AP BIOLOGY

Chapter 4 Carbon Chapter 5 Macromolecules AP BIOLOGYOrganic Chemistry Compounds containing C C, H, N, O, (P, S)Miller and Urey

Carbon bond Formation CH4

C2H6

C2H4HydrocarbonsOrganic molecules consisting of C and H onlyNot prevalent in most living organisms, but most have regions of C and HExamples: Fats C-H are nonpolar, (similar electronegativity's) Their rxs release lots of energyIsomersSame numbers of atoms of same elements, different in arrangement3 typesStructural isomersCis-trans isomersEnantiomers

Functional GroupsGroups that are directly involved in chemical reactions

Functional GroupStructureExampleDrawingHydroxyl-OHAlcoholsCarbonyl>COKetonesAldehydesCarboxyl-COOHCarboxylic acidsAmino-NH2AminesSulfhydryl-SHThiolsPhosphate-OPO32-Organic phosphatesMethylCH3Methylated compoundsATP Adenosine Triphosphate

Macromolecules Chapter 5All living things fall under 4 major classesCarbsLipidsProteinsNucleic acids

3 of the four are HUGE on a molecular scale (proteins, carbs, nucleic acids)Monomer- building blocks of polymers

Polymer- long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by chemical bondsSynthesis and BreakdownEnzymes are specialized macromolecules that speed up reactions

Dehydration rxns (called synthesis)

Dehydration removesa water molecule,forming a new bond.Synthesis and Breakdown2. Hydrolysis- to break using water

Hydrolysis addsa water molecule,breaking a bond.Carbohydrates Include both sugars and polymers of sugar

Monosaccharides (CH2O)Molecule has a carbonyl group, and hydroxyl groupsGlucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides (2 monosacch. Joined by glycosidic linkage)Glycosidic linkages are = to dehydration reactionMaltose, sucrose, lactose

CarbohydratesPolysaccharidesJoined by glycosidic linkages2 major categories of polysaccharides

Storage polysaccharidesStarch- plants store as energy within plastids and cholorplastsOthers include: amylose (unbranched) amylopectinGlycogen- animals store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cellsHydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose

Carbohydrates2. Structural polysaccharidesCellulose- major component of cell wall in plantsChitin- used by arthropods to build their exoskeletonsExoskeleton- hard case that surrounds the soft part of an animal ProteinsImportant in almost everything organisms doVaried functionsCatalysts- speed up rxns without being consumed in rxnProteinsPolypeptidesMonomer- amino acids (all polymers are constructed from same set of 20 amino acids)Polypeptides- polymers of amino acidsProtein- biologically functional molecule that consists of 1 or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific structureProteinsAmino acid Monomer

Protein Function Enzymatic-accelerate chemical rxnsDefensive- protection against diseaseStorageTransport- movement across cell membranesHormonalReceptor- response of cells to chemical stimuliContractile/motor- movementStructural- support

(see page 78 for more detail)ProteinsAmino acid polymersMonomers link together via peptide bonds

Levels of Protein StructurePrimaryLinked series of a.a. with a unique sequence

Levels of Protein Structure2. SecondaryCoiled or folded patternsAlpha helix- coilBeta-pleated sheet- accordion looking

Levels of Protein Structure3. Tertiary Overall shape resulting from interactions of side chainsInteractions:Hydrophobic interactionDisulfide bridgesIonic bondsH bonds

Levels of Protein Structure4. Quaternary Overall structure that is make up of polypeptide subunits

Denaturation and Renaturation Denaturation- when proteins become destroyed, lose its native shape due to changes in temp, pH, salinity, etc.

LipidsLarge class of large biomolecules that does not include true polymersAll lipids share one important trait:They mix poorly, hydrophobic, hydrocarbons

Lipids include:FatsPhospholipidsSteroidsWaxes and pigmentsLipidsFatsFat is constructed from two kids of small molecules (glycerol and fatty acids)Fatty acid- has a long C skeleton 16-18 with carboxyl groupHydrocarbons are reason why lipids are hydrophobic

LipidsSaturated fatty acidNo double bonds existAnimal fats- lard, butter (solid at room temp.)Unsaturated fatty acidHas 1 or > double bondsMost are cis Plant and fish fat oils, olive oil (liquid at room temp.)

PhospholipidsMake up cell membranesSimilar to fat but with 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol.When added with water they self assemble into a bilayer

SteroidsLipids characterized by C consisting to 4 fused rings.Cholesterol- within animal cell membranes also a precursor for which all other cell membranes are synthesizedSynthesized in the liver hormones

Nucleic Acids Genes- units of DNANucleic acids- polymers made of monomers called nucleotides

Roles of Nucleic Acids-DNAGenetic material that organisms inherit from their parents RNAInteracts with cells protein synthesizing machinery part of a protein DNA RNA Protein

DNA vs RNADNARNADouble strandedDeoxyribose sugarThymine Single strandedRibose sugarUracil NucleotidesStructure:

2 families of Nitrogenous BasesPyrimidinesCytosineUracil ThyminePurineAdenineGuanine