular,

subcutaneous, or intravenous injection.

parkinsonism clinical syndrome characterized by dimin-

ished facial expression, slowness of voluntary movement,

rigidity, tremor, and stooped posture.

pedogenesis the process of soil formation involving vari-

ous physical and chemical processes which give rise to the

formation of a soil profile. The nature of soil formed is

determined by the interactions of the climate, vegetation,

parent material, topography, and time.

periodic table a tabular classification of the chemical

elements whereby they are organized into (vertical) groups

based on progessive increases in numbers of electron shells

surrounding the atomic nucleus and (horizontal) rows based

on changes in the internal complexities of the electron shells.

Elements within any group have similar chemical properties.

periplasm a secondary enclosed compartment of a pro-

karyote outside the cytoplasm and surrounding it.

permafrost permanently ice-bearing frozen ground, found

in the Arctic, Antarctic, and some high-altitude regions.

pH a measure of the acidic (or alkaline) nature of an

aqueous solution, expressed as the negative base �10 loga-

rithm of the activity of protons in the solution. Solutions

with pH values below 7 are considered acidic values greater

than 7 indicate basic (or alkaline) conditions.

phagocytosis a type of endocytosis in which extensions

of a plasma membrane engulf extracellular particles and

transport them into the interior of the cell.

pharmacognosy the study of the useful drug effects of

natural products.

phase a volume of space, solid, liquid, or gas in equilib-

rium with other volumes and described by a boundary.

A homogeneous, distinct portion of a chemical system.

phase diagram a graphical representation of the stability

relationships between phases in a chemical/physical system

usually representing states at equilibrium. The presentation

usually depicts relationships based on changes in composi-

tion, temperature, or pressure.

phenotype the physical characteristics of an organism that

can be defined as outward appearance (such as flower color),

as behavior, or in molecular terms (such as glycoproteins on

red blood cells).

phosphorite a sedimentary rock with a high percentage of

phosphate materials, shell, or bone fragments that may be

mined for use as fertilizer. Prominent textural features are

often nodules and pellets of extremely fine-grained calcium

phosphate.

photoelectron electron that is ejected from the surface

when light falls on it.

phyllosilicate a group of aluminosilicate minerals that

have a sheeted crystal structure which permits cations to be

trapped between the sheets and around the sheet edges.

Because of these properties some are capable of sequestering

geochemically significant amounts of cations, metals.

Appendices 771

phytic acid inositolhexaphosphoric acid (C6H6O6[H2PO3]6)

found in plants forms stable chelation complexes with divalent

cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Cu2+) rendering them

unavailable from the diet.

phytoavailability a specific instance of bioavailability

with reference to plants. In some instances it is useful to

differentiate between phyto- and bioavailability along the

food chain. Phytoavailability controls the transfer of a trace

element from soil to a plant, and bioavailabilty controls

the transfer of the trace element from the plant material

to the receptor organism the transfer factors are unlikely to

be the same.

phytosiderophores organic compounds released by the

roots of some plants suffering from a deficiency of iron or

certain other micronutrients. They mobilize iron and

elements co-precipitated onto iron oxides and render them

available for uptake by the plant.

phytotoxic toxic to plants.

pica a craving for unnatural articles of food. The name

pica comes from the Latin for magpie, a bird that picks up a

variety of things either to satisfy hunger or out of curiosity.

Geophagy, the deliberate ingestion of soil, is a form of pica.

Placer deposits alluvial deposits which contain ore

minerals (commonly native gold, platinum, diamond, cassit-

erite) in economic quantities these are heavy minerals which

are concentrated by reworking of primary ore bodies. They

typically concentrate in low-energy environments such as

floodplains and deltas. Many important placer deposits occur

also as beach placers where they have been concentrated by

seawater movement.

platelet a non-nucleated, hemoglobin-free cellular compo-

nent of blood that functions in clotting also called a

thrombocyte.

platform a term used in geology to describe a large stable

section of the Earth’s crust that is unaffected by current moun-

tain building. Commonly formed over long periods of time by

the erosion of the Earth’s surface to relatively low relief.

plaque the unwanted deposition of mineral materials in

tissue areas such as in the vascular system or around teeth

within the gum tissues.

pleiotropy a situation in which a single gene influences

more than one phenotypic characteristic.

pleural plaques a fibrous thickening of the parietal pleura

which is characteristically caused by inhalation of the fibers

of asbestiform minerals.

pM standard: the PM (particulate matter) standard is

based on the total mass of particles measuring 2.5 mm or

less observed in a 24-h period.

pneumoconiosis a chronic fibrosing lung disease from

contact with respirable mineral dusts examples include sili-

cosis and asbestosis.

podsol a type of soil which can be found in cool, humid

environments on freely drained parent materials usually

under coniferous trees or ericaceous vegetation. Typically

has an iron pan as a result of leaching. Also called spodosols

in the USDA Soil Taxonomy classification.

polymorph a term applied in mineralogy to describe

minerals with the same composition that can crystalize in

multiple crystallographic forms. Possibly the most well-

known polymorphic minerals are calcite and aragonite both

have the chemical composition CaCO3.

primary term used to describe position in the biogeo-

chemical cycle refers to bedrock.

primitive cell a cell thought to have existed some 3–4

billion years ago, although a related form can be found in

extreme anaerobic conditions today.

prions an infectious microscopic protein that lacks nucleic

acid thought to be responsible for degenerative diseases

of the nervous system called transmissible spongiform

encephalopathies (TSE) transmissible within and between

species.

progesterone the steroid hormone produced by the corpus

luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta that prepares the uterus

for reception and development of the fertilized ovum.

progestins a general term for the natural or synthetic

progestinal agents.

prokaryote cells of the domains Bacteria or Archaea.

Prokaryotic cells have genetic material that is not enclosed

in a membrane-bound nucleus they lack other membrane-

bound organelles.

proteome the full complement of proteins produced

(expressed) by a particular genome.

protista eukaryotic one-celled living organisms distinct

from multicellular plants and animals: protozoa, slime

molds, and eukaryotic algae.

protozoa comprise flagellates, ciliates, sporozoans,

amoebas, and foraminifers.

pulmonary alveoli out-pouchings on the fine lung

passages in which oxygen exchange between the alveoli

and the bloodstream occurs.

pump (in the context of organisms) a mechanical

protein-based device in a cell membrane for transferring

material from one compartment to another.

Purkinje cells large nerve cells found in the cerebellum, a

large portion of the posterior aspect of the brain.

772 Appendices

pyrite iron sulfide (FeS2), otherwise known as fool’s gold

occurs commonly in zones of ore mineralization and in

sediments under strongly reducing conditions.

pyroclastic flow a fast-moving heated cloud of gas

and volcanic particles produced by explosive eruptions or

volcanic dome collapse.

Quaternary the most recent period of geological time,

spanning 0–2 million years before Present divided into the

earliest period, the Pleistocene (ending with the last glacial

maximum), and the subsequent Holocene (the last 13,000

years).

quaternary structure the three-dimensional structure of a

multisubunit protein particularly the manner in which the

subunits fit together.

radioactivity atoms (known as radionuclides) which are

unstable and will change naturally into atoms of another

element accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation.

The change is called radioactive decay.

radionuclide a radioactive nuclide.

radon a colorless radioactive element comprises the iso-

tope radon-222, a decay product of radium. 222Rn (radon) is

a gas. It occurs in the uranium-238 decay series and provides

about 50% of the total radiation dose to the average person.

radon potential map a map showing the distribution of

radon prone areas delineated by arbitrary grid squares,

administrative or geological boundaries. The radon potential

classification may be based on radon measurements in

existing dwellings, measurements of radon in soil gas, or

proxy indicators such as airborne radiometric measurements.

raman microprobe vibrational spectroscopic technique

where light scatter allows for characteristic spectra of

materials to be obtained.

raster a model of spatial data using an x,y coordinate

system, rows and columns, and representing features as

cells, or pixels, within.

reactive oxygen species general descriptor for the super-

oxide (O2), singlet oxygen (O), and hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2), each of which has a much greater chemical reactiv-

ity with intracellular nucleophiles (proteins, DNA) than

molecular oxygen from which it is derived metabolically.

recessive a mode of inheritance in which a gene must be

present from both parents for the trait to become manifest in

an offspring.

recharge process by which water is added from the atmo-

sphere or ground surface to the saturated zone of an aquifer,

either directly into the aquifer, or via another formation.

record a unique entity, commonly in GIS a location, that

possesses different values for its attributes in fields.

redox potential (pe or Eh) pe and Eh are related variables

that express a measure of the ratio of the aqueous activity of

an oxidized species (an electron acceptor, such as Fe3+) to

that of a reduced species (an electron donor, such as Fe2+).

The redox potential of a solution can provide a sense of

the oxidizing or reducing nature of a solution or aqueous

environment (oxic, suboxic, sulfidic, methanic).

redox reactions coupled chemical oxidation and reduc-

tion reactions involving the exchange of electrons many

elements have changeable redox states in groundwater the

most important redox reactions involve the oxidation or

reduction of iron and manganese, introduction or consump-

tion of nitrogen compounds (including nitrate), introduction

or consumption of oxygen (including dissolved oxygen), and

consumption of organic carbon.

reducing condition anaerobic condition, formed where

nearly all of the oxygen has been consumed by reactions

such as oxidation of organic matter or of sulfide reducing

conditions commonly occur in confined aquifers.

reduction chemical process leading to the loss of oxygen

or increase of electrons by a compound the opposite of

oxidation.

reference nutrient intake (RNI) the daily dietary value of

a nutrient above which the amount will almost certainly be

adequate for everybody.

regolith a deposit of physically and/or chemically weath-

ered rock material which has not developed into a soil due to

the absence of biological activity and the presence of organic

matter.

reitfield refinement a method of calculating the three-

dimensional structure of compounds.

relational database database where data are organized

according to the relationships between entities.

relative risk (RR) a risk is the number of occurrences out

of the total. Relative risk is the risk given one condition

versus the risk given another condition used in

epidemiology.

repair (DNA) the action of biological machinery to fix

damage, especially referring to maintenance of DNA

integrity.

reservoir (biological) a host, carrier, or medium (such as

soil), that harbors a pathogenic organism, without injury to

itself in the case of carriers, and can directly or indirectly

transmit that pathogen to individuals.

Appendices 773

residence time period during which water, solutes, or

particles remain within an aquifer or organisms as a compo-

nent part of the hydrological cycle.

respiratory distress impairment of lung function, often

resulting in uncomfortable respiratory symptoms, lowered

oxygenation and/or elevated carbon dioxide levels in the

blood.

retention time elution time of a compound in a chro-

matographic system depending on its interaction at the

stationary phase.

rheumatoid indefinite term applied to conditions with

symptoms related to the musculoskeletal system.

rhizosphere the zone around plant roots (2 mm thick) in

which there is intense microbial activity due to root exudates

and which has chemical properties different from the bulk of

the soil.

ribozyme rNA molecule with catalytic activity.

rickets disease of children characterized by under-

mineralization of growing bone, leading to physical

deformities of the weight-bearing bones most notably of

the legs, wrists, and arms.

risk assessment a systematic way of estimating the prob-

ability of an adverse outcome based on the known properties

of a hazard such as a chemical.

ruminants several groups of animal species utilizing

bacteria, fungi, and protozoa in their forestomachs to digest

cellulose and starch in plants eaten so the nutrients can be

absorbed in the gut of the animal. Cattle, sheep, goats,

antelope, deer, and camels are examples of ruminants.

saline intrusion phenomenon occurring when a body of

salt water invades a body of fresh water it can occur either in

surface water or groundwater bodies.

saprophyte an organism, often a fungus or bacterium, that

obtains its nourishment from dead or decaying organic

matter.

saprozoonoses zoonotic diseases where transmission

requires a non-animal development site or reservoir. Soil

can often serve as the reservoir.

sarcoidosis a systemic granulomatous disease of unknown

cause.

sarcomatoid resembling a sarcoma, a neoplasm of soft

tissue.

scanning electron microscope (SEM) a method

employing an electron microscope and a finely-focused

beam of electrons that is moved across a sample allowing

the surficial textures to be examined at high resolution and the

image displayed. By collecting the emitted electrons from a

single spot (size 1–10 mm) chemical analysis of portions of

the sample, i.e., a specific mineral species, can be made using

energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDXA).

screw axis a specific translational and rotational charac-

teristic of a lattice direction (axis) defined as part of one of

the known 230 space groups. The calcium apatite group has

a screw axis designated as 63. The c-axis has sixfold-

symmetry with a screw. The screw rotates 120 degrees

around the sixfold-axis with each one-third translation

along the axis, part of the space group designation of the

apatite unit cell.

secondary terms used to describe position in the biogeo-

chemical cycle refers to weathering products and processes

resulting from, or acting on, primary rock material.

sedimentary rock rock formed by compression of mate-

rial derived from the weathering or deposition of pre-

existing rock fragments, marine or other organic debris, or

by chemical precipitation.

selenocysteine an unusual amino acid of proteins, the

selenium analog of cysteine, in which a selenium atom

replaces sulfur.

selenomethionine 2-amino-4-(methylseleno) butanoic acid.

selenosis selenium toxicity.

sesquioxide oxide mineral containing three atoms of oxy-

gen and two atoms of another chemical substance. Iron and

aluminum oxides are the most important in the natural

environment.

shale a sedimentary rock composed of fine particles,

mainly made up of clay.

silicate a mineral composed dominantly of silicon and

oxygen, with or without other elements such as magnesium,

iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium.

silicosis a form of pneumoconiosis produced by inhalation

of fine silica particles.

smectite a group of clay minerals (phyllosilicates) that

includes montmorillonite and minerals of similar chemical

composition. They possess high cation exchange capacities,

and are therefore capable of sequestering labile cations.

soil profile (solum) the vertical section of a soil from the

surface to its underlying parent material. It comprises dis-

tinct layers (horizons) differing in appearance or texture and

chemical properties. The soil profile is the basis of soil

classification (soils with characteristic combinations of

horizons).

774 Appendices

soil texture the relative proportions of sand (0.05–2 mm),

silt (0.002–0.05 mm), and clay (<0.002 mm) sized particles

in a soil which affects both its physical and chemical

properties.

solubility equilibrium concentration of a solute in water at

a given temperature and pressure when the dissolving solid

is in contact with the solution.

sorption the retention of ions on solid surfaces in the soil

by a combination of mechanisms: ion exchange, specific

adsorption, precipitation, and organic complexation.

space group a mathematical expression that uniquely

defines the three-dimensional array typical of a crystalline

material.

spallation splitting off, particularly applied to splitting off

parts of the nucleus of an atom, resulting in the formation

of a different element.

spherule a small spherical structure of the invasive phase

of Coccidioides immitis that fills with endospores as it

matures. The spherule ruptures at maturity releasing the

infective endospores into the host.

spongiosis intercellular edema of epidermis.

spray chamber (chemical analysis) part of sample intro-

duction system, connected to a nebulizer. Droplets from the

aerosol that are too big are discarded.

squamous cell carcinoma malignant neoplasm derived

from stratified squamous epithelium.

stable isotope isotope that does not undergo radioactive

decay.

standardized mortality ratios a statistical method for

comparing the mortalities of different population groups by

separating data according to sex and then age band.

steatosis general term describing fatty degeneration

t-RNA: transfer ribonucleic acid any of a number of such

intracellular factors involved in protein synthesis by trans-

ferring in sequence individual amino acids to the ribosome.

stereoisomer one of two forms of a compound that is

indistinguishable from the other outside of the orientation

in space. An enantiomer.

stoichiometric a term applied when a phase or compound

has the charge balance and chemical proportions expected in

the ideal formula.

swayback neonatal ataxia, a clinical manifestation of cop-

per deficiency in lambs. The condition is characterized by

incoordination of movement and high mortality. The disease

is known as lamkrius in South Africa, kipsiepsiep in Kenya,

and enzootic ataxia in several other countries, including the

former Soviet Union.

symbiosis the cohabiting of more than one organism

which supply one another with vital material and energy.

synergy a positive interaction.

tachycardia rapid heart beat.

tachypnea rapid breathing.

tephra any solid material produced and made airborne by

volcanic activity (including bombs, blocks, ash, and dust).

termite mounds a common source of geophagical mate-

rial in the tropics. The edible part of a termite mound is the

extremely mineraliferous, soft, protected interior comprising

the queen’s chamber, nursing galleries, and fungus gardens.

tetrahedral orthophosphate group the three-

dimensional atomic array in which four oxygen atoms are

distributed at the apices of the tetrahedron around the phos-

phorus atom.

theme (GIS) a GIS data layer, or coverage used in an

overlay analysis with spatial referencing.

threshold in biology it is a dose level, below which, no

adverse effect is expected. In Earth science it represents the

upper or lower limit of background—above or below which

is anomalous.

thylakoid a disk-shaped, membranous sac found in

chloroplasts, the membranes of which contain the photo-

systems and ATP-synthesizing enzymes used in the light-

dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

thyroxine also referred to as 3:5,30:50 tetra-iodothyronine(T4) is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland.

T4 is involved in controlling the rate of met-abolic processes

in the body and influencing physical development.

TNF tumor necrosis factor.

tomography a method employing transmission X-

radiological analysis to visualize the bones or bony portions

of the skeleton. The X-ray source moves relative to the

patient.

tonsillar herniation physical displacement of cerebellar

tonsil into foramen magnum, a large opening at base of the

brain.

toxicity state of being poisonous and disturbing organ

function.

toxicodynamics the mechanisms by which xenobiotics

induce their effects in the body the mechanisms of the

toxic response.

Appendices 775

toxicokinetics the mechanisms by which xenobiotics

are handled in the body, comprising the steps absorption,

distribution, metabolism, and excretion.

toxicology originally, the study of poisons and now the

general science of the handling by, and response of, the body

to xenobiotics and the patterns of adverse effects that result.

toxocariasis also called visceral larva migrans (VLM),

toxocariasis is caused through infection with the larvae of

Toxocara canis or T. cati (the common roundworm of dogs

and cats, respectively). After infection, the eggs hatch into

larvae and are carried into the circulation and to various

tissues. Respiratory symptoms develop, and there is a

swelling of body organs such as the liver. A complication

of VLM is epilepsy and ocular larva migrans, the latter

caused by microscopic worms entering the eye.

toxoplasmosis a disease attributable to the ingestion of

Toxoplasma gondii, one of the most common human

parasites that infect 30–60% of the global population. Com-

monly caused by eating of undercooked meat with soil

ingestion as secondary source. Recent research has

suggested that human behavior can be adversely affected

following T. gondii infection.

Trace elements (in medicine) general term for the nutri-

tionally essential mineral elements that are required at levels

of intake less than about 50mgd�1 includes iron, copper,

zinc, iodine, selenium, manganese, molybdenum, chro-

mium, fluoride, and cobalt.

transcription the act of producing RNA from DNA lead-

ing to translation, protein production.

transfection the uptake and expression of a foreign DNA

sequence by cultured eukaryotic cells or the introduction of

foreign DNA into a host cell.

transposon a segment of DNA that can become integrated

at many different sites along a chromosome (especially

a segment of bacterial DNA that can be translocated as a

whole).

trichiuriasis infestation with the roundworm Trichuris

trichiura that may cause nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea,

and occasionally anemia and rectal prolapse.

triiodothyronine also referred to as 35,30 triiodothyronine(T3) produced in the thyroid gland and involved in

controlling the rate of metabolic processes in the body and

physical development.

trabecular the porous tissues forming the internal sectors

of bones. The trabeculae are bone tissue spicules. This type

of tissue is often adjacent to the hollow core or within the

marrow cavity.

transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) rare

forms of progressively degenerative diseases of the nervous

system that affect both humans and animals. They are caused

by agents called prions and generally produce spongiform

changes in the brain. Examples include chronic wasting

disease (CWD) in deer and elk, bovine spongiform enceph-

alopathy (BSE) in cattle, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

(CJD) in humans.

type 1 collagen the special variety of the collagen mole-

cule typically found in the matrix of tissues that will become

mineralized as bone.

ultramafic rock igneous rock composed substantially of

ferromagnesian silicate minerals and metallic oxides and

sulfides, with <45% silica, and almost no quartz or feldspar.

ultrastructure morphometry of particles and cell struc-

ture based on electron microscopy.

unconfined aquifer aquifer containing unconfined

groundwater, i.e., having a water table and an unsaturated

zone.

unit cell the smallest geometric volume that uniquely

defines the composition and precise structure of a crystalline

compound. The basis for the repetitive pattern that

completely characterizes a compound, its chemistry, and

three-dimensional arrangements of all the constituent atoms.

USDA Soil Taxonomy the soil classification system

devised by the United States Department of Agriculture

(published in 1975).

vasodilation expansion of the blood vessels.

vadose zone also known as the “unsaturated zone” is the

part of the Earth’s surface extending down to the water table.

vector (GIS) model of spatial data using points, lines, and

polygons to represent geospatial features and boundaries.

Vector in the entomological sense, is typically an arthropod

that transmits disease-causing pathogens to humans.

vector-borne disease disease that is transmitted from one

vertebrate host to another by an invertebrate, usually an

insect, tick, or snail.

viremia the existence of virus or viral particles in the

bloodstream.

virulence the capacity of a microorganism for causing

disease.

vmax the maximum velocity (never attained) in enzyme

kinetics.

volatile fatty acids (VFA) common name for acetic acid,

butyric acid, and propionic acid normally formed under

776 Appendices

anaerobic conditions in the forestomachs and large intestine

of herbivores. After absorption from the gastrointestinal

tract, VFA can be further metabolized and used mainly for

energy production. In ruminants, VFAs are the dominating

energy source equivalent to glucose in the metabolism of

other species.

volcanic gas gas produced by volcanic activity or geother-

mal processes. Steam is the most common gas those of

relevance to health include the inert asphyxiants, irritant

gases, or noxious asphyxiants.

volcanic monitoring geological and epidemiological test-

ing and surveillance prior to, surrounding, and subsequent to

an eruptive event or degassing episode includes the period

of post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.

volcano an opening in the crust from which gases, lava,

and/or tephra are expelled.

voltammetry an electrochemical determination method

based on the characteristic redox potential of the measured

compound.

weathering a process at or near the Earth’s surface caused

by the interaction of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and

organic acids with the minerals present includes hydrolysis

and oxidation reactions. Weathering can result in the forma-

tion of new mineral suites that are in equilibrium with their

environment. In Arctic and high mountainous regions chem-

ical weathering may be limited, and weathering is largely

limited to mechanical breakdown due to frost action that

liberates fragments of the pre-existing minerals.

white muscle disease a complex medical condition, which

is multifactorial in origin but linked to selenium deficiency,

causes degeneration of the muscles in animal species. In

lambs born with the disease, death can result after a few

days. Later in life, animals have a stiff and stilted gait,

arched back, are not inclined to move about, lose condition,

and die.

world Reference Base for Soil Resources a classification

system, database, and atlas produced by the working group

RB International Society of Soil Science in 1998.

woven bone the first deposited bone tissue that may dis-

play a haphazard distribution of matrix, cells, vascular

channels, and mineral and which is usually later reworked

into lamellar or haversian bone over time.

xenobiotic a chemical substance foreign to the body or

introduced to the body in higher quantities or by a different

pathway than occurs in normal metabolism.

X-ray diffraction maxima the periodic coherent scatter-

ing of X-rays that arises from crystalline materials. These

data are used to determine the coordinates from which the

space group and unit cell of the compound can be

determined.

X-ray/electron diffraction the method employed to

examine the crystallinity and crystal structure of materials.

zoonotic/zoonosis a disease which has a natural reservoir

in an animal or non-human species that can be transmitted to

humans.

Appendices 777

Index

A

AAS. see Atomic absorption spectrometry systems;

Atomic absorption spectroscopy

AAT. see Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency

A-axis, definition, 760

Abomasum, 507

Absorption, 551, 552t, 598–600, 599f, 760Acanthosis, 571f, 760Acid-insoluble residue, 434

Acid mine drainage, 63

Acidosis in wild ruminants, 439–440

Acid rain, definition, 760

Aconitases, 138fAcrodermatitis enterohepatica, 512Actinomycetes, 491

Activity, definition, 760

Acute myocardial infarction, 342, 760

Adams, M. L., 369

Adaptive responses, 605–606

Adriano, D. C., 365tAdsorption, definition, 760

Adult respiratory distress syndrome, 576

Advanced very high resolution radiometer, 464, 649, 652–653

Advection, definition, 760

Advection-dispersion models, 737–740

Advective transport, 729

Adverse effect, definition, 555–557

Aeolian dust transport, 459fAerosol optical thickness, 464

Aerosols, 455

AES. see Atomic emission spectroscopy

African dust, 460

African iron overload, 591

AFS. see Atomic fluorescence spectrometry; atomic Fluorescence

spectrometry

Agricola, George, 3

A horizons, 36

AIDS, 401

AIR. see Acid-insoluble residueAirborne gamma ray spectrometry data, 263

Air pollution, 455

Akagare disease, 424

Akerblom, G., 259, 264

Akesson, B., 395tAlbedo, definition, 760

Albumin, 120

Aldosterone, definition, 760

Aliquot, definition, 760

Alizarin red reaction, 719

Alkali disease, 165, 376, 401, 760

Alkalinity, definition, 760

Allcroft, R., 64

Allen, H. E., 628

Allergy, definition, 760

Allocthonous microbes, 490

Alloway, Brian, 478

Alluvial, definition, 760

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, 591

Alpha particle recoil mechanisms, 255

Alpha particles, 243

Alpha track detectors, 252, 253

Alteration, definition, 760

Alteration zones, 40

Aluminosilicate, definition, 760

Aluminosilicate feldspars, 43

Aluminum, 201–202, 575

Aluminum toxicity, 582

Alum shale, 271

Alvarez, L. W., 4

Alzheimer’s disease, 72, 202

Amebiasis, 489

American National Academy of Sciences, 244

AMI. see Acute myocardial infarction

Amino acids, 714

Ammonia, 228

Amorphous, definition, 760

Amphibole fibers, 577

Anaerobic/aerobic, definition, 760

Anaerobic environment, 299

Anaerobic prokaryote cells, 78–79, 79tAnalysis of apatitic biominerals. see also Histochemical

and microprobe analysis

histomorphometry, 678–679

overview, 675

sample preparation: mineral, 675–676

sample preparation: mineralized tissues, 677–678

X-ray and Electron Diffraction, 676–677

Analyst (Kotrebai), 168tAnalyte, definition, 760

Analytical studies, 538–542

Ancylostoma duodenale, 485Anderson, 346

Anderson, M. P., 735

Andreassen, B. T., 314

Andrews, J. N., 318

Andrews, N., 591

Anemia, 184, 207, 444, 450

Anemia definition, 760

Aneuploidy, definition, 760

Aneurysm, definition, 760

Angiosarcoma of the liver, 571, 587

Angiotensin, definition, 760

Animal geophagy. see Geophagy in animals

Animals. see domestic animals

O. Selinus et al. (eds.), Essentials of Medical Geology: Revised Edition,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4375-5, # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

779

Anion exchange, 362–363

Anions, 83

Anthrax, 492tAnthropogenic contamination

agricultural practices, 68–69, 68tatmospheric deposition of contaminants, 70–71

contamination of urban environments, 71, 71telements detrimental to the Biosphere, 73tenvironmental regulations, 41

industrial activities

brick and pipe manufacture, 66

cement manufacture, 66

metallurgical, 66

mining and mineral extraction, 60–63, 61toverview, 59–60

power generation

fossil fuel, 64–65

geothermal, 65

hydroelectric, 65–66

nuclear, 65, 65ttransportation-derived contamination, 69–70

treatment and transport of potable waters, 72

waste disposal

nuclear, 67–68

refuse, 66–67

sewage, 67

Antimicrobial resistance, 501

Antimony, 202

Antiport process, 105

Antisense, definition, 760

AOT. see aerosol optical thicknessApatite crystal structure, 668, 669, 675

Apatites, lattice parameters, 677tApatitic biominerals. See Analysis of apatitic biominerals

Apo, definition, 760

Apoptosis, definition, 760

Aquatic plants, 48

Aqueous speciation, 731–732, 760

Aquifer, definition, 760

Aquifers with arsenic problems, 285, 286fAquitard, definition, 760

Arabidopsis genome, 116

Archaea, definition, 760–761

ARDS. see Adult respiratory distress syndrome

Arene oxidase, 602

Arenosols, 355, 356

Arenosols, definition, 761

Argillaceous deposits, 281

Aridisol, definition, 761

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Special StainingTechniques, 718

Arrhythmia, definition, 761

Arsenic. see also Biological responses of elements; Case studies;

Environmental pathology

ancient findings, 4

arsenic in drinking water and adverse pregnancy, 538

effect on DNA, 571

effects, 563–564

exposure, 563

metabolism, 565

metal-induced skin cancer, 570–572

methylation, 552, 560

non-cancerous effects, 564–565, 564tpentavalent arsenic, 565

single-element study, 6–7

Arsenical keratosis, 571

Arsenic in alluvial plains and deltas

Bangladesh, 284f, 285–289, 286f, 287f, 658fHungary and Romania, 291

Nepal, 289

Northern China, 290–291

Taiwan, 289

Vietnam, 289–290

Arsenic-induced carcinogenis, 571

Arsenic in groundwater. see also Environmental medicine

alluvial plains and deltas, 285–291

aqueous speciation, 283–285, 284farsenic in minerals, 280–281, 280tconcentrations in rocks, sediments, and soils, 281–283

documented occurrences, 286fgeological distribution, 280

health problems/threats from exposure, 279–280, 285–286, 291

inorganic, 202

maximum contaminant level, EPA, 280

mineral-water interactions

absorbed arsenic in sediments, 298–299

microbes, 299–300

reduced sediments and the role of iron oxides, 299

overview, 279–280

sources of in the natural environment, 4t, 280–283, 282tsulfide mineralization and mining-related problems

associations between arsenic and chloride, 298

geothermal sources, 297–298

oxidation of arsenopyrite, 296

volcanic emissions, 229

water contamination, 563

Arsenic in groundwater provinces

desorption, 301–302

desorption and dissolution, 302

oxide minerals, 302–303

source, 300

transport through aquifers, 303–304

Arsenic in inland basins/arid areas

Argentina, 292–294

Chile, 291, 292

Mexico, 291

Southwest United States, 295

Arsenicosis, 289

Arsenic poisoning among beer drinkers, 5

Arsenic toxicity, 582

Arsenopyrite oxidation, 296

Arthroconidia, definition, 761

Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase, 602

Asbestos, 471, 577–580

definition, 761

Asbestos bodies, 578, 578fAsbestosis

case study, 472–473

definition, 761

Ascariasis, 450

Ascariasis, definition, 761

Ascaris lumbricoides, 485–486Ascidian, definition, 761

Aseptic meningitis, 496

Ash, definition, 761

Ashing technique, 676

Ashley, P.P., 330

Asphyxiant, definition, 761

Asthma, 483

Aston, F.W., 710

780 Index

Ataxia, definition, 761

Ataxia telangiectasia, 553

Atelectasis, definition, 761

Atherosclerosis, 582–584, 761

Atlas of Endemic Diseases in China (Jianan), 10

Atmophilic elements, 4

Atmospheric deposition of contaminants, 70–71

Atmospheric impurities, 627

Atmospheric transfer of iron, 419–420

Atomic absorption spectrometry systems, 620, 705–706

Atomic absorption spectroscopy, 202, 703

Atomic bomb tests, 673

Atomic emission spectroscopy, 703, 707

Atomic fluorescence spectrometry, 404

Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy, 703

Atomic spectroscopy techniques, 704

Atomization, definition, 761

Atoms, 240

Atrium, definition, 761

Atrophy, definition, 761

Attribute, definition, 761

Atypia, definition, 761

Auger effect, definition, 761

Authigenic magnetite, 299

Automated parameter-estimation techniques, 736

Autosome, definition, 761

Auxotroph, definition, 761

AVHRR. see advanced very high resolution radiometer

Avicenna, 446

B

Babesiosis, 639

Bacillus anthracis, 482Background, definition, 761

Background interferences, 706

Bacteria, soil-borne, 490–495

Bacteria, thermophilic, 300

Bailey, T. C., 660

Balance, non-metal, 93–94

Balantidiasis, 489

Balkan endemic nephropathy, 733

Bangladesh

Bantu siderosis, 591

Barnes, R. M., 621

Barry, M., 591tBarton, A. L., 591tBasal cell carcinoma, 571, 761

Basaltic volcanic rocks, 37

Baseline, definition, 761

Base-metals, mineral forms, 47

Basolateral membrane, definition, 761

Basophilic degeneration, definition, 761

Batura Glacier, 457fBaxter, P., 220, 233tBayesian analysis, 261

Bear, J., 730

Beath, O. A., 385, 385tBeck, M. A., 398, 401

Beef tapeworm, 487–488

BEIR VI. see Sixth Committee on the Biological Effects

of Ionizing Radiation

Benchmark dose, 555, 556fBeneficiation, definition, 761

Benign, definition, 761

Benign elements, 36

Benign pleuropulmonary disease, 578–579

Bennett, G. D., 738

Beryllium toxicity, chronic, 585

Berzelius, Jons Jakob, 375

BGS. see British Geological Survey

Bhagwat, A. G., 588

B horizons, 36, 48, 353

Bias, 543–544

Bilharzia cycle, 47

Binding ligands, 80–83, 82fBioaccumulation, definition, 761

Bioaccumulation ratio, 356

Bioapatite

chemical system that defines, 668, 669fdefinition, 761–762

formulae, 667tlattice parameters, 677trecycled in bone tissues, 685

Bioavailability

characteristics that influence, 552tdefinition, 762

mineral element, 186–187

prime controls, 54, 55tBioclastic limestones, 255

Biodegradation/biotransformation, 733

Bioessentiality, definition, 762

Biogeochemical cycle, 48–50, 762

Biological code, definition, 763

Biological complex studies, 82–83, 84fBiological functions of elements

elements in biology, 129–130, 130tessentiality, 129

functional value of trace elements

chromium, 144–145, 144fcobalt, 140–143, 142tcopper, 155–158, 156tiron, 150–155, 154ttmanganese, 147–149, 150tmolybdenum, 145–146, 146ffnickel, 143–144

overview, 139

selenium and iodine, 165–173, 166f, 167ff, 168tt, 169ttungsten, 146–147

vanadium, 139–140, 139t, 141ff, 142fzinc, 158–165, 159t–160t, 161f, 163f

functions of minor elements

calcium, 136–138

inorganic systems, 138–139

magnesium and phosphate connections, 134, 134fmagnesium and photosynthesis, 135

magnesium binding, 134, 135tmagnesium homeostasis, 134

organic systems, 139

sodium, potassium and chlorine ion properties, 133–134, 133tsulfur bioinorganic chemistry, 138–139

major elements

carbon, 131–132

carbon: carbohydrates, 131

carbon: lipids, 131

carbon: nucleic acids, 132

carbon: proteins, 131

hydrogen, 131

nitrogen fixation, 132

Oxygen, 132

Index 781

Biological responses of elements

metals and geo-environment, 197–198, 198ttmetals and trace elements, biological monitoring

aluminum, 201–202

antimony, 202

arsenic, 202

cadmium, 202–203

chromium, 203

cobalt, 203

copper, 203–204

iodine, 204–206

iron, 206–210, 208t–210tlead, 210

manganese, 210–211

mercury, 211

molybdenum, 211

overview, 201

selenium, 211–212

thallium, 212

zinc, 212–213, 213toverview, 195–197

protective mechanisms, 198–201

Biomass burning, 455

BIOMOC computer codes, 733

Biosphere, definition, 762

Biotic processes, trace elements needed for, 36

Birefringence, definition, 762

Birringer, M., 168t, 169tBisphosphonates, definition, 762

Bjelke, Jens, 3

Blackfoot disease, 6, 229, 289, 564–565, 565fBlack shales, 44, 256, 281

Bladder cancer, 571

Blending, 624

Blind staggers, 401, 513, 762

Blood lead screening, children, 702

Blood loss, chronic, 210

"Blood rain," 459

Bloom’s syndrome, 553

Blue baby syndrome, 68

Blue blood syndrome in babies, 68

Blum, W. E. H., 318

BMD. see Benchmark dose

Boice, 246

Bombs, volcanic, definition, 762

Bone, definition, 762

Bone loss in women, age-related, 684fBones

X-ray of excised samples, 679fBonkovsky, H. L., 590, 591, 591tBotulism, 492tBoussingault, J. B., 428

Bowell, R. J., 507

Bowen’s disease, 571, 762

Bowie, S. H. U., 9

Box-and-whisker plots for trace element concentration, 38–39, 39fBoyle, R. W., 297

Bredehoeft, J. D., 749

Brenard, R., 586

Brick tea, 640

British Geological Survey, 48, 288, 317t, 377t–378tBritish Regional Heart Study, 341–342

Broad Street Pump of London, 636

Bromine, 674

Bronner, F., 675tBrooks, R. R., 47

Brown, A. D., 480

Brown-Brenn Gram stain, 719

Brownian forces, 480

Brownian motion of molecules, 103

Brown, J. G., 742, 750

Brown, W. E., 670

Brushite formulae, 667tBuffer, definition, 762

Bulimia nervosa, in adolescents, 447

Bulk analysis, definition, 762

Bulk isotope techniques, 712

Burley, M. J., 330

Burns, K. N., 66

Bush sickness, 6, 510

C

Cachexia Africana disease, 450

Cadmium, 36. see also Biological responses of elements;

Metallothionein

accumulation in crops, 367

biological monitoring, 203

carcinogenicity in laboratory animals, 559

contaminated rice paddy soils, 370

environmental concerns, 61–62, 62fenvironmental exposure in Japan, 202

half-life, 559

link to kidney damage, 5

permissible concentrations in foodstuffs, 369

in tobacco, 202

toxicity on the kidney, 200–201

urban area street dust, 71tvehicle emission, 70tvolcanic dispersal, 229

Calcification, 361

Calcisols, definition, 762

Calcisols, global distribution, 354–355, 355fCalcite, 678

Calcitonin, definition, 762

Calcium

adverse effects in domestic animals, 507tatherosclerosis, 583

biological function, 136–138

blood pressure, 347

cardiovascular disease, 8

crop plants, 367

deficiency, 347

drinking water and cardiovascular disease, 347

nutrition, 180–181

water hardness, 342

Calcium apatites, 670–672, 671fCalcium cations in fluorapatite, 672fCalcium phosphate

formulae, 667tphases, 4tspherulitic, 680f

Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate formulae, 667tCalibration, 624

Calibration curve, 705

California Environmental Protection Agency, 555t, 559Canadian bread wheat, 50

Canadian Prairie hard red spring wheat, 49, 51fCancer, 570. see also Selenium in animals and humans

Cancer potency, 558–559

Cannon, Helen, 9

Capillary electrochromatography, 619

782 Index

Capillary electrophoresis, 618, 619, 762

Capillary zone electrophoresis, 619

Carbohydrates, 131, 714

Carbon, 131–132

Carbonate hardness, 338

Carbonatite, definition, 762

Carbon dioxide, 225, 762

Carbon disulfide, 228

Carboniferous limestone, 255

Carboniferous shales, 270

Carcinogen, definition, 762

Carcinogenesis, 554, 571, 605–607

Carcinogenesis, definition, 762

Carcinogenicity, 198, 198t, 553–554, 559Carcinogens, chemical, 606

Carcinoma, hepatocellular, 585

Carcinoma, squamous cell, 570

Cardiomyopathy, 184, 581–582, 762

Cardiovascular disease, 8, 762

Caries, 560

Caritat, P., 378tCarrier-facilitated transport, 104

Case-control studies, 539–541. see also Case studies;

Cohort studies

Case studies

African trypanosomiasis, 641

arsenic, 563–566

asbestosis, 472–473

blackfoot disease, 564–565, 565fcadmium in the Netherlands, 642

fluorosis in China, 640–641

hurricane Mitch, 641–642

Lyme disease, 639–640

malaria, 642

Cashman, K. D., 391tCAT. see Computerized axial tomography

Catecholamines, definition, 762

Cation and anion exchange, 362–363, 362t, 363tCation diffusion facilitator proteins, 116

Cation exchange capacity, 362–363, 762

Cation exchange, definition, 762

C-axis, definition, 762

CDF family, 116

CDNA, definition, 762

CEC. see Capillary electrochromatography

Cell/cell communication, 80t, 91–92Cell/cell organization, 91, 92f, 93fCells. see also Primitive cells

chemical effects of iron deficiency, 208tchemistry, 75–77, 95

cytoplasm activity, 84f, 85modern, with compartments, 88fnatural killer, 164

osmotic and electrical balance, 83

Cementum, definition, 762

Central Mineral Belt, 37fCereal plants, 366

Cerebrovascular disease, 338, 341

Certified reference materials, 624

Ceruloplasmin, 121, 157–158, 600

Cestodes, 487

Cestrum diurnum, 509CFN. see Cross-flow nebulizer

Chagnon, M., 317

Chakraborti, D., 288

Chalcophile elements, 43–44, 43t

Chalcophilic elements, 4

Chameides, W. C., 420

Chaperones, definition, 762

Charcoal detectors, radon, 253

CHD. see Coronary heart disease

Chelates, 80, 82fChelating agents, porphyrin-like, 87fChemical carcinogenesis, 554

Chemical carcinogens, 606

Chemical element restrictions on primitive life, 78

Chemical interferences, 706

Chemically variable earth, 37–42

Chemical species, definition, 612

Chemistry of all living cells, 75–77

Chemistry of rocks, diversity, 45–48

Chemoprevention, 172–173

Cheng, H., 52

Chen, Shao-Wei, 2, 10

Chernobyl, 65, 65tChernobyl nuclear accident, 429

Childhood cirrhosis, non-indian, 588

Children

blood lead screening, 702

cognitive impairment, 211

exposure to lead in garden soils, 369–370

iron requirements, 207

lead toxicity, 71

Chinese herbal balls, 586

Chinese medical texts, 10

Chitin, definition, 763

Chitrakar, R. L., 289

Chlorapatite, 674

Chloride, 133t, 182, 298Chlorinated hydrocarbon species, 607

Chlorine, 133–134, 133tChlorophenols, 67

Cholestatic injury, 585

Choroid plexus, definition, 763

Choudhary, R. C., 473

Chromatin, definition, 763

Chromatography, 710, 711f, 763Chromium, 49, 50f, 185, 203

biological function, 144–145, 144fbiomedical application, 628–629

connection between soil and stomach cancer, 8

urban area street dust, 71tvehicle emission, 70t

Chromosome aberrations, definition, 763

Chronic beryllium toxicity, 585

Chronic hepatitis, 585

Chrysikopoulos, C. V., 495

Chrysotile, 577

Churg, A., 579

CID. see Collision-induced dissociation

Cigarette smoke, 579

Cirrhosis, 585, 586, 590

Cirrhosis, Indian liver, 204

Cirrhosis, Tyrolean infantile, 588

Clarke, Frank W., 4

Clavensjo, B., 259, 265tClay consumption, 186. see also Human geophagy

Clay-eaters, Winston County, Alabama, 444

Clay minerals, definition, 763

Clay, pharmaceutical, 447

Clearance, 576, 763

Cliff, D. C., 8

Index 783

Clinical assessment of mineral status, 187, 188t–191tClinical toxicology, 597

Coal, 5, 64

Cobalt, 140–143, 142t, 203Cobalt deficiency, 6

Cobalt toxicity, 581

Co-carcinogenesis, 607

Coccidioides immitis, case study, 498–501, 498f, 499fCoccidioidomycosis, 498, 763

Codon, definition, 763

Coenzyme, definition, 763

Coherent scattering, 698

Cohort studies. see also Case studies

definition, 560–561

environmental epidemiology, 541

malignant pleural mesothelioma, 541

radon epidemiology in miners, 244–245

schematic study designs, 539f, 541–542Coindet, Jean-Francios, 165

Collagen, 666, 763

Collimator, definition, 763

Collision-induced dissociation, 623

Colloidal organic matter, 358

Colorado stain, 9

Colorectal cancer, 173

Columbia River basalts, 37, 37fCommission for Environmental Cooperation of the North American

Free Trade Agreement, 53

Compact particles, 576

Compartment, definition, 763

Complex system, definition, 763

Composite, definition, 763

Compound specific isotope analysis, 712–714

Computerized axial tomography, 682

Condensation and energy-transfer reactions, 83–86

Condensation polymer, definition, 763

Conditions of the Working Class in England (Engels), 3

Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health, 9

Confined aquifer, definition, 763

Confounding, 544–545

Conjugation, 602

Conjunctivitis, 220, 496tContamination, 40, 41, 615

Contamination in the laboratory, 187

Cooling, 694–695

Cooling, definition, 763

Cooperative organization, 95

Coordination, definition, 763

Copper

adverse effects in domestic animals, 508tbiological functions, 155–158, 157fbiological monitoring, 203–204

content of soils, 36, 37fmolybdenum-induced deficiency, 69

nutrition, 183–184

toxicity, 587–588

urban area street dust, 71tvehicle emission, 70t

Copper chaperones, 122

Copper intoxication, 512

Copper-zinc deposit at Nama Creek, 40–41, 40fCoronary heart disease, 183, 340, 341t, 763Cortical, definition, 763

Council of the Royal Society, 9

Courtois, Bernard, 418–419

Covariates, 639

Cox, P. A., 77

Coyne, M. S., 490

Cressie, N., 660

Cretaceous Chalk, 270

Cretaceous sand formations, 271

Cretaceous shales, 45–46, 46ffCretaceous/Tertiary boundary, 4, 763

Cretinism, 184, 204, 417

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 501

Crohn’s syndrome, 401

Cross-flow nebulizer, 619

Crump, K.S., 558

Crust, definition, 763

Cryptosporidiosis, 488

Crystal chemistry of mineralized tissues

mineralizing system, 668

overview, 668

Crystalline basement, definition, 763

Crystallinity, definition, 763

Crystallite, definition, 763

Culbard, E.B., 370

Culiseta melanura, 660Cultivars, zinc-efficient, 371

Custer, George Armstrong, 165–166, 513

CVD. see Cerebrovascular diseaseCyanobacteria, 300

Cytochrome oxidase, 602

Cytochrome P-450, definition, 763

Cytochromes, 152, 153

Cytoplasm, 75, 76f, 764Cytoplasmic chemistry, 75–77

Cytoprotection, gastrointestinal, 439–440

CZE. see Capillary zone electrophoresis

Czech Radon Risk Classification for Foundation Soils, 269

D

DAD. see Diffuse alveolar damage

Dahllite formulae, 667tDaniel, M., 660

Darby, S. C., 248

Darcy’s law, 729

Dark storm, 461

Darnley, A. G., 41, 52

Database, definition, 764

Data of Geochemistry, The (Clarke), 4Data properties, geochemical, 53

Datta, D. K., 282

Davies, B. E., 370

Davies, R. I., 10

Davies, T. C., 329

Davis, D. D., 420

Davis, R. D., 68

Dawson, J. B., 628

DCT1. see Divalent cation transporter 1

Dean, H. T., 562

de Caritat, P., 48

Deconvolution, definition, 764

Deer tick, 639

Definitive host, definition, 764

DEM. see Digital elevation model databases

Dental amalgam, 211

Dental calculus, definition, 764

Dental caries, 8–9, 322, 764

Dental epidemiology, 8–9

Dental health, 8–9

784 Index

Dentine, 676, 764

Dentine-enamel junction, 679, 680fDepartment of Chemical Geography, China, 10

Department of Environment Ontario Typical Range, 41

Deposition, definition, 764

Deposition, fiber, 575–576

Derbyshire, E., 462fDerbyshire neck, 428

Derivatization, definition, 764

Dermal toxicity, 570

Dermis, 764

Descriptive studies, 538

Desert lung, 459, 471–472

Desorption and dissolution, arsenic, 301–302

Desorption, definition, 764

de Sousa, Gabriel Soares, 444

Detection limit, definition, 764

Deugnier, Y., 590

de Vaca, Alvar Nunez Cabeza, 444

Diabetes, 140, 142f, 164Diagenesis, definition, 764

Diarrhea, 493t, 494t, 496tDientamoeba infection, 490

Diesendorf, M., 313

Dietary iron, 183

Dietary Reference Intakes, 187, 188tDietary regulator, 111

Dietary standards, 187, 188tDiffuse alveolar damage, 576

Diffuse pleural fibrosis, 578

Diffusion, Fick’s law, 730

Digestion of tissues, 718

Digital elevation model databases, 639

Digital image processing, 649, 650fDilution methods, 701

Dimorphic organisms, 482

DIN. see Direct injection nebulizer

Dioscorides, 443

Dioxygen, 87, 89f, 148Dioxygenase, definition, 764

Dioxygenases, 183

Direct injection nebulizer, 619

Diseases. see specific disease, e.g. Alzheimer’s

Dispersion, mechanical, 730

Dissanayake, C. B., 327, 342

Dissolved organic compounds, definition, 764

Dister, S.W., 659

Distribution, toxicokinetics, 599f, 600–601Distribution, xenobiotics, 600–601

Diurnal temperature difference, 658

Divalent cation transporter 1, 109

DNA

cell cytoplasm, 90

hypermethylation, 554

repair, 553

DOC. see Dissolved organic compounds

Dolerites, 45t, 49Domestic animals

breed differences, 507–508

element interactions, 506fgeophagy, 506–507

mineral and trace elements, 506–507

overview, 505–506

recognition of problems, 506

ruminants, 506–510

salt and mineral licks, 507

specific elements

aluminum, 509

arsenic, 512 (see also Arsenic)

cobalt, 510–511

copper, 511–512

fluorine, 509–510

iodine, 515–516

manganese, 510

molybdenum, 513–515

phosphorus and calcium, 507t, 508–509selenium, 512–513 (see also Selenium)

zinc, 506f, 508f, 512fDose, definition, 605, 764

Dose response, definition, 764

Dose-response relationship, 605

Dowagers hump, definition, 764

Down syndrome, 401

Drainage, acid mine, 63

Drift, definition, 764

Drinking water, 756–757. see also Groundwater regulations and

guidelines

Dry matter, definition, 764

Dunn, J. T., 426

Duport, P., 249

Dust

aeolian transport, 459fambient, 469–470

atmospheric aerosol loading, 459

case study-asbestosis, 472–473

case study-Hexi Corridor, 461, 463

case study-silicosis, 471–472

case study-tuberculosis, 473–474

components of atmospheric, 456

"dark storm," 461

global distribution, 467fmineral, 456

overview, 455–460

pathological effects pneumoconiosis, 470–471

silicon, 456

sources, 464–468, 467f, 468fwind-borne, 456

Dust aggregates, 458fDust devils. see Dust storms

Dust plumes, 459

Dust storms, 460–464, 460f–464f, 468–469Duval, J. S., 263

Dysentery, 494tDzombak, D. A., 301

E

EAR. see Estimated average requirement

Earth. see Primitive Earth

Earth Resources Observation Systems, 639

East and Southern Africa Association of Medical Geology, 10

Eco-district/eco-classification, definition, 764

Ecological aspects of mineral nutrition, 185t, 188–193Ecological studies, 538, 539tEcology and symbiosis, 95

Ecology of soil-borne human pathogens. see also Soil-borne

human pathogens

bacteria, 490–491

coccidiodes immits case study, 498–501fungi, 490

helminths and microbes, 483–484

human pathogenic protozoa, 488–490

Index 785

Ecology of soil-borne human pathogens. (cont.)infection, 482–483

interconnections, 502–503

overview, 477–478

pathogen classification, 481–482

pathogenic helminths, 484–488

soil as a complex system, 481

soil fundamentals, 478–481

soils and emerging diseases, 501–502

transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, 495–498

viruses, 491, 495

Ectodermal, definition, 764

Eczema, 348

Edmunds, W. M., 324

EDXA. see Energy-dispersive x-ray analysis

ED XRF. see energy-dispersive spectrometer

Effective dose equivalent, radioactivity, 242

Effluent, definition, 764

Eggshell calcification, definition, 764

Ehrlichiosis, 639

Eide, D., 116

Eiriksson, Oddur, 4

Eko clay, 449

Elastosis, definition, 764

Electret ion detectors, 253

Electromagnetic radiation, 648, 690

Electromagnetic spectrum, definition, 764

Electronegativity, 42f, 44Electron microscopy, 718, 723–725, 724f–725fElectron-transfer, 77t, 85–86Electrospray ionization, 620, 623

Electrospray ionization, definition, 764

Element availability, 614

Element, definition, 129, 130fElement interaction in animals, 506fElements. see also Biological functions of elements;

Biological responses of elements; domestic animals;

Medical geology; Mineral elements; Uptake of elements

abundance by mass in the body, 130tanthropogenic effects on the Biosphere, 73tbenign, 36

bioavailable amounts in soils, 53

for biotic processes, 36

box-and-whisker plots, 38–39

chalcophile, 43–44, 43tessential, 675tgeochemical classification, 4–5, 4tmobility of in the surface environment, 54, 55tproducts of non-metal, 75

required by primitive cells, 78–79

siderophile, 44

toxic, 36

Element-selective detection, 620–623

Elimination, definition, 764

Elliot, J. C., 677tElzouki, A. N., 591tEM. see Electromagnetic radiation

Emissions, volcanic, 764

Empirical calibration method, 701

EMR. see Electromagnetic radiation

Enamel, 676, 678, 764

Enantiomer, definition, 765

Encephalopathy, 71

Endemic cretinism, 204, 417

Endemic, definition, 765

Endemic fluorosis, 562

Endemic goiter, 417–418

Endemic human selenosis, 402, 403fEndocrine mimics, 605

Endocytosis, 112, 112f, 765Endosome, definition, 765

Endospore, definition, 765

Endothelium, definition, 765

Energy

sources, 79tsynthesis, uptake and rejection of elements, 76

Energy dispersive analysis, 678

Energy-dispersive spectrometer, 698–699

Energy-dispersive x-ray analysis, 718

Engels, Friedrich, 3

Enshi Public Health Department, 411

Enteque seco, 509Enterobiasis, 486

Enterocytes, 109, 110

Enterovirus, definition, 765

Entisol, definition, 765

Environmental analysis, methodologies, 627

Environmental arsenic damage, mining areas, 296–297

Environmental contamination. see anthropogenic contamination

Environmental epidemiology. see also Epidemiology

analytical studies, 539–542

bias, 543–544

cohort studies, 541–542

confounding, 544–545

cross-sectional studies, 538–539

descriptive studies, 538

epidemiological paper, evaluation check list, 545–546

exposure assessment, 542–543, 542fmodeling exposure, 543

overview, 537–538

statistics, definition, 545

study design, 538–542, 539fEnvironmental Geochemistry and Health (Thornton), 9

Environmental medicine. see also Arsenic; Case studies;

Hazardous substances; Toxicology

definition, 549

dose-response slope, 559

evidence at population level, 560–561

human health risk assessment, 554–555, 556f, 556tmedia, 549–550

methylation detoxification, 553

minimizing adverse effects, 561–563

public health intervention, 565–566

research disciplines, 558tseverity qualifiers, 555, 557tsurveillance, 562

toxicity testing, 559

Environmental pathology

brain

lead poisoning, 572–573

manganese-induced Parkinsonism, 574–575

mercury poisoning, 573–574

neurodegenerative diseases, 575

overview, 572

tin poisoning, 574

cardiovascular system

atherosclerosis, 582–584

cardiomyopathy, 580–582

hypertension, 584–585

hepatotoxicity of metal ions

786 Index

arsenic, 585–587

copper, 587–589

iron, 588–592, 590f, 591toverview, 585

inhalation injury

asbestos, 577–580, 578fdeposition, 575–576

overview, 575

Environmental Protection Agency, 627

Environmental radioactivity, 8

Environment, anaerobic, 299

Enzootic, definition, 765

Enzootic marasmus, 6

Enzyme, definition, 765

Enzymes, iron, 153, 154tEnzymes, metabolizing, 552–553

Eosinophilia, 443

Eosinophils, 765

EOS Terra spacecraft, 653–656

EPA. see Environmental Protection Agency; U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency

Epidemiological paper, evaluation check list, 545–546

Epidemiological study, human populations, 560–561

Epidemiology. see also Environmental epidemiology

definition, 537, 765

radon (see Radon epidemiology)

strengths

and limitations, 539tEpidermis, definition, 765

Epigenetic, 607

Epler, G., 578

Epon plastic, 678

Epoxide hydroxylase, 602

Equilibrated binding in oxides, 80

Equilibrium binding and exchange, 80–83

Equilibrium considerations, 81

Equine encephalomyelitis, 660

Erionite, 471, 473

EROS. see Earth Resources Observation Systems

Eruption, definition, 765

Erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase, 628

Erythrocyte, definition, 765

Erythrocyte zinc protoporphyrin, 210

Erythron, definition, 765

Erythropoietic regulator, 111

ESAAMEG. see East and Southern Africa Association

of Medical Geology

ESI. see Electrospray ionization

Eskers, definition, 36

Essential elements, 675tEssentiality of elements. see Biological functions of elements;

Uptake of elements

Establishing geochemical baselines, 50–53

Estimated average requirement, 187

Estrogen, definition, 765

Etched track detectors, 253

Etiology, definition, 765

EU. see European Union

Eubacteria, definition, 765

Eukaryotes, definition, 85f, 90, 765European Commission Recommendation, 272

European Union, 369

European wheat, 50

Eutrophication, definition, 765

Evapotranspiration, definition, 765

Evista, 685

Evolution

creation of vesicles, 86–87, 88fecology and symbiosis, 95

new command center, the brain, 94–95

new forms of old elements, 86–87

new oxidized elements, 89f, 90–91oxidations of metal ions, 90

simultaneous sequence of, Earth and life, 96fsingle cell eukaryotes, 87, 88f, 89–91through DNA, 79–80

Excretion

definition, 765

toxicokinetics, 598–600, 599fxenobiotic, 601–602

Exon, definition, 765

Exostoses, 224

Exposure assessment, 542–543, 542fExposure/dose profiles, 543fExposure response, definition, 765

Exposure-response relationships, 605–606

Extremophiles, 300

Exudative diathesis, birds, 396

F

Facilitated transport, 104–105, 104tFAM rules. see Fuzzy associative memory Rules

FAO/UNESCO, 353, 765

FAO/UNESCO World Soil Map, 356

Fatty acids and hydrocarbons, 714

Favel Formation, 46

FDA. see Food and Drug Administration

Federal Geographic Data Committee, 638

Feedback control, 84f, 93Feldspars, aluminosilicate, 42, 43

Felsic, definition, 765

Fergusson, J. El, 378tFerralsols, 765

Ferralsols, global distribution, 427fFerrihydrite, 360

Ferritin, 155, 765

Ferromagnesian, definition, 766

Ferrous sulfate toxicity, 590fFertilizers, trace element concentrations, 38t

FGDC. see Federal Geographic Data Committee

Fiber deposition, 570–571

Fibers, 576

Fibroblastic cells, definition, 766

Fibroblasts, 666, 766

Fibrosis, 585, 766

Fibrosis, diffuse pleural, 578

Fibrothorax, 578

Fick’s law of diffusion, 730

Filmer, J.F., 6

Finite-element transport model, 740

First-order kinetics, 603f, 604First-order rate constant, 603f, 604Fish-egg oil, 628

Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy, 705

Fleming, G.A., 381t, 382tFlorence, T.M., 614tFlorida, low copper backgrounds, 37

Flow paths, groundwater, 728fFlukes, 487

Index 787

Fluorapatite, 672f, 683Fluorapatite, definition, 766

Fluoride, 185, 683

caries, 311, 312

definition, 766

distribution in stream waters, 48, 49fexcessive chronic ingestion, 524

ingestion, 526

mottled teeth, 9

osteoporosis therapeutic agent, 683–685

removal methods from drinking water, 331tvolcanic toxicology, 217–220

Fluoride in natural waters. see also Case studies

aquifers, 323–324

atmospheric and surface water inputs, 313–318, 314f, 315t–317tbasement aquifers, 322–323

East African Rift Valley, Alkaline Volcanic Province, 329–330

Gaspe Peninsula, Canada-depth control, 330

geographical ranges, 311–312, 312t, 315t–317thealth effects in drinking water, 313thigh-fluoride groundwaters, 311, 312thigh groundwater-fluoride provinces, 322

India, Precambrian Basement Aquifer, 324–325, 325flinks with health, 312–313

mineral sources, 314

Northern Ghana, Alkaline Granitic Basement, 325–326, 326foverview, 311–312

remediation of high-fluoride groundwater, 330–332, 331tresearch history, 312–313

in solution, 318–321

sources and reactions in soils, 318, 319fSri Lanka, climatic and geological controls, 327, 328fstatistical studies, 324

UK Lincolnshire Limestone, downgradient evolution, 326–327

volcanic areas and geothermal sources, 323

Fluorine toxicity in animals, 510

Fluorite, definition, 766

Fluorite solubility, 317t, 321

Fluorosis, 562, 766

Fly ash, 67

Fontaine, J. A., 295

Food and Agricultural organization, 129

Food and Drug Administration, 589

Food and Nutrition Board, 675tFood crops. see Plants; SoilFordyce, F. M., 378t, 391t, 395t, 412Forestomachs, definition, 766

Formalin, 616

Fossil fuel, 64–65

Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy, 718

Fowler’s solution, 5

Fractionation, definition, 612

Fraction, definition, 766

Francolite formulae, 667tFrank pathogens, 483

Frausto da Silva, J.J.R., 139tFree ion concentrations, determining, 81

Free metallomes, 83, 84fFreundlich equation, 364

FTIR. see Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy

Fuge, R., 72, 318, 418, 421t, 423Fumaroles, 225

Fungus, 480, 483, 491t, 498, 500Furnas volcano, Azores, 223

Fuzzy associative memory rules, 500

Fuzzy system, definition, 766

G

Gaciri, S. J., 329

Gaither, L. A., 117

Galen, 2

Galgiani, J. N., 498

Gamma radiation, 240

Gamma ray and neutron counting, 693

Gamma ray, definition, 766

Gamma rays, 243–244. see also Terrestrial gamma rays

Gamma ray spectra, 695fGamma spectrometric measurement, 269

Gandhi, R. K., 589

Gandolfi camera, 718

Gangrene. see Blackfoot diseaseGanne-Carrie, N., 591tGardner, R. H., 660

Garnet group minerals, 43

Garrett, R. G., 47

Gas chromatography, 404, 620, 710

Gases, vehicle exhaust, 69–70

Gas gangrene, 492tGasoline, 69

Gas reactions, 622

Gastroenteritis, 496tGastrointestinal cancer, 8

Gastrointestinal cytoprotection, 439

Gastrointestinal tract, 600

GC. see Gas chromatography

GC-IRMS techniques, 714–715

GC-MS techniques, 714

Genetic hemochromatosis, 585, 590

Genetic lesions, 553

Genome, definition, 766

Genotoxic, definition, 766

Geochemical associations, common, 44–45, 44tGeochemical Atlas of Poland (Lis & Pasieczna), 53–54

Geochemical background data, 45tGeochemical barrier, definition, 48

Geochemical classification of elements, 4tGeochemical data properties, 53

Geochemical map for cadmium, 62fGeochemical mass-transfer processes, 732–733

Geochemical model design, 750

Geochemical provinces, definition, 47

Geochemistry (Goldschmidt), 4

Geochemistry techniques

liquids

atomic absorption spectroscopy, 705–706

biological materials, 704

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 707–709

neutron activation analysis, 692

overview, 702–709

sample dissolution, 704

organic techniques

chromatography, 710

mass spectrometry, 710–712

overview, 689–691

solids

applications of NAA and XRF, 702

neutron activation analysis, 691

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 697–702

Geographic information systems

case studies

African trypanosomiasis, 641

cadmium in the Netherlands, 642

fluorosis in China, 640–641

788 Index

hurricane Mitch, 641–642

Lyme disease, 639–640

malaria, 642

databases, 636–637

overview, 635–636

technology, 637–639

Geographic medicine, definition, 10

Geographic units, 41

Geological radon potential mapping. see Radon potential

mapping methods

Geology, medical. see Medical geology

Geomania, 445

Geomedicine. see Medical geology

Geomed 2001 workshop, 10

Geophagia, 186. see also Soil-borne human pathogens

Geophagy in animals. see also Domestic animals

aversion learning, 440

definition, 433

overview, 433–434

potentially harmful elements, 435

Geophagy in domesticated animals

amount ingested, quantified, 434, 435tcobalt, 434

economic/health implications, 434–435

geographical occurrences, 434–436

from mineralization and mining, 435–436

mineralization and mining contamination, 439tGeophagy in the animal kingdom

calcium, 438

health benefits/hazards, 438–441

Kalahari sandveld, Botswana, 437

lick sites, 436–438, 438f, 449medicinal possibilities

Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania, 437

properties of lick soils, 437–438, 439tsuggested motives, 440–441

Yankari Game Reserve (Nigeria), 436

Geophagy in wild animals

African buffaloes, 438

avian, 436

chimpanzees, 437

mountain gorillas, 438

Red leaf monkeys, 437

reptiles/birds, 438

seed-eating birds, 438

ungulates, 436, 440

George, D. K., 591tGeothermal activity, 225

Geothermal, definition, 766

Geothermal energy, 65

Geothermal sources of arsenic, 298

GFAAS. see Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy

Giardiasis, 489

Gibbsite, 360

GIF. see Growth inhibitory factor

Gilder’s palsy, 5

GIS. see Geographic information systems

GIS image processing, 656–657

Glass, 659

Gleying in soils, 345, 350

Gleys, definition, 766

Gliosis, definition, 766

GLIS. see Global Land Information System

Global Land Information System, 653

Global Vegetation Index, 653

Glucose levels and chromium, 185

Glucose tolerance factor, 145

Glutathione, 121

Glutathione peroxidase, 169–170, 513

Gluthione peroxidase, definition, 766

Glycolysis, 134, 182, 766

Glynn, P. D., 740, 750

Gneiss, definition, 766

Goethite, 360

Goias State stream sediment survey, 40, 41fGoiter

domestic animals, 515–516

endemic, 426

endemic distributions, 189

high iodine, 425

iodine deficiency, 2, 6, 184, 418

at risk data, 204

treating, 165

Goitrogen, definition, 766

Gokal, R., 591tGold mining, 63

Goldschmidt’s rules of substitution, 5

Goldschmidt, V. M., 4, 5, 48

Golightly, D. W., 620, 621

Gomori’s methenamine silver stain, 719

Gopta, 325fGordeuk, V., 591tGramen ossifragum, 4

Granite, definition, 766

Granite gneiss, 271

Granitic rocks, 322

Granitization, definition, 766

Grant, C. A., 367

Granulomas, 585

Granulomatous inflammation, definition, 766

Granulomatous reaction, definition, 766

Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy, 705

Grasty, R. L., 263

Green, B. M. R., 244tGreen rusts, 299

Gregorauskiene, V., 52

Grid design, 749

Griffin, D. M., 480

Groundwater. see also Arsenic in groundwater; Fluoride in natural

waters; Water hardness

modeling flow and quality

design and application, 747–750

geochemical processes, 730–733

models

advection-dispersion, 737–740

aqueous speciation, 740–741

forward geochemical, 743

forward modeling, 743–755

groundwater flow, 735–737

groundwater pathline, 737

numerical methods, 734–735

obtaining model codes, 750–751

overview, 727–729, 734

physical processes, 729–730

radon, inhaled, 249

radon migration, 240

use of models, 748fmodels

inverse geochemical molding, 741–743

Groundwater, definition, 766

Ground water flow, 728f, 729Growth inhibitory factor, 199

Index 789

GSH-Px activity, 404

Guillain-Barre syndrome, 492t

Gupta, S. C., 324

Gurzau, A. E., 291

Gurzau, E. S., 291

Gustafsson, J. P., 283

GVI. see Global Land Information System

H

Haggett, P., 8

Half-life, 604

Half-life, definition, 766

Handa, B. K., 324

Hand-foot-and mouth disease, 469tHansen, D. J., 628

Harmattan, 460

Harris, R. F., 480

Hartung, R., 556

Haversian bone, 675, 766

Hawass, N. D., 445

Hawkes, H. E., 47, 55tHaygarth, P. M., 378t, 379tHazard control, 597

Hazardous substances. see also Arsenic; Environmental medicine;

Toxicology

absorption, 551

adverse effect, 555

cancer potency, 558–559

distribution, 551–552

estimating exposure, 559

exposure, 550

external processes, 549–550, 550thuman health risk assessment, 554–557, 555t, 556fmechanisms of exposure, 550, 558tmetabolism, 552–553

repair, 553

Hazard surveillance, 562

Health

cancer potency, 558–559

effects of the environment, 550tminerals for optimal, 180–185, 181t

Heavy metal, definition, 767

Hecky, R. E., 330

Heidweiller, V. M. L., 330, 331tHeinrich, G., 702

Hekla, Mount, 224

Helminth, definition, 767

Hematoxylin and eosin stain, 719

Heme biosynthesis, 151fHeme, definition, 767

Hemeproteins, 150

Hem, J., 378tHemochromatosis, 206, 585, 590

Hemochromatosis, hereditary, 183

Hemoglobin, 151

Hemolysis, definition, 767

Hemopexin, 154–155

Hemorrhage, definition, 767

Hemosiderin, 155, 767

Hemphill, D. D., 9

Hennigar, G. R., 591tHeparin, 616

Hepatic apoptosis, pigs, 396

Hepatic copper toxicosis, idiopathic, 588, 589

Hepatic iron overload, 591tHepatitis, 496t, 586tHepatitis E virus, 496tHepatocellular carcinoma, 585, 586

Hepatocellular injury, 585

Hepatoportal sclerosis, 585, 586tHerbivores, definition, 767

Hereditary anemias, 591tHering, J. G., 298, 300

H&E stain. see Hematoxylin and eosin stain

Heumann, K. G., 419

Hexagonal, definition, 767

Hexi Corridor, 460, 462f, 463–464, 464fHezode, C., 591tHHPN. see Hydraulic high pressure nebulizer

High iodine goiter, 426

High-performance liquid chromatography, 404

High relief data, 38

Hill, M. C., 736

Hippocrates, 2, 502

Hirsch, M., 471

Histochemical and microprobe analysis

electron microscopy, 723–725, 724f–725f

microprobe spectroscopy, 722finfrared spectroscopy, 723

Raman spectroscopy, 720–721, 720foverview, 734

techniques

digestion of tissues, 719

microincineration, 718

overview, 734

selected techniques for metals, 719–720

special stains, 719

Histology, definition, 767

Histomorphometry, 678–679, 767

Histones, definition, 767

Hodge,V. F., 70

Holmberg, C. G., 121

Homeostasis, definition, 767

Homeostatic control, definition, 767

Homologue, definition, 767

Hookworm disease, 210, 444, 450, 485

Hormone, definition, 767

Horses, selenium intoxication, 513

Hospital controls, 6–7

Host, definition, 767

HPLC. see High-performance liquid chromatography

HPS-hantavirus, 496tHuang, J., 290

Human geophagy. see also Pica

causes, 447

children, 442–443, 442t, 443t, 444clay-eaters, 444

cultural explanation, 447

geographical occurrences, 443–446

health benefits/hazards, 449–450

health issues, 443

historical and contemporary perspectives, 443–446

iron preparations in treating, 446

mass-balance equation, 441–442

physiological reasons, 447–449, 448fpregnant women, 445–446, 449

soil

food and food detoxifier, 446–447

ingestion rates, 441–443, 445–446

790 Index

pharmaceutical uses, 447

types, 446–447

suicide, 444

Human pathogens, ecology of soil-borne. see Soil-borne human

pathogens

Human waste, pathogens, 482

Humboldt, Alexander von, 446

Humic substances, 358

Humus, 352, 358, 767

Hydraulic conductivity, definition, 767

Hydraulic gradient, definition, 767

Hydraulic high pressure nebulizer, 619

Hydrochemical evolution, 340

Hydrodynamic dispersion, 729–730

Hydrodynamic dispersion, definition, 767

Hydroelectric power generation, 65

Hydrogen, 131

Hydrogeochemical cycle of fluorine, 313, 314fHydroxy-aluminum ions, 358

Hydroxylapatite, 668, 767

Hydroxylapatite crystal structure, 671fHydroxylapatite formulae, 667tHyperkeratosis, 563, 564f, 571f, 767Hyperphosphatemia, 182

Hyperpigmentation of the back, 571fHyperplasia, definition, 767

Hypertension, 585, 767

Hyphae, definition, 767

Hyphenated techniques, definition, 768

Hypokalemia, 450

Hypomagnesemia, 345

Hypoxia, definition, 768

Hypozincemia, 164

I

IAEA, 425

IAGC. see International Association of Geochemistry

and Cosmochemistry

ICC. see Indian childhood cirrhosis

ICP. see Inductive coupled plasma

ICP-AES. see Inductively coupled atomic emission spectrometry

ICP-dynamic-reaction-cell MS methods, 404

ICPMS. see Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

ICP-MS. see Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

IDD. see Iodine deficiency disorders

Idiopathic hepatic copper toxicosis, 588

IEC. see Ion-exchange chromatography

IEF. see Isoelectric focusingIgneous rocks, definition, 768

IMGA. see International Medical Geology Association

Immune responses, 604

Incoherent scattering, 698

Indian childhood cirrhosis, 204, 583–584, 583f, 585Indian ethnic remedies, 585–586

Indian liver cirrhosis, 204

Inductive coupled plasma, definition, 768

Inductively coupled atomic emission spectrometry, 404

Inductively coupled mass spectrometry, 404

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 202, 707–708, 708fIndustrial revolution, 3

Infection. see also Soil-borne human pathogens

gastrointestinal, 490

geophagia, 482 (see also Human geophagy)

intestinal, 458–487

nematodes, 484–485

oral gateways, 482–483

trematode, 487

Infectious diseases, 503

Inflammation, 163, 604

Information bias, 544

Infrared microspectroscopy, 718

Infrared spectroscopy, 723

Ingestion, 600

Inhibition, 606, 607

Injury patterns, 576

Inorganic systems, 138–139

Inselbergs, 35, 768

Insolubility of sulfides, 81

Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, 624

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 164

Integrin, definition, 768

International Agency for Research on Cancer, 198, 554

International Association of Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry, 9

International Atomic Energy Agency, 129

International Commission for Radiologica Protection, 242

International Geological Correlation Projects, 55

International Groundwater Modeling Center, 751

International Medical Geology Association, 10

International Symposium on Geochemistry and Health, 9

International Union Committee of Diffraction, 676

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 612

Intervention, fluoridation of public water supplies, 562

Intracellular toxicity, 610

Inverse models, 736, 745tIOAEL, definition, 768

Iodine. see also Soils and iodine deficiency

adult minimal requirement, 206

adverse effects in domestic animals, 508fbiological function, 166–167

biological monitoring, 204–206, 205tbiomedical application, 628

deficiency disorders, 205tdomestic animals, 515–516

hydroxyl site, 674

nutrition, 186

radioactive, 65

single-element study, 6–7

sources for humans, 425–426

Iodine deficiency disorders, 6–7

Iodine speciation, 629

Iodized salt, 516

Iodothyronine deiodinases, 170, 768

Ion-exchange chromatography, 618

Ionic radius, 42, 42fIonization interferences, 706

Ionizing radiation, 246

Ionizing Radiations Regulations, 272

Ion-pairing chromatography, 618

IPC. see Ion-pairing chromatography

IRMM. see Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements

IR-MS. see Isotope ratio mass spectrometry

Iron, 182–183, 190f, 206–210, 208t, 210t. see also Environmental

pathology; Uptake of elements

acute toxicity, 589–591, 590ff, 591tbiological function, 150–155

neurodegenerative diseases, 575

three-valent form, 43

Iron Excess, 582–583

Iron loading, 591tIron metabolism, control of, 114

Iron overload, 582, 591t

Index 791

Iron oxide, 348–349, 349fIrradiation facilities, 692–693

Irradiation of samples, 694

Irving-Williams series, 78, 81–82

Ischemia, definition, 768

Ischemic heart disease, 583

Isoelectric focusing, 619

Isoform, definition, 768

Isosporiasis, 489

Isotachophoresis, 619, 768

Isotope, definition, 768

Isotope ratio mass spectrometry, 710

Itai-itai disease, 5, 202, 362

ITP. see IsotachophoresisIUPAC. see International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

J

Jacobs, L. W., 378t, 385, 385t, 389t, 390t, 407Jacobson, D. R., 506

James, J. A., 589

Jaundice, 587

Jenny, H., 352

Jianan, T., 10

Johnson, C. C., 422

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, 212

Jones, B. F, 329

Jones, K., 341

Jones, L. H. P., 367

Jurassic oolitic limestones, 270

Juvenile cardiomyopathy, 184

K

Kabata-Pendias, A., 48, 365t, 366Kageyama, F., 591tKarcher, S., 291

Karvonen, M. J., 342

Kashin-Beck, 212

Kashin-Beck disease, 212, 398–399, 398f, 580, 629, 768Katabatic wind, 457f, 466Kayser-Fleischer rings disorder, 123

Kehres, D. G., 150t

Kelly, F. C., 426, 428

Keratinocytes, definition, 768

Keratosis, arsenical, 571

Keshan cardiomyopathy, 580

Keshan disease, 195, 397–398, 768

Kesterson Reservoir, 407–409

Keweenaw Peninsula, 37f, 38Kharaka,Y. K., 69

Kidney, cadmium toxicity, 200–201

Kilham, P., 330

Kinase, definition, 768

Kinetics of elimination, 603–604, 603fKing, Michael, 651

Kinniburgh, D.G., 296

Klamath Mountains, 37, 37fKobayashi, Jun, 340

Kohri, K., 348

Kohrle, J., 168t, 169tKola Ecogeochemistry Project, 47

Kolar, J., 660

Kolinites, 352

Konikow, L.J., 740, 749, 750

Kotrebai, M., 168fK/T boundary, 4

L

Labadie, H., 586

Laboratory contamination, 187

LaCrosse encephalitis, 661

Lactoferrin, 154–155

Lag, J., 13

Lahars, 231, 768

Laki, Mount, 227

Lambrecht, R.W., 591tLandfill pathogens, 501–502

Landfill sites, 66

Landsat program, 652, 653f, 658fLandsat thematic mapper, 639

Landscape

Alpine mountains, 35

Cordilleran mountains, 35

Landscape ecology, 657

Langmuir equation, 364

Large intestine fermenters, definition, 768

Lassa Fever, 496tLattice, definition, 768

Laurell, C. B., 121

Lava, definition, 768

Leachate, definition, 768

Lead

added to gasoline, 70, 70tbiological monitoring, 210

concentrations in rice, 370

exposure of children through soil, 369–370

urban area street dust, 71tLead apatite, 672

Lead pipes, 72

Lead poisoning, 6–7, 10, 443, 562, 572–273

Lead pollution and health, 702

Lead toxicity, 71

Lemnian Earth, 443

Leptospirosis, 493tLesions, genetic, 553

Levander, O. A., 378t, 391t, 395tLewis acid/base catalyst, 75, 77

Lewis acid, definition, 768

Lewy bodies, definition, 768

Lichenoid, definition, 768

Lick sites. see GeophagyLicks, salt and mineral, 507

Ligands

binding, 80–82, 81fdefinition, 768

organic, 81f, 82f, 83Limestone, definition, 768

Lindsay, W. L., 365t, 658Lioumi, M., 118

Lipids, 131

Liquid chromatography, 618–619, 710

Li Shi-Chen, 447

Listeria monocytogenes, 501Listeriosis, 493t, 501Lithophile. see PhyllosilicatesLithophilic elements, 4

Lithosphere, definition, 768

Little Big Horn, 513

Liver, angiosarcoma, 571

Liver diseases, 589–591, 591tLiving organisms, organic chemistry, 75, 76fLOAEL. see Lowest observed adverse effect levels

Locura manganica, 574Loess, definition, 768

792 Index

Loess deposits, 459

Loess Plateau, China, 462f, 463f, 467“Loess rain,” 461

Lowest observed adverse effect levels, 556tL synthesis, 80

Lubin, J.H., 246

Ludwig, 591

Ludwig, J., 591tLumen, definition, 769

Lung cancer, 571, 576

confirmed primary, 541

correlation with radon exposure, 244–245

radon and smoking, 243, 247–248

Lung tumors, 247

Luoma, H., 342

Lustig, S., 614tLyme disease, 659–660

Lymph nodes, definition, 769

Lymphopenia, 165

Lysis, definition, 769

M

Macronutrients, definition, 179–180, 769

Macrophage, definition, 769

Madsen, E.L., 502

Maduramycosis, 492tMagma, definition, 768

Magnesium

atherosclerosis, 583

in crop plants, 367

deficiency, 345

drinking water, 341t, 343, 344fintake from food, 345, 347

intake from water, 345–347

ion properties, 133–134, 133tnutrition, 182

physiological properties, 345

Maguire, M. E., 150tMahaney, W. C., 445

Maithani, P. B., 324

Malaria vector, 659

Mal de colete, 510Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), 541

Malignant pleuropulmonary disease, 579–580

Malignant tumors, 585

Malone, J. B., 658

Mammalian selenoprotiens, 396tMandishona, E., 591tManganese

adverse effects in domestic animals, 508tbiological monitoring, 210

exhaust emission, 70tnutrition, 184

photosynthesis, 147–149

Manganese madness, 574

Map of Radon Zones, 266fMaret, W., 162

Marier, J. R., 348

Marine black shales, 270

Marine black shales, definition, 769

Marschner, H., 365t, 366Mass-balance equation, 441

Mass spectrometry, 710–715

Mass spectroscopy techniques, 709

Mass-transfer processes, geochemical, 732–733

Mathematical methods, 702

Mathur, M. L., 473

Matrix correction methods, 702

Matrix effect, definition, 769

MCA. see Multichannel analyzer

McCandless, S. W., 661

McKay, Frederick, 9

McLennan, S. M., 380

MCN. see Microconcentric nebulizer (MCN)

McNally, N. J., 348

McSheehy, S., 625

Measurement, 695–696, 695tMechanical dispersion, 730

Medical geology. see also Elements; Single-element studies

ancient findings, 1–3

an emerging profession, 9–11

definition, 195, 198tdental health, 8–9

development, 5–7

element interactions, 7–8

mapping diseases as a tool, 8

mineralized tissue research, 685

prospects, 11–12

public health and environmental medicine, 5–6

recent findings, 3–4

Medical texts, Chinese, 1–2

Medium, environmental, 549–550

Meinhard nebulizer (MN), 619

MEKC. see Micellar Electrokinetic chromatography

Melanin, definition, 769

Melezhik, V., 47

Melioidosis, 492tMena, I., 574Meng, X., 469

Meningitis, aseptic, 496tMenkes’ disease, 122–125, 123f, 124f, 156, 204Mercury

adverse health effects, 196

ancient findings, 2

biological monitoring, 211, 211fcycle, 196fhypertension, 585

sample contamination, 616

Mercury poisoning, 573–574

Mercury pollution, 5

Mercury vapor exposure, 211

Mesothelioma, 471, 473, 579

Mesothelioma, definition, 769

Mesothelioma, malignant pleural, 541

Messenger, definition, 769

Meta-analysis, 246

Metabolic acidosis, 164

Metabolic diseases, inherited, 591tMetabolism, 552–553, 601–602

Metabolism, definition, 769

Metabolism, toxicokinetics, 599f, 601–602, 602fMetabollome, 93–94

Metabolome, 769

Metadata, definition, 653, 769

Metal hyperaccumulators, 117

Metalliferous ore minerals, 60, 61tMetallochaperone, 122, 156

Metallogenic province, 47

Metalloid, definition, 769

Index 793

Metallome

biological complex studies, 82, 84fdefinition, 79, 771

Metalloproteins, zinc, 144t, 159tMetallothionein (MTs), 162–163, 199–201, 200tt, 559Metallothionein transcription, 614

Metal regulatory elements (MRE), 199

Metals and trace elements, biological monitoring. see Biologicalresponses of elements

Metals in the urban environment, 71tMetals, toxicity, 196, 197t, 198tMetals, vehicular sources, 70tMetal transcription factor (MTF-1), 199

Metamorphic rocks, definition, 769

Meteorites, 422

Methane, 225

Methemoglobinemia, 68

Methods of study, 79–80

Methylation detoxification mechanism, 553

Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl, 70, 574

Methylmalonic acid (MMA), 510

Methylmercury exposure, 197

Methylmercury, half-life, 559

Methylmercury poisoning, 5

Methyltransferase, 560

MFO. see Mixed function oxidase (MFO)

Micas. see PhyllosilicatesMicellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), 619, 769

Michaelis-Menten kinetic model, 733

Microconcentric nebulizer (MCN), 619

Microincineration, 718–719

Micronutrients, definition, 179, 769

Microradiograph, definition, 769

Mielke, H. W., 71

Miles, J. C. H., 260

Minamata catastrophe, 627

Minamata disease, 5, 573

Mineral availability for animals, 506–507

Mineral chemistry, 42–45, 280–281, 280tMineral composition in mineralized tissues

carbonate in apatites, 674–675

overview, 668

substitutions in the cation sites, 672–673, 673tsubstitutions in the hydroxyl site, 674

substitutions in the phosphate backbone, 672

variations due to multiple minerals, 669

variations due to nucleation and maturation, 669–670

variations due to substitutions within the mineral, 670

Mineral decomposition, 48

Mineral, definition, 769

Mineral elements. see also Biological responses

of elements; Elements

arsenic as a major constituent, 10, 280–283

bioavailability, 186–187

clinical assessment, 187–188, 188t–191tdefinition, 769

derived from soils, 188–193

dietary sources of, 185–186, 185testimates of needs and safe exposures, 187

needed for good health, 180–185

overview, 179–180, 180tMineral forms for base-metals, 47

Mineral forms for precious-metals, 47

Mineral group, definition, 769

Mineralization, definition, 769

Mineralized tissue research and medical geology, 685

Mineral nutrient, definition, 769

Minerals in geochemistry, 42

Minerals which absorb arsenic, 299

Mineral tissues. see Mineral composition in mineralized tissues

Miners Safety and Health Act, 243

Mine waters, pH values, 296

Mining

arsenic in geothermal fluids, 297

arsenicosis, 296

associations between chloride and arsenic, 298

geographical distribution of arsenic concentrations, 296–297

Mining and mineral extraction, 60–63

Mitochondrial electron-transfer chain, 153f, 154tMitochondrion, definition, 769

Mitosis, definition, 770

Mixed function oxidase (MFO), 602

MMA. see methylmalonic acid (MMA)

MN. see Meinhard nebulizer (MN)

Moco, 90

Model calibration, 749

Model codes, obtaining, 750–751

Model, definition, 770

Model error, 749–750

Modeling exposure, 543

Models

BEIR VI risk models, 248

carcinogenesis, two-stage, 607

deterministic mathematical, 734

guideline values for lead in soils, 370

inverse, 736

kinetic, 733

one-compartment, 603

surface-complexation models, 732

MODFLOW code, 736

MODFLOW-2000 code, 740

MODIS, 654

MODPATH, 737

Molecular diffusion, 103

Molybdenosis, 514–515

Molybdenum

biological function, 145–146, 146ffbiological monitoring, 211

intoxication in domestic animals, 514

nutrition, 184–185

Molybdenum-induced copper deficiency, 69

Moncayo, A. C., 660

Monetite formulae, 666tMonoclinic, definition, 770

Monod kinetic model, 733

Monooxygenase, definition, 770

Montaser, A., 620, 621

Moon, G., 341

Moray Sandstone, 321

Morel, F. M. M., 301

Morrison, G. M. P., 614tMorton Mains disease, 6

Mosquito species, 660

Mottled teeth, 9

Mount St. Helens. see St. Helens, Mount

Moxon, A. L., 383

MPM. see Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM)

MRE. see Metal regulatory elements (MRE)

MRLC. see Multiresolution landscape characterization (MRLC)

MSHA. see Miners Safety and Health Act

MT, definition, 770

MTF-1. see Metal transcription factor (MTF-1)

794 Index

MTs. see Metallothionein (MTs)

Mucociliary escalator, 576

Mucosal block, 111

Mucosal cell, definition, 770

Muir, Alex, 4

Multicellular organisms, 91–94

Multichannel analyzer, definition, 770

Multimedia mitigation programs, 272

Multiresolution landscape characterization (MRLC), 639

Multistage carcinogenesis model, definition, 770

Muramatsu, Y., 418, 419, 425

Murphy, J., 391

Muscular dystrophy, 401

Muscular sclerosis, 401

Mycelium, definition, 770

Mycorrhizae, 366

Mycorrhizae, definition, 770

Myocytes, 108, 770

Myoglobin, 151

Myxedematous cretinism, 184, 189, 204, 770

N

NAA. see Neuron activation analysis

Naegleria fowleri, 551NAFTA-CEC. see Commission for Environmental Cooperation

of the North American Free Trade Agreement

Nalgonda technique, 330

Nama Creek copper-zinc deposit, 40, 40fNamurian uraniferous shales, 271

Nanyaro, J. T., 329

NAPLs. see Non-Aqueous-phase-liquidsNAS. see American National Academy of Sciences;

U.S. National Academy of Science

NASH. see Nonalcoholic steatohepatitisNational Electronic Arbovirus Reporting System, 662

National Institute of Standards and Technology, 624

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 464, 649

National Research Council, 624

National Spatial Data Infrastructure, 636

Natural background

definition, 770

overview, 35–36

presentation of data, 40–41, 41frange determination, 37–38

spatial scale, 37

Natural contamination, definition, 40

Natural killer cells, 164

Natural radiation. see Radiation, naturalNatural resistance-associated macrophage protein. see Nramp2

Nazaroff, W. W., 260

Neal, C., 314

Neal, R. H., 376t, 378t, 381, 381tNEARS. see National Electronic Arbovirus Reporting System

Nebraska Sand Hills, 37

Nebulizers, 619

Nebulizers, definition, 770

Necator americanus, 482, 485Neck ail, 510

Necrosis, definition, 770

Needleman, H. L., 573

Neku, A., 289

Neonatal hemochromatosis, 585

Neoplasm, 579

Nepal

arsenic in groundwater, 289

Nephritis, 223

Nephrotoxin, definition, 770

Neri, L. C., 340t, 341Nerve cell, schematic representation, 94fNETPATH, 742

Neuman, M. W., 670

Neuman, W. F., 670

Neurological cretinism, 204

Neuron activation analysis, 404

Neurotoxicity, 198

Neurotransmitter, definition, 770

Neutron activation analysis, 690f, 691–693, 693fNeutrophile, definition, 765

Nicholson, F. A., 67, 68, 70

Nickel, 61t, 130, 130t, 139urban area street dust, 71t

Nicolli, H. B., 293

Nischwitz, V., 616

NIST. see National Institute of Standards and Technology

Nitric acid, 228

Nitrogen fixation, 132

Nitrogen, in crop plants, 367

Nitrogen dioxide, 227

NMR. see Nuclear magnetic resonance

NOAA. see National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAEL. see No observed adverse effect level

NOAEL, definition, 770

Noble gases, 102, 130

Nocardiosis, 493tNonalcoholic steatohepatitis, 585

Non-aqueous-phase-liquids, 743

Noncirrhotic portal hypertension, 587

Non-indian childhood cirrhosis, 588

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, 164

Non-metal balance, 93–94

No observed adverse effect level, 554, 556t, 558tNorboo, T., 471

Nordic Project Group, 426

Nordstrom, D. K., 295, 749

Northampton Sand Formation, 268fNorvel, W. A., 367

Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, 10

Nramp2, 109

NRC. see National Research Council; U.S. National Research Council

Nriagu, J. O., 378tNSF. see Northampton Sand Formation

Nuclear magnetic resonance, 612

Nuclear power generation, 65

Nuclear waste disposal, 67

Nucleation, 669–670

Nucleic acids, 132

Nuclide, definition, 770

Numerical solutions, 734

Nutrients

definition, 179

from fresh water, 186

geological sources, 179–180, 180t, 181t

O

Occupational Safety and Health Act, 243

Octacalcium phosphate formulae, 667tOdds-ratio, definition, 770

Oldfield, J. E., 377t, 391, 404

Olesik, J. W., 620

Oligonucleotide, definition, 770

Index 795

Oligopeptide, 145

Oliver, R. A. M., 591tOlivine, 42–43

Omnivores, definition, 770

On Airs, Waters, and Places (Hippocrates), 2Oncogenes, 607, 770

One-compartment model, 604

O’Neill, N. C., 588

Ontario Typical Range 98, 41

Operon, definition, 770

Ore, definition, 40

Ore minerals, 61–62, 62tOrganelle, definition, 770

Organic messengers, 93tOrganic systems, 138

Organisms, multicellular, 91–92

Organization, cooperative, 95

Organohalides, definition, 604

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, 500

Organ systems, definition, 770

Orthogonal analytical concepts, 624–626

Orthogonal flow chart, 626fOrthogonal speciation concept, 770

Ortholog, definition, 770

OSHA. see Occupational Safety and Health Act

Osteoblasts, 666, 770

Osteoclasts, definition, 770

Osteomalacia, 3, 181

Osteomalacia, definition, 770

Osteon, definition, 771

Osteophytes, 224

Osteoporosis, 674, 771

detection, 681–683, 681f, 682hormones, 684–685

incidence of fracture, 679, 682foverview, 679–681, 683

treatments

bisphosphonates, 684

fluoride, 683

O-transfer reaction, 90

Otton, J. K., 263

Ovine white liver disease, 511, 511fOWLD. see Ovine white liver diseaseOxalic acid, definition, 771

Oxidation, 92–93, 93t, 771Oxidation of arsenopyrite, 296

Oxidation/reduction reactions, 731

Oxidative methylation reactions, 564

Oxidized elements, new, 89f, 90–91Oxidoreductases, 183

Oxidoreductases, definition, 771

Oxisols, 356

Oxygen, 132

Oxygen-atom transfer, 86

P

Pacyna, J. M., 70

Paget’s disease, 684, 771

Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, 271

PAM. see Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis

Panchromatic sensor, 649

Pappagianis, D., 498

Paracelsus, 36–37, 197, 605

Paraferritin, 110

Parakeratosis, 571, 771

Parasitimia, definition, 771

Parathyroid hormone, definition, 771

Paratyphoid fever, 494tParent material, definition, 771

Parkhurst’s model, 746

Parkinsonism, definition, 771

Parkinsonism, manganese-induced, 574

Parkinson’s disease, 574

PAS stain. see Periodic acid-Schiff reaction stain

Pathline model, 739fPathogenic organisms, 482

Pathogens, ecology of soil-borne. see Soil-borne human pathogens

Pathogens from landfills, 502

Pathology. see Environmental pathology

Patterns of injury, 577

Pauling, 4, 5

PBET. see Physiologically based extraction system

PBPK. see Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model

Perl’s Prussian blue reaction, 719, 719fPedogensis. see Soil formation

Pee Dee Belemnite limestone, 712

Pendias, H., 365t, 366Peneplains, 35

Pentavalent arsenic, 565

Perel’man, A. J., 428

Periodic acid-Schiff reaction stain, 719

Periodic table, definition, 771

Periplasm, 771

Perkins, W. T., 72

Permafrost, definition, 771

Permeability, 478

Permeable rock association, the, 270

Peroxynitrite toxicity, 171

Pest de secar, 510Pesticides, 69

Phagocytosis, definition, 771

Pharmacognosy, definition, 771

Phase diagram, definition, 771

PHAST model, 747fPhenotype, definition, 771

Phenylketonuria, 376

PHEs. see Potentially harmful elements

Phlebotomy therapy, 591

Phorbol esters, 607

Phosphate

in arsenic binding, 301

in nucleotide triphosphates, 293

Phosphatic black shales, 271

Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase, 169–170

Phosphorite, definition, 771

Phosphorus

adverse effects in domestic animals, 505tin crop plants, 367

nutrition, 180–181

Photoelectron, definition, 771

Photosynthesis, 135

PHREEQC, 742

PHREEQCi program, 321

Phyllosilicates, 43–45, 771

Physicians’ Health Study, 583

Physiologically based extraction system, 449

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model, 604

Phytic acid, definition, 772

Phytoavailability, definition, 772

Phytoavailability, prime controls, 54–55, 55tPhytoplankton, 388, 419

796 Index

Phytoremediation, 117

Phytoremediation techniques, 408

Phytosiderophores, definition, 772

Phytotoxic, definition, 772

Pica, 444, 447, 773. see also Human geophagy

Pickering, W. F., 616

Piedmont deposits, 37, 37fPiispanen, R., 348

Pinatubo, Mount, 220

Pining disease, 510

Pirisi, M., 590

Pjetursson, Benedikt, 4

Placer deposits, definition, 772

Plant detoxification, 446

Plant, J., 53

Plants. see also Soil

evapotranspiration, 366

ion absorption, 366

iron deficiency, 366

macronutrient elements in crop plants, 366–367

Plaque, definition, 772

toxic elements, 367

trace element accumulation, 367

uptake of major elements, 366–367

uptake of trace elements, 364–367

Plasma glutathione peroxidase, 170

Plasma half-life calculation, 604

Plasma selenium, 187

Plasma zinc levels, 183

Platelet, definition, 772

Platform, definition, 772

Platinum group metals, 70tPleiotropy, definition, 772

Pleural fibrosis, diffuse, 578

Pleural mesothelioma, malignant, 541

Pleural plaques, 578, 772

Pleuropulmonary disease, 578–579

Pliny, 443

Plumlee, G. S., 295

Pneumoconiosis, 222, 459, 470–471, 577

Pneumonokoniosis, 575

Podsols, 353, 772

Polio, 596tPollution from a smelter, 49, 50fPolo, Marco, 2, 513

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 67

Polymorph, definition, 772

Polypeptide, 131

Popocatepetl, 224

Pore-facilitated transport, 104

Pork tapeworm, 488

Porosity, 478

Porphyria cutanea tarda, 590

Posner, A., 670

Potassium

in crop plants, 367

ion properties, 133–134, 133tnutrition, 182

Potato clays, 446

Potentially harmful elements, 435

Powder diffraction method, 676

Pratt, P., 579

Precious-metals, mineral forms, 47

Precipitation, 479

Preservatives, 616

Presser, T. S., 737

Prewitt, C. T., 673t

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, 551

Primitive cells

free metal ion concentration profile, 80–82, 83frequired elements, 78–79

system description, 82–83

Primitive cells, definition, 772

Primitive Earth, an elementary introduction, 77–78

Primitive life, chemical element restrictions, 78

Primitive sea

changes with time, 77tconcentrations of elements, 77t, 78system of reactivity, 79

Prion, 495, 772

Profiles, vertical zonation, 36

Progesterone, 772

Progestins, definition, 772

Projections, 638

Prokaryotes, 78, 92–93, 772

Prostate carcinoma, 553

Proteins, 131, 151f, 154tProteome, definition, 772

Protista, definition, 772

Proton bean microscopy, 79–80

Protozoa, definition, 772

Pulmonary alveoli, definition, 772

Pulmonary syndrome, 496tPunsar, S., 342

Pure minerals, 42

Purkinje cells, definition, 772

Pye, K., 459fPyloric stenosis, 589

Pyrite, associated with coal, 63

Pyrite, definition, 773

Pyrite oxidation by oxygen, 296

Pyroclastic flow, definition, 773

Pyromorphite, 672–673

Q

Q fever, 493tQualitative neutron activation analysis, 696

Quantitative neutron activation analysis, 696

Quantitative speciation, 624

Quantitative X-ray analysis, 701tQuaternary structure, definition, 773

QuickBird satellite, 649

R

Radiation exposures, 673

Radiation, natural

cosmic rays, 252food and drink, 252

gamma rays from the ground and buildings, 251–252

geographic distribution, 250–251

overview, 249

radon, 249–251

shellfish, 252

Radioactive decay, 240, 764

Radioactive iodine, 65

Radioactive nuclides, 673

Radioactivity

anthropogenic, 65

definition, 240, 773

environmental, 10

health effects, 243–244

measurement, 241–243, 242t

Index 797

Radioactivity (cont.)occupational dose limits, 242

risk weighting factors, 242

safety thresholds, 241

Radiochemical separation, 694

Radionuclides, definition, 773

Radon. see also Radiation, natural

administrative and technical responses, 272–273

buildings, 258–259, 259fcaves, 256

definition, 773

degassing of domestic water, 250

drinking water, 249

EPA Map of Zones, 266fhealth effects, 243–244

health risks, 247–249

ionizing radiations regulations, 272

lung cancer, 243

multimedia mitigation programs, 272

naturally occurring isotopes, 241

overview, 239–240

permeability measurements, 269

principal decay properties, 243–244, 244tprotective measures, 273

radioactivity and radiation, 240–243, 242tremedial measures, 273–274

site investigation methods, 268–269

Radon epidemiology

cohort studies of miners, 244–245

domestic exposure, case control studies, 245–246

experimental studies with animals, 247

extrapolation from mines to homes, 246–247

geographical studies, 246

geographic distribution, 246

other cancers, 247

overview, 243–244

Radon gas

carrier fluids, 256–257

climatic factors, 257

mineralogical effects, 255–256

natural migration pathways, 258

soil characteristics, 257

transmission characteristics of bedrock, 256

Radon geological associations

cretaceous sand formations, 271

geographic distribution, 271

Northampton Sand Formation, 270

rock types, 270

uranium association, 270

Radon Index Matrix, 260

Radon potential map, definition, 773

Radon potential mapping methods

geological, 261f, 262–268, 262f, 264f–266fnon-geological, 261–262

overview, 259–261

risk mapping, Czech Republic, 264–265, 265tRadon potential maps, 240, 259

Radon prognostic map, Czech Republic, 269tRadon risk classification, 269tRadon testing

in the home, 252–253

indoor validation scheme, 253–254

measurement in soil gas, 254

remediation, geographic, 253

solid materials, 254–255

water, 254

Radon test kits, 252

Rainfall, fluorine sources, 315–317

Rainfall, iodine contend, 420

Rajasooriyar, L. D., 342

Raloxifene, 685

Raman microprobe, definition, 773

Raman microprobe spectroscopy, 718, 720–723, 720f, 722fRapant, S., 378tRare earth elements, 673

Raster, definition, 773

Raster systems, 637

Rate constants, 603–604, 604fRayleigh scattering, 698

Reactive oxygen species, 198–199

Reactive oxygen species, definition, 773

Recall bias, 544

Red Cross Society, Nepal, 289

Redox conditions, 361–362

Redox potential, definition, 773

Redox reaction, 732, 773

Reducing condition, definition, 773

Reduction, definition, 773

Reference materials, certified, 624

Reference Nutrient Intake, 448, 773

Regolith, definition, 773

Reimann, C., 47, 52, 377tRelational database, definition, 773

Relative risk, definition, 773

Remote sensing

ecology and epidemiology of vector-borne disease, 657–660

fundamentals

electromagnetic spectrum, 646–647

resolution, 649

image processing, 656–657

issues

analytical and statistical, 660

ground data, 661

imagery, 661

modeling and simulation, 660

privacy, 661–662

scale, 660–661

temporal and spatial resolution, 660

landscape ecology and disease systems, 657, 658f, 659foverview, 647–648

satellites

AVHRR, 652–653

EOS Terra, 653–656

Landsat, 652

overview, 649–652

Rendzinas, 361

Reservoir, definition, 773

Residence time, definition, 774

Resolution, 638

Respiratory distress, definition, 7754

Respiratory illness, 496f, 497fRetention, 576

Retention time, definition, 774

Reversed-phased liquid chromatography, 618

Rhizosphere, 366, 480

Ribozyme, definition, 774

Rickets, 181, 182, 774

Risk assessment, 597, 774

Risk assessment, exposure to volcanic gases, 561

Risk management, 597

RNI. see Reference Nutrient IntakeRobarts, F.H., 589

798 Index

Roberts, I., 744

Robertson, F.N., 295

Robinson, T., 659

Rock geochemistry, 45

Rocks

arsenic concentrations, 281–283, 282tchemistry diversity, 45–48

mineral composition, 42

Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 492tRoggli, V., 575

Romero, L., 298, 395tROS. see Reactive oxygen species

Rose, A. W., 26, 44tRosenfield, I., 385, 385tRothamstead Agricultural Experimental Station, 378

Rothman, K. J., 540

Rounded atelectasis, 578

Roundworm, 490–491

RPLC. see Reversed-phased liquid chromatography

RT3D computer codes, 733

Ruapehu, Mount, 220, 224

Rubeanic acid, 720

Rules of substitution, Goldschmidt’s, 5

Ruminants, 507–508

Ruminants, definition, 788

S

Sacchaaromyces cerevisiae, 116f

Saccharin, 556–558

Saether, O. M., 314

Safety thresholds, radioactivity, 241

Saharan dust, 460tSaiyed, H. N., 472

Saline intrusion, definition, 774

Salminen, R., 52

Salmonellosis, 494tSalonen, J. T., 583

Salt and mineral licks, 507

Salt iodization, 206

Salt sick, 510

Sample integrity, 187

Sampling, 615

Sand dunes, 36

Saprophyte, definition, 774

Saprozoonoses, 487

Saprozoonoses, definition, 774

Sarcoidosis, definition, 774

Sarcomatoid, definition, 774

Sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum pumps, 108

Satellites, remote sensing principal spacecraft, 649, 651

Scale, definition, 637–638

Scanning electron microscopic analyses, 675, 775

Scheinberg, I. H., 588

Schistosoma haemotobium, 487Schistosoma japonicum, 487Schistosoma mansoni, 487, 658Schistosomiasis, 487

Schlottmann, J. L., 746

Schneeberger disease, 3

Schoolmeester, W. L., 585

Schroeder, H. A., 340

Sclerosis, 224

Scorodite, 283

Screw axis, definition, 774

Searle, J., 591tSeaweeds, 418

SEC. see Size exclusion chromatography

Sedimentary rock definition, 774

SEGH. see Society for Environmental Geochemistry

and Health (SEGH)

Sekoti Granodiorite, 326

Selection bias, 544

Selenate assimilation, 167fSeleniferous soils, examples, 382tSeleniferous wheat, 401

Selenium

adverse effects in domestic animals, 509tbioavailability, 384–385, 384fbiological function, 168

biological monitoring, 201

biomedical application, 628

cancer, 172–173

extraction pathway, 393

groundwater flow modeling, 735–737

industrial uses, 380tinhalation exposure criterion, 388tmyxedematous cretinism, 204–205

nutrition, 188

physical properties, 376tPhysicians’ Health Study, 583

single-element study, 7–8

study, 172

symptoms of exposure, 402–403, 403fftoxicity thresholds, 405t

Selenium deficiency, 580–582

Selenium fluxes, global, 378tSelenium in animals and humans

blood selenium levels, 396, 397

concentrations in animals, 412tconcentrations in humans, 390tdeficiency effects in animals, 395–397

deficiency remediation, 406–407

dietary, geographic variations, 389–391, 390t–391teffects in humans

cancer, 399–400

cardiomyopathy, 580–582

cardiovascular disease, 400

Kashin-Beck disease, 398–399, 398f, 580Keshan disease, 397–398, 398fmisc. diseases, 401

reproduction, 400

exposure, 388–392, 389t–391tingestion, 392t, 393–395, 393f, 395t–396ttoxicity effects in animals, 401–402

toxicity effects in humans, 402–403

Selenium in the environment

atmospheric, 387

background, 375–376

case histories

deficiency in humans-China, 409–410, 410fdrinking water-Italy, 409

geological impact on animal health-Australia, 412

geological impact on human health-China, 411–412,

411t–412tstatus in developing countries, 412–413

toxicity in animals-Kesterson Reservoir, 407–409, 408tconcentrations in natural materials, 377tdeficiency remediation, 406–407

man-made sources, 378–380

Index 799

Selenium in the environment (cont.)naturally occurring, 376–378, 377tplants, 385–387, 386tprincipal controls, 383–384, 384frocks, 380–381

soils, 381–385, 382t, 383fstream sediment, 381, 382ftoxicity remediation, 407

uptake in agricultural crops, 386twater, 387

Selenium intoxication, 401

Selenium poisoning, 401

Selenoamino acid, 184

Selenocysteine, definition, 774

Selenomethionine, 167

Selenomethionine, definition, 774

Selenophosphate, 168, 170

Selenoprotiens, 167, 171, 396tSelenosis, definition, 774

Selenosis, endemic human, 402, 403ffSellafield nuclear power station, 65

SEM. see Electron microscopy; Scanning electron

microscopic analyses

SEM/EDXA, 678

Sequential extraction, 617t

SERCA. see Sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum pumps

Serpentine fibers, 577

Sesquioxide, definition, 774

Severity qualifiers, 557tSewage effluent, 67

Shacklette, H. T., 9, 421tShales, 44–45, 46ff, 270Shales, definition, 774

Shannon, R. D., 673tShark teeth, 683

Shellfish, radiation source, 252

Shimbo, S., 369

Shiono, Y., 591tShipham soils, 371

Short, Nicholas, 649

Shotyk, W., 283

Siderophile elements, 4t, 44Siderophilic elements, 4

Silica exposure, 470–471

Silicates, 42, 254

Silicates, definition, 774

Silicon, 456

Silicosis, case study, 471–472

Silicosis, definition, 774

Simpson, P. R., 48, 49fSim, Y., 495

Single cell eukaryotes, 87–90

Single-element studies, 6–7

Sin Nombre virus, 496t, 501Sixth Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing

Radiation, 244, 247, 248tSize exclusion chromatography, 618

Sjaastad, V., 508

Skeletal fluorosis, 313

Skeleton and mineralized tissues

bones and teeth, 666

overview, 665–666

pathological apatitic deposition, 666–668, 667fSkin cancer, metal-induced, 570–572

Skin, human, 570–572

Skin infection, 494t

Skin lesions, 563

Skinner, H. C. W., 677tSmallpox, 497tSmectites, 45, 363, 774

Smedley, P. L., 290, 296, 301

Smoke, cigarette, 579

Smoke, global distribution, 467fSmoking, exposure to selenium, 388

Sneddon, F. W., 428, 429

Snow, John, 636

Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 10

Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health (SEGH), 9

Sodium, 133–134, 133t, 182Sodium-potassium pump, 107–108, 107fSoil, 192t, 193. see also Geophagy; Human geophagy; Plants

bioavailable amounts of elements, 53

Brown Chernozems, 51fcalcimorphic 349, 353

Canadian Prairies, 38ffcharacteristics, 21, 257

consumption of as a pharmaceutical, 447

contamination affecting human health, 369

copper content, 37–38, 37fdeficiencies, 371

fauna, 481

food and food detoxifier, 446–447

gleying, 353, 361

macro and trace elements, 364, 365tmaximum permissible metal concentrations, 755

microbes, 477–478

nutritional deficiencies, 196

overview, 35–36

radon in soil gas, 257

rural area, 71tspatial pattern of high selenium, 53

urban area, 71tSoil-borne human pathogens, 483

bacteria, 490–491, 492f–494fcestodes, 487

Coccidioides immitis, case study, 498–501, 499f, 501femerging diseases, 501–502

fungi, 477, 490, 491thelminths and microbes, 483

infection gateways, 482–483

nematodes, 484–485

overview, 477–478

pathogen residencies, 482

protozoa, 488

spongiform encephalopathies, 495

trematodes, 487

viruses, 491–495, 496t–497tSoil-borne viruses, 491–495

Soil chemical and physical properties

adsorption, 363

Brownian forces, 480

cation and anion exchange, 362–363, 362t, 363tchemically active mineral constituents

clay minerals, 360

free carbonates, 360, 361

overview, 359–360

oxides of iron, manganese, and aluminum, 359–360

redox conditions, 361–362

co-precipitation, 363

Freundlich equation, 364

insoluble precipitates of elements, 351, 363–364

Langmuir equation, 364

800 Index

organic complexation, 361, 364

organic matter, 358–359

permeability, 478

porosity, 478

soil pH, 357–358

sorption of ions, quantitative description, 364

texture, 478

Soil concentrations of trace elements, 366–369, 368tSoil formation

arenosols, 353f, 355calcisols, global distribution, 352–353, 355fcation adsorption, 354

diagrammatic soil profile, 353, 353felements found in topsoils, 354–355

elution, 350–351, 354–355

pedogenisis, definition, 771

podsols, 359

profile of an uncultivated soil, 353

sorption mechanisms, 347–348, 351–352

Soil-forming factors

climate, 479–480

parent material, 479

soil organisms, 480

soil water potential formula, 479

topography and time, 481

Soil fundamentals, 478–481

Soil, Grass and Cancer (Voisin), 4Soil ingestion. see GeophagySoil-plant transfer, 356–357

Soil profile, definition, 774

Soil profile, diagrammatic, 353fSoils and iodine deficiency

atmospheric transfer of iron, 419–420

chemical form of iodine in soil, 423

factors influencing, 421–422

factors influencing retention, 421–423

factors influencing supply, 421f, 421tglobal distribution of disorders, 426–429, 427ff, 428flithosphere, 418, 418tmarine environment, 418–419

overview, 417

radioactivity, 429

sources for humans, 425–426

transfer from soil to plants, 424–425

volatilization, 423–424

Soils, geochemical mapping, 404

Soil survey geographic database, 639

Soil texture, definition, 775

Soil, water, and amoebae, New Zealand hot springs, 550–551

Solanum malacoxylon, 509Solsona, F., 331tSolubility data, 73tSolubility, definition, 775

Solute potential, 480

Solute-transport equation, 730, 740

Sorption, definition, 775

Sorption reactions, 732

Sources of energy, 78–79, 79tSpace group, definition, 775

Spallation, definition, 775

Spatial accuracy, 638

Spatial data, 636

Spatial resolution, 649

Spatial scale effect on natural backgrounds, 40

Special stains, 719

Speciation analysis criteria, 625tSpeciation codes, 740–741

Speciation, definition, 760

Speciation of trace elements

approaches, 617

capillary electrophoresis, 619

element-selective detection, 620–623, 622fgas chromatography, 620

interfacing CE to ESI-MS, 620

interfacing CE to ICP-MS, 620

interfacing LC to ICP-MS, 619–620

liquid chromatography, 618–619

species-selective detectors, 623

biomedical applications, 628–629

defined characterization of species, 613

definitions of related terms, 612–613

environmental applications, 627–628

impact and mechanism in biological systems, 613–614

nutritional applications, 628

overview, 611–612, 615

quality control

general aspects, 624, 625torthogonal analytical concepts, 624–626

sample storage and processing, 615–616

sampling, 615

speciation analysis, 615

useful fields, 613

Species-selective detectors, 623

Species uptake mechanisms, 614tSpectral interferences, 696, 706

Spectral resolution, 649

Spectroscopes, 648

Spherule, definition, 775

Spherulitic calcium phosphate deposits, 680fSpongiosis, definition, 775

Sposito, G., 363

Spotted fevers, 493tSpray chamber, definition, 775

Sprinkle, C.L., 340

Spurr, Mount, 223

Spurr plastic, 678

Squamous cell carcinoma, 570, 775

Squamous cell carcinomas, 570

SRM. see Standard reference materials

SSURGO. see Soil survey geographic database

Stable isotope, definition, 775

Stains, special, 719

Stalinon, 574

Stallard, M. O., 70

Standard addition method, 705–706

Standardized mortality ratios, definition, 775

Standard reference materials, 696

State factors, equation, 352

State soil geographic database, 639

STATSGO. see State soil geographic databaseSteatosis, definition, 775

Steen, B., 395tStereoisomer, definition, 775

Sternlieb, I., 588

Stevenson, F. J., 359

St. Helens, Mount, 218, 220

Stiles, Charles Wardell, 444

Stocks, P., 8

Stores regulator, 111

Stream plant chemistry for chromium, 48–50, 49f, 50fStreams affected by geothermal inputs, 300

Stream sediments, Yukon Territory, 53–54

Street dust, urban area, 71tStrontium apatite, ideal formula, 672

Index 801

Struvite stones, 348

Study designs, 538–542, 539fStudy methods, 79–80

Styrene exposure, 559

Suave, S., 53

Subclinical responses, 605–606

Subramanian, V., 282

Sub-Saharan hemosiderosis, 585

Sudbury ore deposits, 39–40

Suicide, 444

Sulfate reduction, 299

Sulfide minerals, 62tSulfide oxidation, 296

Sulfur bioinorganic chemistry, 138

Sulfur dioxide, 227

Sulfur, in crop plants, 367

Superoxide dismutase, 158

Surface-complexation models, 732

Surface water, treated, 291

Surveillance, 536

SUTRA, 740

Swayback disease, 436

Swedish Geological Survey, 48–50, 49f, 50fSwedish National Board of Housing, Building,

and Planning, 269

Symbiosis, 95

Symbiosis, definition, 775

Symport, 105

Synergy, 606

Synergy, definition, 775

Syphilis, 5

Systematic errors, 543–544

Systemic arterial disease, 587

Szpunar, J., 618

T

Tables of averages, overview, 45t, 48Tachycardia, definition, 775

Tachypnea, definition, 775

Tachyzoites, 489

Tailings dams, 61

Tan, J., 378t, 391t, 426, 428Tanner, M. S., 588

Tapeworms, 487–488

Target population, 8

Tarim Basin, 463

Taxocara canis, 486Taylor, S. R., 380

TDS. see Total dissolved solids

Teeth

composition of, 666

mottled, 9

tissues, 667tTemporal variability, 52

Tephra, 776. see also Volcanic monitoring

Termite mounds, definition, 775

Terra onboard sensors, 654, 656

Terra sigillata, 443, 447Terrestrial gamma rays, 249, 251–252

Tetanus, 492tTetracalcium phosphate formulae, 667tTetrahedral orthophosphate group, definition, 775

Tetrathiomolybdate, 514

Texture, 478

Thailand, arsenicosis related to mining, 296

Thallium, biological monitoring, 212

Thermodynamic constants, 80

Thermodynamics of transport. see Uptake of elements

Thermophilic bacteria, 300

Thin-film calibration, 701

Thioredoxin reductases, 170

Thorium-323 decay series, 241tThornton, I., 378tThreshold, definition, 605, 606

Thylakoid, definition, 775

Thymic atrophy, 164, 165

Thymulin, 165

Thyroglobulin, 165–166

Thyroid, 165–166

Thyroid glands, steers, 515fThyroid hypertrophy, 184

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, 205

Thyroxine, 417, 775

Tick-borne encephalitis, 660

Tierra santa, 446fTin, N. T., 283

Tipping, E., 53

Tissue hypoxia, 182

Tobacco plants, 366, 388

Tokunaga, T, 407

Tomography, definition, 775

TOMS. see total ozone mapping spectrometer

Tonsillar herniation, definition, 775

Tooth decay, 313

Tooth wear, excessive, 450

Topology, 637

Total analyses and bioavailability, 53–55

Total dissolved solids, 340

Total ozone mapping spectrometer, 464–465

Toxic elements, 36

Toxicity of metals, 196

Toxicity testing, 559, 604

Toxic metal species, 36

Toxicodynamics

carcinogenesis, 606–607

exposure-response relationships, 605–606

interaction, 606

mechanism of toxic injury, 604–607 (see also Toxicology)

mechanisms of toxicity, 604–605

Toxicodynamics, definition, 775

Toxicokinetics. see also Toxicology

absorption, 598–600

distribution, 600–601

excretion, 602–603

kinetics, 602f, 603–604metabolism, 601–602, 602fmetallothioneins, 121

non-cancer target organs, 555tprinciples, 599frisk assessment, 551, 552ttoxicodynamics, 604–607

Toxicokinetics, definition, 776

Toxicology. see also Environmental medicine; Toxicodynamics;

Toxicokinetics; Volcanic toxicology

clinical, 597

dose-response relationship, 556

dose-response slope, 559

epigenetic mechanisms, 607

excretion, 602–603

kinetics, 603–604

overview, 597–598

802 Index

threshold, definition, 775

toxicity testing, 559

toxicodynamics, 604–607

toxicokinetics, 598–604

Toxocariasis, 443, 450, 776

Toxoplasmosis, 489

Toxoplasmosis, definition, 776

Trabeculae in affected vertebrae, 679ffTrace elements. see also Biological responses of elements;

Soil-plant transfer; Speciation of trace elements

atherosclerosis, 582–583

availability for animals, 583–584

box-and-whisker plots, 38–39, 39fconcentrations in fertilizers, 68tdefinition, 776

in the Earth’s crust, 40–41, 43tessentiality and toxicity, 196

influencing factors for health effects, 213tmetabolism and kinetics, 201

in soil concentrations, 368, 368tTrace Substances in Environmental Health, Conference on, 9

Tracheobronchial system, 576

Transcription, definition, 776

Transfection, definition, 776

Transferrin, 109–110, 145, 154–155, 600

Transfusional siderosis, 590

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, 495–498, 776

Transport. see Uptake of elements

Transport thermodynamics. see Uptake of elements

Transposon, definition, 776

Travi, Y., 323

Tricalcium phosphate formulae, 667tTrichiuriasis, 450, 776

Triiodothyronine, definition, 776

Trisetum flavescens, 509TSEs. see Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

TSH. see Thyroid-stimulating hormone

TTM. see tetrathiomolybdate

Tuberculosis, 471, 473–474

Tubewells

Sri Lanka, 342fVietnam, 289–290

Tumors, 585, 666

Tungsten, 146–147

Turnbull’s blue reaction, 719–720

Turner, M. G., 660

Two-stage model, carcinogenesis, 607

Type 1 collagen, definition, 776

Typhoid fever, 494tTyrolean infantile cirrhosis, 588

U

Ultramafic rock, definition, 776

Ultrasonic nebulizer, 619

Ulvund, Martha J., 511fUncertainty factors, 554

Unconfined aquafir, definition, 776

Underwood, Eric, 6

Uniport transport process, 105

Unit cell, definition, 776

Upper limits of same ranges of population mean intakes,

187, 190tUpper tolerable limits, 190tUptake of elements

control of iron metabolism, 114

essentiality, 101–102

general aspects, 102

transport thermodynamics

accelerated diffusion, 104–105, 104factive transport, 106

diffusion, 103–104, 104tion pumps, 106–108, 108foverview, 102–103

three classes of transport, 105, 105ftypes of transport ATPases, 106, 107t

uptake and regulation of iron

ferroportin1, 110–111

heme iron uptake, 110

metabolism control, 114

non-heme iron, 109

Nramp 2, 109–110

overview, 108, 109fparaferritin-mediated iron uptake, 109f, 110regulation of dietary iron absorption, 111

regulatory proteins, 114–115

transferrin

transferrin: transferrin receptor 1, 112–113

transferrin: transferrin receptor 2, 113

transferrin receptor-mediated, 111

uptake and regulation of zinc, 115

transport and regulation in plants, 116–117

transporters in eukaryotes, 115–116

transporters in mammals, 118–120

uptake and rejection of copper

accessing the intracellular pool, 120

albumin as a copper transport factor, 120

ceruloplasmin, 121

membrane transport, 121–125

overview, 120

Uraniferous metamorphic rocks, 269

Uranium. see also Radon epidemiology

decay series, 241tminers, health problems, 3, 243

recoil range, 255

rocks, 249

Uranium association, the, 270

Uroporphyrin, 86, 87fUSDA

Soil Taxonomy, 356, 772

soil texture triangle, 479fU.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 244, 245f, 311,

470, 559, 638

U.S. Geological Survey, 736, 751

USN. see Ultrasonic nebulizerU.S. National Academy of Science, 187, 189tU.S. National Research Council, 555

V

Vadose zone, definition, 776

Valinomycin, 104

Valley Fever, 498

Vanadate, 139–140

Vanadium, 70t, 139–140, 141ffVanderdonck, P., 331, 331tVan der Haar, F., 426

Van Kesteren, X., 331, 331tVarsanyi, I., 291

Vascular injury, 585

Vasodilation, definition, 776

Vector-borne disease, definition, 776

Index 803

Vector, definition, 639, 776

Vehicle exhaust gases, 69–70

Vehicular sources of metals, 70tVermiculite mine, Libby, Montana, 473

Vermiculites, 352

Vertical zonation, 36

Vinceti, M., 378t, 394t, 400Viremia, definition, 776

Virulence, definition, 776

Viruses, soil-borne, 491–495

Visceral larva migrans, 486

Vitruvius, 2

Vogt, H. L., 4

Voisin, Andre, 4

Volatile fatty acids, definition, 776

Volatile gases, 603

Volcanic activity and aquatic environments, 230–231

Volcanic emissions, definition, 776

Volcanic gas, definition, 777

Volcanic gas emissions, health issues

acid rain, 226, 227

acute respiratory distress syndrome, 226

bronchiolitis obliterans-organizing pneumonia,

226–227

fumaroles, 228

inhaled, 215

irritant gases, 226–227

noxious asphyxiants, 228

solfataric emissions, 225

volcanic gas, description, 225

Volcanic hurricanes, 230

Volcanic monitoring

ash, 232

eruptive phase, 232

gas emissions, 233tgeological data, 236

post-eruptive phase, 235

pre-eruptive phase, 231

tephra, 232, 233t, 234tVolcanic monitoring, definition, 777

Volcanic tephra dispersal. see also dust

atmospheric, 220–223, 221t, 222fhealth effects, potential duration, 220–225

Volcanic toxic compounds, hydrospheric

dominant chemicals, 223

fluoride, 223–224

Volcanic toxic compounds, soil and food chain

aquatic life, 224–225

effects of tephra, 223–224

selenium, 224–225, 379t, 380–383Volcanic toxicology. see also Fluoride in natural waters

aerosols, 229

basaltic lava, 229

biological variables, 219–220

carbon monoxide, 228

compounds in the soil and food chain, 224–225

dispersal of metals and trace elements, 229

eruptive variables, 218

gas emissions, health issues, 221t, 225health protection strategies, 233thydrospheric dispersal of toxic compounds, 223–224

inert asphyxiants, 225–226

irritant gases, 226–227

nitrogen dioxide, 228

overview, 217–220

pathophysiological effects of toxic compounds, 221tpyroclastic flows, 230

radiation hazards, 229

total suspended particles, 220

toxin dispersal and persistance patterns, 218–219

Volcanic toxicology data, geographical sites

crater lakes, 230

Dieng Volcanic Complex, Java, 226

Etna, Mount, 224, 229

Furnas volcano, Azores, 223

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 226

Heimaey, Mount, 230

Hekla, Mount, 224, 231

Katmai, Mount, 227

Kilauea, Hawaii, 227

Karkar, Mount, 224–225

Kusatsu-Shirane crater, Japan, 228

Laki, Mount, 224, 227

Masaya volcano, 227

Monoun, Lake, Cameroon, 226

Nyos, Lake, Cameroon, 226

Pinatubo, Mount, 220, 230

Popocatepetl, 224

Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, 225

Ruapehu, Mount, 220, 224, 236

Spurr, Mount, 223

St. Helens, Mount, 220, 222, 228, 230

Yellowstone Park, 225

Volcano, definition, 777

Voltammetry, definition, 777

Von Kossa silver test, 719

W

Wagner, H. D., 679

Wallwork, J. A., 481

Walsh, Alan, 705

Wang, J. F., 740

Wang, L., 290

Warren, Harry, 6, 9

Waste disposal, 66–68

Wasting disease, 510

Water. see Groundwater; Water hardness

Water hardness

definition, 337–338

domestic purposes, 338

Europe, 337–338

Finland, case-control study, 342, 343

Floridian aquifer system, 339, 339fnatural hydrochemical evolution, 338–340, 338f, 339f, 340frainwater, 338

Sweden, case-control study, 343–344, 344f, 347Water hardness effects on health

calcium and blood pressure, 347

calcium and cardiovascular disease, 347

cerebrovascular disease, 338

coronary heart disease, 340t, 341correlation to cancer, 347

hard-water story, the, 340–342, 341f, 342fmagnesium

deficiency, 345

intake from food, 345, 346tintake from water, 345–347

physiological properties, 345

public health perspective, 348

804 Index

Waterlogging, 361

Wavelength-dispersive spectrometer, 698–700

WD XRF. see Wavelength-dispersive spectrometer

Weathering, 456

Weathering, early stages, 302

Weathering environment, 44

Webb, J. S., 47, 55tWeb sites

chapter-related, 758–760

planned remote sensing satellite systems, 651

Webster, J. G., 298

Wedepohl, K., 38, 48, 418

Wedeen, 450

Weiner, S., 679

Weischelian Ice Age, 36

Welch, A. H., 295, 296, 298

Welch, R. M., 367

Wenzel, W. W., 318

Westlin, W. F., 589

WHAM model, 53

Whipworm, 486

White, D. E., 298

White, D. R., 585

Whitehead, D. C., 420

White liver disease, 510

White muscle disease, 376, 396, 777

Whitlockite formulae, 667tWHO. see World Health Organization

Wild, A., 359

Wilkie, J. A., 298, 300

Williams, R. J. P., 136tWilson’s disease, 122–124, 123f, 124f, 156, 204, 585, 589, 720Windscale nuclear accident, 429

Wisconsin Ice Age, 36

Wixson, B. G., 370

Woessner, W. W., 735

World Health Organization, 72, 129, 187, 273, 280, 311,

378t, 391t, 483World Reference Base for Soil Resources, definition, 777

Woven bone, definition, 777

Wu, L., 407

Wurm Ice Age, 36

Wyatt, C. J., 291

X

Xenobiotics, definition, 598–600, 777

Xeroderma pigmentosa, 553

XFR. see X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Xie, X., 52

Xinjiang Autonomous Region, 640–641

X-ray diffraction maxima, definition, 777

X-ray/electron diffraction, definition, 777

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 404, 690f, 697–702X-ray powder diffraction patterns, 677fXRF. see X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Y

Yang, C. Y., 348, 538

Yang, G., 391t, 411Yoshida, S., 419

Younossi, Z. M., 591

Yuita, K., 423

Z

Zack, A. L., 744

Zellweger’s syndrome, 589

Zenker, F., 575

Zero-order rate constant, 603, 604fZheng, C., 738, 740

Zhou, I. P., 459fZielhuis, R., 577

Zinc

adverse effects in domestic animals, 508t, 512fanalysis, 720

bioavailability, 186

biological function, 158–165, 159t–160t, 162f, 163fbiological response, 212–213, 213tgeophagy, 450

impact on nutrition, 183

vehicle emission, 70tZinc-efficient cultivars, 363

Zinc-finger domains, 161

ZIP proteins, 116

Zoonosis, definition, 647, 777

ZPP. see Erythrocyte zinc protoporphyrin

Index 805