AP Biology Summer Reading zChapter 2 zChapter 3 zChapter 4.
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Transcript of AP Biology Summer Reading zChapter 2 zChapter 3 zChapter 4.
AP Biology Summer Reading
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chemical Context of Life
Matter- how would you define it???
Element/CompoundsWhat’s the
difference?
Chemical Context of LifeThe atom- composed of:Atomic number:Mass number:Isotopes:Radioactive isotopes: Atomic notation:
Chemical Context of Life
Energy (definition from physics):Energy levels:How many energy levels are found
on the periodic table:Valence electrons:
Chemical Bonding
Covalent Double covalent Nonpolar covalentPolar covalentIonicHydrogenvan der Waals
Covalent Bonding
Sharing pair of valence electrons
Number of electrons required to complete an atom’s valence shell determines how many bonds will form
Ex: Hydrogen & oxygen bonding in water; methane
Polar/nonpolar covalent bonds
Electronegativityattraction for electrons
Nonpolar covalent •electrons shared
equally •Ex: diatomic H and O
Polar covalent•one atom more electronegative than the other (charged)•Ex: water
Polar/nonpolar bonds
Ionic bonding
High electronegativity difference strips valence electrons away from another atom
Electron transfer creates ions (charged atoms)
Cation (positive ion); anion (negative ion)
Ex: Salts (sodium chloride)
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom (oxygen or nitrogen)
van der Waals interactions
Weak interactions between molecules or parts of molecules that are brought about by localized charge fluctuations
Due to the fact that electrons are constantly in motion and at any given instant, ever-changing “hot spots” of negative or positive charge may develop
Water: Why is it important?
Creates environment suitable for lifeNecessary for many biological and
chemical processes
Water as a polar molecule:
Polar- opposite ends, opposite charges
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen Partial charges result
Gives water many distinct properties
Properties of Water:
Cohesion- H+ bonds holding molecules together
Adhesion- H+ bonds holding molecules to another substance
Examples: water transportation in plants- flowing against the force of gravity (adhesion also)
Properties of Water:Surface tension- measurement
of the difficulty to break or stretch the surface of a liquid
Gives rain drops their tear- drop shape
Result of Cohesion
Properties of Water:Water has a relatively high
specific heat capacity Specific heat- amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1g. of a substance 10C.
Hydrogen bonds contribute to this property
Properties of Water:Heat of vaporization-
quantity of heat required to convert 1g from liquid to gas states
Why is this important?
Density
Water is a dense substance: D= 1g/mL
Due to hydrogen bondingAt what temperature is
water its most dense? What happens to the
density as water approaches 00C?
Acid/Base & pH
Dissociation of water into a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion
Acid: increases the hydrogen concentration of a solution
Base: reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
pH: “power of hydrogen” Buffers: substances that
minimize H+ and OH- concentrations (accepts or donates H+ ions)
Organic chemistry
Biological thought: Vitalism (life force outside physical
& chemical laws) Berzelius Mechanism (all natural
phenomena are governed by physical & chemical laws) Miller
Carbontetravalencetetrahedronshape determines function
PCA:
The molar mass of table sugar is ???(C12H22O11)
How would you make a sugar water solution with a 1M concentration?
Organic Chemistry:
Carbon based molecules Tetravalence- carbon has four
valance electrons (4 covalent bonds)
High energy storageDiverse Molecules:
hydrocarbons
Isomers:
same molecular formula, but different structure & properties
Isomers:
Structural-differing covalent bonding
arrangement (straight vs. branched)
Geometric-differing spatial arrangement
Enantiomers-mirror images pharmacological industry
Functional Groups, I
Attachments that replace one or more of the hydrogen bonded to the carbon skeleton of the hydrocarbon
Each has a unique property from one organic compound to another
Functional Groups:
Hydroxyl Group (-OH): oxygen bonded to hydrogen Alcohols Polar
Functional Groups:
Carbonyl (C=O): carbon atom double bonded to oxygen Keytones and Aldehydes Polar
Functional Groups:
Carboxyl Group (O=C-OH): oxygen double bonded to carbon bonded to a hydroxyl Polar Releases H+ ion- forms acids
Functional Groups:
Amino Group (-NH2): nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen (Amino acids also contain carboxylic acids)
amines acts as base
Functional Groups, II
Sulfhydryl Group (-SH): sulfur bonded to H thiols
Functional Groups:
Phosphate Group (-PO42-):
phosphate ion one oxygen is bonded to a carbon
skeleton polar