93374870 Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia

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Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), as the condition is commonly termed (although the causative organism has been renamed Pneumocystis jiroveci [pronounced “yee-row-vet-zee”]), is the most common opportunistic infection in persons with HIV infection . Pneumocystis first came to attention as a cause of interstitial pneumonia in severely malnourished and premature infants during World War II in Central and Eastern Europe. Before the 1980s, fewer than 100 cases of PCP were reported annually in the United States, occurring in patients who were immunosuppressed (eg, cancer patients receiving chemotherapy and solid-organ transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressants). In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported PCP in 5 previously healthy homosexual men residing in the Los Angeles area. P jiroveci is now one of several organisms known to cause life-threatening opportunistic infections in patients with advanced HIV infection worldwide. Well over 100,000 cases of PCP were reported in the first decade of the HIV epidemic in the United States in people with no other cause for immunosuppression. While officially classified as a fungal pneumonia , PCP does not respond to antifungal treatment. Although a histopathologic demonstration of the organism is required for a definitive diagnosis (see Histologic Findings), treatment should not be delayed. [1] Treatment of PCP may be initiated before the workup is complete in severely ill high-risk patients. Treatment of PCP depends on the degree of illness at diagnosis, determined on the basis of the alveolar-arterial gradient. Antibiotics are primarily recommended for treatment of mild, moderate, or severe PCP. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) has been shown to be as effective as intravenous pentamidine and more effective than other alternative treatment regimens. [2] Corticosteroids are used as adjunctive initial therapy only in patients with HIV infection who have severe PCP. Preventive measures (eg, smoking cessation and chemoprophylaxis) can play an important role in disease management. Pathophysiology and Etiology of PCP Pneumocystis organisms are commonly found in the lungs of healthy individuals. Most children are believed to have been exposed to the organism by age 3 or 4 years, and its occurrence is worldwide. [6] Transmission of Pneumocystis Animal studies have suggested that Pneumocystis organisms are communicable; airborne transmission has been reported. Human evidence of

Transcript of 93374870 Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia

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Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), as the condition is commonly termed (although the causative organism has been renamed Pneumocystis jiroveci [pronounced “yee-row-vet-zee”]), is the most common opportunistic infection in persons with HIV infection.

Pneumocystis first came to attention as a cause of interstitial pneumonia in severely malnourished and premature infants during World War II in Central and Eastern Europe. Before the 1980s, fewer than 100 cases of PCP were reported annually in the United States, occurring in patients who were immunosuppressed (eg, cancer patients receiving chemotherapy and solid-organ transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressants). In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported PCP in 5 previously healthy homosexual men residing in the Los Angeles area.

P jiroveci is now one of several organisms known to cause life-threatening opportunistic infections in patients with advanced HIV infection worldwide. Well over 100,000 cases of PCP were reported in the first decade of the HIV epidemic in the United States in people with no other cause for immunosuppression.

While officially classified as a fungal pneumonia, PCP does not respond to antifungal treatment. Although a histopathologic demonstration of the organism is required for a definitive diagnosis (see Histologic Findings), treatment should not be delayed.[1] Treatment of PCP may be initiated before the workup is complete in severely ill high-risk patients. Treatment of PCP depends on the degree of illness at diagnosis, determined on the basis of the alveolar-arterial gradient.

Antibiotics are primarily recommended for treatment of mild, moderate, or severe PCP. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) has been shown to be as effective as intravenous pentamidine and more effective than other alternative treatment regimens.[2] Corticosteroids are used as adjunctive initial therapy only in patients with HIV infection who have severe PCP. Preventive measures (eg, smoking cessation and chemoprophylaxis) can play an important role in disease management.

Pathophysiology and Etiology of PCP

Pneumocystis organisms are commonly found in the lungs of healthy individuals. Most children are believed to have been exposed to the organism by age 3 or 4 years, and its occurrence is worldwide.[6]

Transmission of Pneumocystis

Animal studies have suggested that Pneumocystis organisms are communicable; airborne transmission has been reported. Human evidence of this is provided by molecular analysis of Pneumocystis isolates obtained from groups of patients involved in hospital outbreaks.[7, 8]

Further evidence of human transmission has been found in cases of recurrent pneumonia in which the genotype of Pneumocystis organisms in the same person differed in prior episodes. Despite this, barrier precautions are not required for patients hospitalized with P carinii pneumonia (PCP) except to protect other patients with depressed immunity.

Development of PCP

Disease occurs when both cellular immunity and humoral immunity are defective. Once inhaled, the trophic form of Pneumocystis organisms attach to the alveoli. Multiple host immune defects allow for uncontrolled replication of Pneumocystis organisms and development of illness. Activated alveolar macrophages without CD4+ cells are unable to eradicate Pneumocystis organisms. Increased alveolar-capillary permeability is visible on electron microscopy.

Physiologic changes include the following:

Hypoxemia with an increased alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient

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Respiratory alkalosis Impaired diffusing capacity Changes in total lung capacity and vital capacity

There have been reports of PCP occurring as part of the immune reconstitution syndrome.[9, 10]

Risk factors for PCP

PCP is caused by infection with P jiroveci. The following groups are at risk for PCP[11, 12, 13] :

Persons with HIV infection whose CD4+ cells fall below 200/µL and who are not receiving PCP prophylaxis (In addition, in patients with HIV infection, findings of other opportunistic infections [eg, oral thrush] increases the risk of PCP, regardless of CD4+ count.)[14, 15]

Persons with primary immune deficiencies, including hypogammaglobulinemia and severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

Persons receiving long-term immunosuppressive regimens for connective-tissue disorders, vasculitides, or solid-organ transplantation (eg, heart, lung, liver, kidney)[16]

Persons with hematologic and nonhematologic malignancies, including solid tumors and lymphomas[17]

Persons with severe malnutrition

Epidemiology of PCP

Before the widespread use of prophylaxis for P carinii pneumonia (PCP), the frequency of Pneumocystis infection in lung transplant patients alone was as high as 88%. Now, with the routine use of prophylaxis, PCP is very rare in solid-organ transplant patients and has significantly decreased in patients infected with HIV.

Prior to the widespread use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), PCP occurred in 70-80% of patients with HIV infection. The frequency of PCP is decreasing with the use of PCP prophylaxis and HAART. PCP is still the most common opportunistic infection in patients with HIV infection. Patients with HIV infection are more prone to PCP recurrence than patients not infected with HIV.

In developing regions of the world, the prevalence of PCP was once thought to be much lower,[18] but studies have shown that the lower reported incidence is likely a failure to accurately diagnose PCP. An accurate diagnosis requires access to modern medical care, which is not available worldwide.

Currently, the frequency of documented Pneumocystis infection is increasing in Africa, with Pneumocystis organisms found in up to 80% of infants with pneumonia who have HIV infection. In sub-Saharan Africa, tuberculosis is a common co-infection in persons with PCP.[19]

Prognosis for PCP

In patients with HIV infection, PCP once carried a mortality rate of 20-40%, depending on disease severity at presentation. Currently, mortality rates of 10-20% are reported. PCP is still a major cause of death in patients with AIDS in the United States.

In persons without HIV infection, PCP carries a worse prognosis[20] ; this has not changed significantly in the past 20 years. Mortality rates of 30-50% have been documented in several large studies.

The prognosis of PCP is worse in patients who present with concurrent pulmonary disease, in patients who develop pneumothorax, and in patients who require mechanical ventilation. The higher mortality rate is likely a result of delayed diagnoses and delayed initiation of appropriate treatment.

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Clinical Presentation of PCP

Patient history

The symptoms of P carinii pneumonia (PCP) are nonspecific. PCP in patients with HIV infection tends to run a more subacute indolent course and tends to present much later, often after several weeks of symptoms, compared with PCP associated with other immunocompromising conditions.[21] Symptoms of PCP include the following:

Progressive exertional dyspnea (95%) Fever (>80%) Nonproductive cough (95%) Chest discomfort Weight loss Chills Hemoptysis (rare)

Physical examination

The physical examination findings of PCP are nonspecific and include the following:

Tachypnea Fever Tachycardia Pulmonary symptoms: Pulmonary examination may reveal mild crackles and rhonchi but may yield

normal findings in up to half of patients.

Additional findings in children with severe disease include cyanosis, nasal flaring, and intercostal retractions.

Extrapulmonary manifestations

Although Pneumocystis infection rarely causes extrapulmonary manifestations, such findings may be present in patients receiving aerosolized pentamidine for prophylaxis or in patients with advanced HIV infection who are not taking any prophylaxis. They may also occur in the absence of lung involvement.

On the basis of most well-documented findings, Pneumocystis infection may present in almost any organ system, as follows:

Central nervous system Bone marrow (may have necrosis with resultant pancytopenia) Lymphadenopathy Eyes (may have retinal cotton-wool spots) Thyroid (may present as a rapidly enlarging thyroid mass) Gastrointestinal tract

Complications

A pathophysiologic process similar to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) may occur in patients with severe PCP.[22] These patients may require intubation. This greatly diminishes the prognosis.

Differential Diagnosis of PCP

The differential diagnosis of P carinii pneumonia (PCP) includes the following conditions[23] :

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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Cytomegalovirus Lymphocytic Interstitial Pneumonia Mycoplasma Infections Viral Pneumonia Pulmonary Embolism Legionellosis Tuberculosis Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) Infection

Laboratory Studies

A lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) study is performed as part of the initial workup.[24] LDH levels are usually elevated (>220 U/L) in patients with P carinii pneumonia (PCP). They are elevated in 90% of patients with PCP who are infected with HIV. The study has a high sensitivity (78-100%); its specificity is much lower because other disease processes can result in an elevated LDH level.

LDH levels appear to reflect the degree of lung injury. They should decline with successful treatment. Consistently elevated LDH levels during treatment may indicate therapy failure and a worse prognosis.

Quantitative PCR for pneumocystis may become useful in distinguishing between colonization and active infection, but these assays are not yet available for routine clinical use.[25]

In one study, patients with positive quantitative PCR but negative immunofluorescence for pneumocystis had a higher 1-year mortality but only in the context of systemic inflammatory conditions. There was no significant difference for patients with solid-organ or hematologic malignancy.[26]

β-D-Glucan (BDG) is a cell-wall component of many fungi, including candida, aspergillus, and pneumocystis (but not the zygomycetes). It has been shown to be a sensitive test to detect PCP in a meta-analysis of 12 studies assessing the sensitivity, specificity and overall accuracy of the test.[27]

Chest Radiography

Chest radiography should be obtained in any immunocompromised patient with fever and/or respiratory signs or symptoms.[28] The chest radiographic findings may be normal in patients with early mild disease. Diffuse bilateral infiltrates extending from the perihilar region are visible in most patients with P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Less-common findings include patchy asymmetric infiltrates and pneumatoceles. Pleural effusions and intrathoracic adenopathy are rare.

Pneumothorax may develop in patients using aerosolized pentamidine. Apical disease may also be found in patients using aerosolized pentamidine for prophylaxis, as shown in the image below.

Chest radiograph demonstrating diffuse bilateral infiltrates in a patient with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia.

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Go to Imaging Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia for complete information on this topic.

Computed Tomography

High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scanning of chest is helpful when the chest radiography findings are equivocal. HRCT yields a high sensitivity for P carinii pneumonia (PCP) in patients with HIV infection.

The typical appearance is patchy areas of ground-glass attenuation with a background of interlobular septal thickening. Negative (normal or unchanged) CT scan findings alone do not rule out PCP (see the image below).

CT scan of chest, with classic patchy areas of ground-glass attenuation.

Go to Imaging Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia for complete information on this topic.

Gallium 67 Scanning

Gallium 67 scanning demonstrates an increased diffuse symmetrical pulmonary uptake in patients with P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Its sensitivity is high (nearly 100%).[29] However, its specificity is low (some studies report as low as 20%). The high cost and 2-day time delay in obtaining results have limited its use.

A gallium 67 scan is potentially more useful in patients with suspected relapse, as bronchoalveolar lavage (see Invasive Procedures) may be less diagnostic in such cases.

Go to Imaging Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia for complete information on this topic.

Other Noninvasive Tests

Pulmonary function tests

Pulmonary function tests should be obtained as part of the initial noninvasive workup in patients with suspected P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Results may demonstrate a decreased diffusion capacity of carbon monoxide (DLCO) of less than 75% predicted. Decreased DLCO has a high sensitivity (89-100%) but poor specificity (53%). PCP is unlikely if DLCO is normal.

When combined with normal or unchanged high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) findings, pulmonary function tests may be used to identify patients unlikely to have PCP; such patients may be managed with observation alone.

Pulse oximetry

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Pulse oximetry on room air should be measured in all patients. The oxygen saturation should be measured both at rest and with exertion. If any hypoxemia is found (O2 saturation < 90%), then an arterial blood gas (ABG) level should be obtained to evaluate the need for possible adjunctive corticosteroids.

HIV testing

The diagnosis of PCP should prompt consideration for HIV testing. If HIV testing is performed, appropriate pretest and posttest counseling guidelines must be followed.

Sputum Induction

If P carinii pneumonia (PCP) is strongly suspected, obtain a sputum sample by sputum induction for histopathologic testing. Pneumocystis organisms are frequently found in sputum induced by inhalation of a hypertonic saline solution. Sputum induction is the quickest and least-invasive method for definitively diagnosing PCP.[30] Expectorated sputum has a very low sensitivity and should not be submitted for diagnosis.

The sensitivity of sputum induction varies widely (< 50% to >90%) and depends on proficiency in using the technique and the experience of the laboratory. Specificity is high (99-100%). This study may be less sensitive in patients without HIV infection, as the immunodeficiency caused by HIV infection typically leads to a greater alveolar load of Pneumocystis organisms. It may also be less sensitive in patients receiving aerosolized pentamidine for prophylaxis.

Invasive Procedures

Bronchoalveolar lavage

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is the most common invasive procedure used to diagnose P carinii pneumonia (PCP). It has a diagnostic yield that exceeds 90% (and may be higher if multiple lobes are sampled).[31] BAL yields a lower sensitivity in patients receiving aerosolized pentamidine, in which case a transbronchial biopsy may be performed in conjunction with BAL.[32]

Obtain BAL if PCP is strongly suspected and the induced sputum sample findings are negative. BAL may be used in patients who are unable to cooperate with an induced sputum sample (eg, because of altered mental status). BAL may be less useful in cases of suspected PCP relapse. Consultation with a pulmonologist is required for BAL.

Lung biopsy

Open lung biopsy is the most invasive procedure and yields 100% sensitivity and specificity because it provides the greatest amount of tissue for diagnosis. However, this procedure is reserved for rare cases when bronchoscopy findings are nondiagnostic.

Histologic Findings

Because clinical and radiologic findings are not specific for PCP and because P jiroveci cannot be grown in vitro, histopathologic demonstration is necessary before a definitive diagnosis is established. The following are the staining techniques available for respiratory tract secretions.

Cresyl violet, Giemsa, Diff-Quik, and Wright stain are used to detect both the trophozoite and cyst forms but not the cyst wall. Diff-Quik stain demonstrating P jiroveci is seen in the image below.

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Diff-Quik stain demonstrating Pneumocystis jiroveci.

Methenamine silver, toluidine blue, and Gram-Weigert selectively stain the wall of Pneumocystis cysts. Silver Gram stain showing Pneumocystis jiroveci is seen in the image below .

Silver Gram stain showing Pneumocystis jiroveci.

Papanicolaou smear may demonstrate a foamy-appearing eosinophilic material surrounding Pneumocystis organisms (as seen in the image below).

Papanicolaou smear of Pneumocystis jiroveci.

Some facilities prefer to use direct immunofluorescence using monoclonal antibodies to detect Pneumocystis organisms because it may be more sensitive than histologic staining.

Treatment of PCP - General Considerations

While officially classified as a fungal pneumonia, P carinii pneumonia (PCP) does not respond to antifungal treatment. However, there are a few reports of successful caspofungin administration in PCP. Echinocandins such as caspofungin may be active against pneumocystis based on their activity against the inclusion of (1-3)beta-D glucan into the fungal cell wall, but clinical data is lacking. Case reports suggest it may be worthy of consideration as a treatment option in non-responsive cases, and further research is clearly warranted.[33]

Although a histopathologic demonstration of the organism is required for a definitive diagnosis (see Histologic Findings), treatment should not be delayed. Treatment of PCP may be initiated before the workup is complete in severely ill high-risk patients.

Appropriate histopathologic testing may still be used to confirm a diagnosis of PCP after treatment is initiated. Endotracheal tube aspirates from severely ill patients on mechanical ventilation may be submitted for diagnosis. Pneumocystis organisms persist in the host for days to weeks after therapy is started, allowing time for completion of the appropriate workup.

Treatment of PCP depends on the degree of illness at diagnosis. Degree of illness is determined on the basis of the alveolar-arterial gradient: mild (< 35 mm Hg), moderate/severe (35-45 mm Hg), or severe (>45 mm

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Hg). Severe disease is also indicated by a room air partial pressure of oxygen lower than 70 mm Hg. Treatment of extrapulmonary manifestations of PCP is the same as that for other pneumonias.

In patients without HIV infection, response to treatment should begin in 4-5 days. In patients infected with HIV, the treatment response typically takes longer but should occur within the first 8 days. If no response occurs within the expected time, an appropriate alternative regimen should be used. Adding additional PCP medications to a current regimen only increases the risk of adverse drug reactions without improving the likelihood of a good outcome. Up to 10% of mild-to-moderate PCP cases fail to respond to antibiotic treatment because of lack of drug efficacy.

All patients who require corticosteroids should be admitted to the hospital because of the risk of progressive respiratory compromise.

Because of increasing evidence of possible human transmission (see Pathophysiology and Etiology of PCP),[34] the CDC Hospital Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee has recommended that patients with PCP not have direct contact with other immunocompromised patients.

Antibiotic Therapy

Antibiotics are primarily recommended for treatment of mild, moderate, or severe P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) has been shown to be as effective as intravenous pentamidine and more effective than other alternative treatment regimens.[2, 35] The parenteral route may be considered in patients who present with serious illness or in those with gastrointestinal side effects.

Thomas et al have reported that a lower dose of TMP-SMX (10 mg/kg/d) is effective for PCP associated with HIV infection and carries fewer side effects,[36] but this should not yet be taken as a recommendation. Recent guidelines have been published.[37]

TMP-SMX is the preferred initial therapy during pregnancy according to consensus guidelines. The patient’s neonatologist should be informed if the medication is used near delivery because of potential for hyperbilirubinemia and kernicterus. For the treatment of infections that are resistant to TMP-SMX, the combination of clindamycin and primaquine is likely to be more effective than intravenous pentamidine.[38,

39]

The recommended duration of treatment for PCP is 21 days in patients with HIV infection and 14 days for all other patients. Patients infected with HIV tend to have a higher organism burden and respond to treatment slower than patients without HIV infection and therefore require a longer duration of therapy.

Adjunctive Corticosteroid Therapy

Corticosteroids are used as adjunctive initial therapy only in patients with HIV infection who have severe P carinii pneumonia (PCP) as defined by a room air arterial oxygen pressure of less than 70 mm Hg or an arterial-alveolar O2 gradient that exceeds 35 mm Hg. Adjunctive steroids are not recommended in patients without HIV infection.

Microbial degradation and clearance may trigger further inflammation, which can provoke a severe inflammatory response in the lungs that often worsens after therapy is begun. Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy can blunt this inflammatory response, reduce deterioration of oxygenation, and reduce the incidence of respiratory failure.[40, 41]

Further Outpatient Care

Arranging close medical follow-up with a primary care provider upon hospital discharge is essential to monitor resolution of disease and to initiate prophylactic medication (see Prevention of PCP).

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Oral therapy with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) has been shown to be very effective in the outpatient setting. However, oral therapy should be considered only in patients with mild-to-moderate P carinii pneumonia (PCP) who have reliable outpatient follow-up care.

Prevention of PCP

Smoking cessation

Smoking cessation is strongly recommended in patients with HIV infection, as studies have shown that, in addition to the common deleterious effects of tobacco use, smokers are at an increased risk of P carinii pneumonia (PCP) and have a more complicated treatment course.[42]

Chemoprophylaxis in patients with HIV Infection

Two types of outpatient chemoprophylactic therapies exist. Primary prophylaxis is used in immunocompromised patients without a history of PCP. Secondary prophylaxis is used in patients with a prior bout of PCP.

An expert panel overseen by the US Public Health Service and Infectious Disease Society of America has published guidelines on prophylaxis against P carinii pneumonia (PCP) in adult and pediatric patients with HIV infection. Chemoprophylaxis is recommended for the following groups:

Adults, adolescents, and pregnant patients with a CD4 count of less than 200/µL, oropharyngeal candidiasis, unexplained fever exceeding 100°F (37.7° C) for more than 2 weeks, and a prior episode of PCP regardless of CD4 count should receive prophylaxis.

Children born to mothers with HIV infection should receive prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) beginning at age 4-6 weeks. The drug should be discontinued if they are subsequently determined not to be infected with HIV.

Children who are determined to be HIV positive through the first year of life, then as determined by age-specific CD4 levels, should receive prophylaxis.

Prophylaxis may be discontinued in patients with HIV infection whose CD4 count exceeds 200/µL for 3 consecutive months while on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Prophylaxis should be restarted if the CD4 count drops below 200/µL. Prophylaxis should be continued for life in patients who developed PCP while their CD4 level exceeded 200/µL.

One study suggests that discontinuation of prophylaxis may be safe in patients with HIV and CD4 counts of 101-200 cells/μL and suppressed viral load.[43]

Chemoprophylaxis in patients without HIV infection

Unlike in patients with HIV infection, no specific PCP prophylaxis guidelines exist for immunocompromised patients without HIV infection. In general, chemoprophylaxis should be considered in any of the following patients:

Patients with an underlying primary immune deficiency (eg, severe combined immunodeficiency or hypogammaglobulinemia)

Patients with a persistent CD4 count less than 200/µL Solid organ transplant recipients Hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients, with prophylaxis administered (1) for 6

months after engraftment months or (2) for more than 6 months after HSCT in those who are still receiving immunosuppressive therapy (eg, prednisone, cyclosporine) or who have chronic graft versus host disease Patients receiving daily systemic corticosteroid therapy (at least 20 mg daily for at least 1 month)

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Patients with cancer, vasculitides, or collagen vascular disorders and others receiving cytotoxic or immunosuppressive treatments such as cyclosporine or the purine analogs fludarabine or cladribine

Chemoprophylactic regimens

TMP-SMX is the agent of choice for PCP prophylaxis in the absence of a contraindication. In patients who cannot tolerate TMP-SMX, other options include dapsone, dapsone plus pyrimethamine, atovaquone, and aerosolized pentamidine. Commonly used prophylactic regimens are as follows.

For TMP-SMX, the normal dosage is one double-strength tablet (160 mg TMP to 800 mg SMX) daily. One single-strength tablet (80 mg TMP to 400 mg SMX) daily is also effective. Another alternative is one double-strength tablet 3 times per week. However, a daily-dosing regimen provides an additional benefit of cross protection against Toxoplasma gondii infection and other bacterial infections.

The use of TMP-SMX for long-term PCP prophylaxis does not seem to affect the rates of infection by drug-resistant organisms such as pneumococcus or Staphylococcus aureus. TMP-SMX resistance has been reported among some isolates of Pneumocystis.[44]

For dapsone, the dosage is 100 mg daily by mouth if it is administered alone. If dapsone is given with pyrimethamine (plus leucovorin), the dosage is 50 mg of dapsone daily by mouth with 50 mg of pyrimethamine weekly and 25 mg of leucovorin weekly. Dapsone with pyrimethamine (plus leucovorin) provides protection against T gondii infection but not other bacterial infections.

For atovaquone, the dosage is 1500 mg by mouth once daily given with food. This agent has a low toxicity profile and is an alternative if the patient cannot tolerate TMP-SMX or dapsone. However, atovaquone is very expensive.

1. For aerosolized pentamidine, the normal dosage is 300 mg in 6 mL sterile water via Respirgard nebulizer every 4 weeks. This agent is better tolerated than dapsone or TMP-SMX. However, it is much more expensive and less effective than other prophylactic agents. Side effects include cough and bronchospasm. The potential for extrapulmonary Pneumocystis manifestations and apical lung disease exists. In addition, aerosolized pentamidine may diminish the diagnostic sensitivity of sputum induction and bronchoalveolar lavage. Benson C, Kaplan J, Masur H. Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:S131.

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26. Botterel F, Cabaret O, Foulet F, Cordonnier C, Costa JM, Bretagne S. Clinical Significance of Quantifying Pneumocystis jirovecii DNA by Using Real-Time PCR in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid from Immunocompromised Patients. J Clin Microbiol. Feb 2012;50(2):227-31. [Medline]. [Full Text].

27. Onishi A, Sugiyama D, Kogata Y, Saegusa J, Sugimoto T, Kawano S, et al. Diagnostic Accuracy of Serum 1,3-ß-D-Glucan for Pneumocystis jiroveci Pneumonia, Invasive Candidiasis, and Invasive Aspergillosis: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Microbiol. Jan 2012;50(1):7-15. [Medline]. [Full Text].

28. DeLorenzo LJ, Huang CT, Maguire GP, et al. Roentgenographic patterns of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 104 patients with AIDS. Chest. Mar 1987;91(3):323-7. [Medline].

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29. Coleman DL, Hattner RS, Luce JM, et al. Correlation between gallium lung scans and fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with suspected Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. Dec 1984;130(6):1166-9. [Medline].

30. Bigby TD, Margolskee D, Curtis JL, et al. The usefulness of induced sputum in the diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. Apr 1986;133(4):515-8. [Medline].

31. Bigby TD. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. How invasive?. Chest. Mar 1994;105(3):650-2. [Medline].

32. Broaddus C, Dake MD, Stulbarg MS, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy for the diagnosis of pulmonary infections in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. Jun 1985;102(6):747-52. [Medline].

33. Ceballos ME, Ortega M, Andresen M, Wozniak A, García P, Balcells ME. Successful treatment with echinocandin in an HIV-infected individual failing first-line therapy for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. AIDS. Nov 13 2011;25(17):2192-3. [Medline].

34. Gianella S, Haeberli L, Joos B, Ledergerber B, Wüthrich RP, Weber R, et al. Molecular evidence of interhuman transmission in an outbreak of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia among renal transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis. Sep 9 2009;[Medline].

35. Estrada S, García-Campos F, Calderón R, Delgado E, Bengoa R, Enciso C. Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii) pneumonia following a second infusion of infliximab in a patient with ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. Feb 2009;15(2):315-6. [Medline].

36. Thomas M, Rupali P, Woodhouse A, Ellis-Pegler R. Good outcome with trimethoprim 10 mg/kg/day-sulfamethoxazole 50 mg/kg/day for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in HIV infected patients. Scand J Infect Dis. Aug 17 2009;1-7. [Medline].

37. [Guideline] Mofenson LM, Brady MT, Danner SP, Dominguez KL, Hazra R, Handelsman E, et al. Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections among HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. MMWR Recomm Rep. Sep 4 2009;58:1-166. [Medline].

38. Smego RA Jr, Nagar S, Maloba B, et al. A meta-analysis of salvage therapy for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Arch Intern Med. Jun 25 2001;161(12):1529-33. [Medline]. [Full Text].

39. Benfield T, Atzori C, Miller RF, et al. Second-line salvage treatment of AIDS-associated Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a case series and systematic review. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. May 1 2008;48(1):63-7. [Medline].

40. Bozzette SA. The use of corticosteroids in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Infect Dis. Dec 1990;162(6):1365-9. [Medline].

41. Bozzette SA, Sattler FR, Chiu J, et al. A controlled trial of early adjunctive treatment with corticosteroids for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. Nov 22 1990;323(21):1451-7. [Medline].

42. Miguez-Burbano MJ, Ashkin D, Rodriguez A, et al. Increased risk of Pneumocystis carinii and community-acquired pneumonia with tobacco use in HIV disease. Int J Infect Dis. Jul 2005;9(4):208-17. [Medline].

43. Opportunistic Infections Project Team of the Collaboration of Observational HIV Epidemiological Research. Is it safe to discontinue primary Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis in patients with virologically suppressed HIV infection and a CD4 cell count < 200 cells/microL?. Clin Infect Dis. Sep 1 2010;51(5):611-9. [Medline].

44. Sibanda EL, Weller IV, Hakim JG, Cowan FM. Does trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for HIV induce bacterial resistance to other antibiotic classes? Results of a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis. May 2011;52(9):1184-94. [Medline]. [Full Text].

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Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), sebagai kondisi ini biasanya disebut (meskipun organisme penyebab telah diubah namanya Pneumocystis jiroveci [diucapkan "yee-baris-dokter hewan-zee"]), adalah infeksi oportunistik yang paling umum pada orang dengan infeksi HIV.Pneumonia pertama kali datang ke perhatian sebagai penyebab pneumonia interstisial pada bayi penderita gizi buruk dan prematur selama Perang Dunia II di Eropa Tengah dan Timur. Sebelum tahun 1980, kurang dari 100 kasus PCP dilaporkan setiap tahun di Amerika Serikat, terjadi pada pasien yang imunosupresi (misalnya, kanker pasien yang menerima kemoterapi dan penerima transplantasi organ padat menerima imunosupresan). Pada tahun 1981, Pusat Pengendalian dan Pencegahan Penyakit melaporkan PCP dalam 5 pria homoseksual yang sebelumnya sehat yang berada di daerah Los Angeles.P jiroveci sekarang salah satu organisme yang diketahui menyebabkan infeksi yang mengancam jiwa oportunistik pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV tingkat lanjut di seluruh dunia. Lebih dari 100.000 kasus PCP dilaporkan dalam dekade pertama dari epidemi HIV di Amerika Serikat pada orang tanpa penyebab lain imunosupresi.Meskipun secara resmi diklasifikasikan sebagai pneumonia jamur, PCP tidak menanggapi pengobatan antijamur. Meskipun demonstrasi histopatologi organisme diperlukan untuk diagnosis definitif (lihat Temuan histologis), pengobatan tidak boleh ditunda [1]. Pengobatan PCP dapat dimulai sebelum pemeriksaan selesai dalam sakit parah pasien berisiko tinggi. Pengobatan PCP tergantung pada derajat penyakit saat diagnosis, ditentukan berdasarkan gradien alveolar-arteri.Antibiotik terutama direkomendasikan untuk pengobatan PCP ringan, sedang, atau berat. Trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol (kotrimoksazol) telah terbukti seefektif pentamidin intravena dan lebih efektif daripada rejimen pengobatan alternatif lain [2] Kortikosteroid digunakan sebagai terapi awal adjunctive hanya pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV yang memiliki PCP berat.. Langkah-langkah pencegahan (misalnya, berhenti merokok dan kemoprofilaksis) dapat memainkan peran penting dalam manajemen penyakit.Patofisiologi dan Etiologi PCPOrganisme Pneumocystis biasanya ditemukan di paru-paru orang sehat. Kebanyakan anak diyakini telah terkena organisme pada usia 3 atau 4 tahun, dan kejadian adalah di seluruh dunia. [6]Penularan PneumoniaPenelitian terhadap hewan menunjukkan bahwa Pneumocystis organisme menular, penularan melalui udara telah dilaporkan. Bukti Asasi Manusia ini disediakan oleh analisis molekuler dari Pneumocystis isolat yang diperoleh dari kelompok pasien terlibat dalam wabah rumah sakit [7, 8].Bukti lebih lanjut penularan manusia telah ditemukan di kasus pneumonia berulang di mana genotipe organisme Pneumocystis pada orang yang sama berbeda dalam episode sebelumnya. Meskipun demikian, tindakan pencegahan penghalang tidak diperlukan untuk pasien rawat inap dengan P carinii pneumonia (PCP) kecuali untuk melindungi pasien lain dengan kekebalan tertekan.Pengembangan PCPPenyakit terjadi ketika kedua imunitas seluler dan imunitas humoral rusak. Setelah terhirup, bentuk trofik organisme Pneumocystis menempel pada alveoli. Cacat beberapa host kekebalan memungkinkan untuk replikasi tidak terkendali organisme Pneumocystis dan pengembangan penyakit. Makrofag alveolar diaktifkan tanpa CD4 + sel tidak dapat membasmi organisme Pneumocystis. Peningkatan permeabilitas alveolar-kapiler yang terlihat pada mikroskop elektron.Perubahan fisiologis meliputi:• hipoksemia dengan gradien alveolar-arteri oksigen meningkat• Alkalosis respiratorik• kapasitas difusi Gangguan• Perubahan dalam kapasitas paru total dan kapasitas vitalAda laporan dari PCP yang terjadi sebagai bagian dari sindrom pemulihan kekebalan [9, 10].Faktor risiko untuk PCPPCP disebabkan oleh infeksi dengan P jiroveci. Kelompok-kelompok berikut beresiko untuk PCP [, 11 12, 13]:• Orang terinfeksi HIV yang CD4 + sel jatuh di bawah 200/μL dan yang tidak menerima profilaksis PCP (Selain itu, pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV, temuan infeksi oportunistik lain [misalnya, oral thrush] meningkatkan risiko PCP,

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terlepas dari CD4 + menghitung.) [14, 15]• Orang-orang dengan defisiensi imun primer, termasuk hypogammaglobulinemia dan parah immunodeficiency gabungan (SCID).• orang yang menerima jangka panjang rejimen imunosupresif untuk ikat-jaringan gangguan, vaskulitid, atau solid-transplantasi organ (misalnya, jantung, paru-paru, hati, ginjal) [16]• Orang-orang dengan keganasan hematologi dan nonhematologic, termasuk tumor solid dan limfoma [17]• Orang-orang dengan gizi burukEpidemiologi PCPSebelum meluasnya penggunaan profilaksis untuk P carinii pneumonia (PCP), frekuensi infeksi pneumonia pada pasien transplantasi paru-paru saja sudah mencapai 88%. Sekarang, dengan penggunaan rutin profilaksis, PCP sangat jarang di solid-pasien transplantasi organ dan secara signifikan telah menurun pada pasien terinfeksi HIV.Sebelum meluasnya penggunaan terapi antiretroviral (ART), PCP terjadi pada 70-80% pasien dengan infeksi HIV. Frekuensi PCP menurun dengan penggunaan profilaksis PCP dan ART. PCP masih merupakan infeksi oportunistik yang paling umum pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV. Pasien dengan infeksi HIV lebih rentan terhadap PCP kambuh dibandingkan pasien tidak terinfeksi HIV.Dalam mengembangkan wilayah di dunia, prevalensi PCP pernah dianggap jauh lebih rendah, [18] tetapi penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa kejadian dilaporkan lebih rendah kemungkinan kegagalan untuk secara akurat mendiagnosis PCP. Diagnosis yang akurat membutuhkan akses ke perawatan medis modern, yang tidak tersedia di seluruh dunia.Saat ini, frekuensi infeksi Pneumocystis didokumentasikan meningkat di Afrika, dengan organisme Pneumocystis ditemukan pada sampai dengan 80% bayi dengan pneumonia yang memiliki infeksi HIV. Di sub-Sahara Afrika, TBC adalah umum koinfeksi pada orang dengan PCP [19].Prognosis untuk PCPPada pasien dengan infeksi HIV, PCP sekali membawa angka kematian 20-40%, tergantung pada tingkat keparahan penyakit pada presentasi. Saat ini, tingkat kematian dari 10-20% yang dilaporkan. PCP masih merupakan penyebab utama kematian pada pasien dengan AIDS di Amerika Serikat.Pada orang tanpa infeksi HIV, PCP membawa prognosis yang lebih buruk [20], ini tidak berubah secara signifikan dalam 20 tahun terakhir. Tingkat mortalitas 30-50% telah didokumentasikan dalam beberapa penelitian besar.Prognosis PCP lebih buruk pada pasien yang hadir dengan penyakit paru bersamaan, pada pasien yang mengembangkan pneumotoraks, dan pada pasien yang memerlukan ventilasi mekanis. Angka kematian lebih tinggi kemungkinan hasil diagnosis tertunda dan inisiasi keterlambatan pengobatan yang tepat.Gejala klinis PCPPasien sejarahGejala P carinii pneumonia (PCP) adalah spesifik. PCP pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV cenderung menjalankan kursus malas lebih subakut dan cenderung untuk menyajikan lama kemudian, sering setelah beberapa minggu gejala, dibandingkan dengan PCP terkait dengan kondisi immunocompromising lain [21] Gejala PCP adalah sebagai berikut.:• dyspnea exertional Progresif (95%)• Demam (> 80%)• batuk tidak produktif (95%)• Dada ketidaknyamanan• Penurunan berat badan• Kedinginan• Hemoptisis (jarang)Pemeriksaan fisikTemuan pemeriksaan fisik PCP adalah nonspesifik dan meliputi:• Takipnea• Demam• Takikardia• Paru gejala: pemeriksaan paru dapat mengungkapkan ringan crackles dan ronki tetapi dapat menghasilkan temuan

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normal pada sampai dengan setengah dari pasien.Temuan tambahan pada anak dengan penyakit parah termasuk sianosis, nasal terang, dan retractions interkostal.Luar paru manifestasiMeskipun infeksi Pneumocystis jarang menyebabkan manifestasi luar paru, temuan tersebut mungkin ada pada pasien yang menerima pentamidin aerosol untuk profilaksis atau pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV lanjut yang tidak memakai profilaksis apapun. Mereka juga dapat terjadi tanpa adanya keterlibatan paru-paru.Atas dasar yang paling terdokumentasi dengan baik temuan, infeksi pneumonia dapat hadir di hampir semua sistem organ, sebagai berikut:• sistem saraf pusat• Sumsum tulang (mungkin memiliki nekrosis dengan pansitopenia resultan)• Limfadenopati• Mata (mungkin memiliki retina cotton-wool spots)• Tiroid (dapat hadir sebagai massa tiroid cepat memperbesar)• gastrointestinal saluranKomplikasiSebuah proses pathophysiologic mirip dengan sindrom gangguan pernapasan akut (ARDS) dapat terjadi pada pasien dengan PCP parah. [22] Pasien-pasien mungkin memerlukan intubasi. Hal ini sangat mengurangi prognosis.Diferensial Diagnosis PCPDiagnosis diferensial dari P carinii pneumonia (PCP) termasuk kondisi berikut [23]:• Pernapasan Akut Distress Syndrome• Cytomegalovirus• Pneumonia interstisial Lymphocytic• Infeksi Mycoplasma• Viral Pneumonia• Pulmonary Embolism• Legionellosis• Tuberkulosis• Mycobacterium avium kompleks (MAC) InfeksiLaboratorium StudiSebuah dehidrogenase laktat (LDH) studi dilakukan sebagai bagian dari pemeriksaan awal [24]. Tingkat LDH biasanya meningkat (> 220 U / L) pada pasien dengan P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Mereka meningkat pada 90% pasien dengan PCP yang terinfeksi HIV. Studi ini memiliki sensitivitas tinggi (78-100%); kekhususan jauh lebih rendah karena proses penyakit lain dapat menyebabkan tingkat LDH yang tinggi.Tingkat LDH muncul untuk mencerminkan tingkat cedera paru-paru. Mereka harus menurun dengan pengobatan yang berhasil. Secara konsisten peningkatan LDH tingkat selama pengobatan dapat menunjukkan kegagalan terapi dan prognosis yang lebih buruk.Kuantitatif PCR untuk pneumonia dapat menjadi berguna dalam membedakan antara kolonisasi dan infeksi aktif, tapi ini tes yang belum tersedia untuk penggunaan klinis rutin. [25]Dalam satu studi, pasien dengan PCR kuantitatif positif tetapi imunofluoresensi negatif untuk pneumonia memiliki angka kematian lebih tinggi 1-tahun tetapi hanya dalam konteks kondisi inflamasi sistemik. Tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan untuk pasien dengan keganasan padat-organ atau hematologi. [26]β-D-Glucan (BDG) adalah komponen dinding sel jamur, termasuk candida, aspergillus, dan pneumonia (tapi bukan Zygomycetes). Telah terbukti tes sensitif untuk mendeteksi PCP pada meta-analisis dari 12 studi menilai akurasi sensitivitas, spesifisitas dan keseluruhan pengujian [27].Dada RadiografiRadiografi dada harus diperoleh dalam setiap pasien immunocompromised dengan demam dan / atau tanda-tanda atau gejala pernapasan. [28] Temuan radiografi dada ini mungkin normal pada pasien dengan penyakit ringan dini. Infiltrat bilateral difus yang memanjang dari wilayah perihilar yang terlihat pada kebanyakan pasien dengan P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Kurang-temuan umum meliputi infiltrat asimetris merata dan pneumatoceles. Efusi pleura dan

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adenopati intrathoracic jarang terjadi.Pneumotoraks dapat berkembang pada pasien yang menggunakan pentamidin aerosol. Penyakit apikal juga dapat ditemukan pada pasien yang memakai pentamidin aerosol untuk profilaksis, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada gambar di bawah. Rontgen dada menunjukkan infiltrat difus bilateral pada pasien dengan pneumonia Pneumocystis carinii.Pergi ke Pencitraan Pneumonia Pneumocystis carinii untuk informasi lengkap mengenai topik ini.Computed TomographyResolusi tinggi computed tomography (HRCT) pemindaian dada sangat membantu bila temuan radiografi dada adalah samar-samar. HRCT menghasilkan sensitivitas tinggi untuk P carinii pneumonia (PCP) pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV.Penampilan khas adalah daerah merata dari tanah-kaca atenuasi dengan latar belakang penebalan septum interlobular. Negatif (normal atau tidak berubah) CT scan temuan saja tidak mengesampingkan PCP (lihat gambar di bawah). CT scan dada, dengan daerah tambal sulam klasik dari tanah-kaca atenuasi.Pergi ke Pencitraan Pneumonia Pneumocystis carinii untuk informasi lengkap mengenai topik ini.Gallium 67 ScanningPemindaian 67 Gallium menunjukkan sebuah peningkatan penyerapan paru difus simetris pada pasien dengan P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Sensitivitasnya tinggi (hampir 100%) [29]. Namun, kekhususan rendah (beberapa penelitian melaporkan serendah 20%). Tingginya biaya dan 2-hari keterlambatan waktu dalam memperoleh hasil telah membatasi penggunaannya.Scan 67 galium berpotensi lebih berguna pada pasien dengan kambuh dicurigai, sebagai bronchoalveolar lavage (lihat Prosedur invasif) mungkin kurang diagnostik dalam kasus tersebut.Pergi ke Pencitraan Pneumonia Pneumocystis carinii untuk informasi lengkap mengenai topik ini.Lain noninvasif PengujianTes fungsi paruTes fungsi paru harus diperoleh sebagai bagian dari pemeriksaan non-invasif awal pada pasien dengan dugaan P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Hasilnya mungkin menunjukkan kapasitas difusi menurun karbon monoksida (DLCO) kurang dari 75% diprediksi. Penurunan DLCO memiliki sensitivitas tinggi (89-100%) tetapi spesifisitas miskin (53%). PCP tidak mungkin jika DLCO adalah normal.Ketika dikombinasikan dengan normal atau tidak berubah resolusi tinggi computed tomography (HRCT) temuan, tes fungsi paru dapat digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi pasien mungkin memiliki PCP; pasien tersebut dapat dikelola dengan observasi saja.Pulsa oksimetriPulsa oksimetri di udara ruangan harus diukur pada semua pasien. Saturasi oksigen harus diukur baik saat istirahat dan dengan pengerahan tenaga. Jika hipoksemia ada ditemukan (O2 saturasi <90%), kemudian gas darah arteri (ABG) tingkat harus diperoleh untuk mengevaluasi kebutuhan kortikosteroid adjunctive mungkin.Tes HIVDiagnosis PCP harus meminta pertimbangan untuk tes HIV. Jika tes HIV dilakukan, sesuai pedoman konseling pretest dan posttest harus diikuti.Induksi dahakJika P carinii pneumonia (PCP) diduga kuat, mendapatkan sampel dahak dengan induksi dahak untuk pengujian histopatologi. Organisme Pneumocystis sering ditemukan dalam dahak yang disebabkan oleh inhalasi larutan garam hipertonik. Induksi dahak adalah metode tercepat dan paling-invasif untuk mendiagnosis secara pasti PCP. [30] sputum ekspektorasi memiliki sensitivitas yang sangat rendah dan tidak harus diserahkan untuk diagnosis.Kepekaan induksi dahak bervariasi (<50% menjadi> 90%) dan tergantung pada kemahiran dalam menggunakan teknik dan pengalaman laboratorium. Spesifisitas tinggi (99-100%). Studi ini mungkin kurang sensitif pada pasien tanpa infeksi HIV, karena kekebalan yang disebabkan oleh infeksi HIV biasanya mengarah ke beban alveolar lebih besar organisme Pneumocystis. Hal ini juga mungkin kurang sensitif pada pasien yang menerima pentamidin aerosol untuk profilaksis.

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Prosedur invasifBronchoalveolar lavageBronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) merupakan prosedur invasif yang paling umum digunakan untuk mendiagnosa P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Memiliki hasil diagnostik yang melebihi 90% (dan mungkin lebih tinggi jika lobus multiple sampel) [31]. Menghasilkan UUPA kepekaan yang lebih rendah pada pasien yang menerima pentamidin aerosol, dalam hal ini biopsi transbronkial dapat dilakukan bersamaan dengan UUPA. [ 32]Mendapatkan UUPA jika PCP diduga kuat dan temuan sampel sputum negatif. BAL dapat digunakan pada pasien yang tidak mampu untuk bekerja sama dengan sampel sputum (misalnya, karena perubahan status mental). UUPA mungkin kurang berguna dalam kasus kambuh PCP dicurigai. Konsultasi dengan paru diperlukan untuk BAL.Biopsi paruBuka biopsi paru merupakan prosedur yang paling invasif dan menghasilkan sensitivitas 100% dan spesifisitas karena memberikan jumlah terbesar dari jaringan untuk diagnosis. Namun, prosedur ini dicadangkan untuk kasus yang jarang terjadi ketika temuan bronkoskopi nondiagnostic.Temuan histologisKarena temuan klinis dan radiologis tidak spesifik untuk PCP dan karena P jiroveci tidak dapat tumbuh secara in vitro, demonstrasi histopatologi diperlukan sebelum diagnosis definitif didirikan. Berikut ini adalah teknik pewarnaan tersedia untuk sekresi saluran pernapasan.Violet cresyl, Giemsa, Diff-Quik, dan Wright noda digunakan untuk mendeteksi baik trofozoit dan kista tetapi tidak bentuk dinding kista. Diff Quik-noda menunjukkan P jiroveci terlihat pada gambar di bawah. Diff Quik-noda menunjukkan Pneumocystis jiroveci.Methenamine perak, toluidin biru, dan Gram-Weigert selektif noda dinding kista Pneumocystis. Perak Gram stain menampilkan Pneumocystis jiroveci terlihat pada gambar di bawah. Perak Gram stain menampilkan Pneumocystis jiroveci.Apus Papanicolaou dapat menunjukkan bahan berbusa-muncul eosinofilik sekitarnya organisme Pneumocystis (seperti terlihat pada gambar di bawah). Papanicolaou smear dari Pneumocystis jiroveci.Beberapa fasilitas lebih suka menggunakan imunofluoresensi langsung menggunakan antibodi monoklonal untuk mendeteksi organisme Pneumocystis karena mungkin lebih sensitif dibandingkan pewarnaan histologis.Pengobatan PCP - Pertimbangan UmumMeskipun secara resmi diklasifikasikan sebagai pneumonia jamur, P carinii pneumonia (PCP) tidak menanggapi pengobatan antijamur. Namun, ada beberapa laporan administrasi caspofungin sukses di PCP. Echinocandins seperti caspofungin mungkin aktif melawan pneumonia berdasarkan aktivitas mereka terhadap masuknya (1-3) beta-D glukan ke dalam dinding sel jamur, tetapi data klinis kurang. Laporan kasus menunjukkan mungkin patut dipertimbangkan sebagai pilihan pengobatan non-responsif kasus, dan penelitian lebih lanjut jelas diperlukan. [33]Meskipun demonstrasi histopatologi organisme diperlukan untuk diagnosis definitif (lihat Temuan histologis), pengobatan tidak boleh ditunda. Pengobatan PCP dapat dimulai sebelum pemeriksaan selesai dalam sakit parah pasien berisiko tinggi.Pengujian histopatologi yang tepat masih dapat digunakan untuk mengkonfirmasi diagnosis PCP setelah pengobatan dimulai. Aspirasi tabung endotrakeal dari pasien sakit parah pada ventilasi mekanik dapat diajukan untuk diagnosis. Organisme Pneumocystis terus berada di dalam host untuk hari sampai minggu setelah terapi dimulai, sehingga waktu untuk menyelesaikan hasil pemeriksaan yang sesuai.Pengobatan PCP tergantung pada derajat penyakit saat diagnosis. Derajat penyakit ditentukan berdasarkan gradien alveolar-arteri: ringan (<35 mmHg), sedang / berat (35-45 mmHg), atau berat (> 45 mm Hg). Penyakit berat juga diindikasikan oleh tekanan udara ruangan parsial oksigen yang lebih rendah dari 70 mm Hg. Pengobatan manifestasi luar paru PCP adalah sama dengan pneumonia lainnya.Pada pasien tanpa infeksi HIV, respon terhadap pengobatan harus dimulai dalam 4-5 hari. Pada pasien terinfeksi HIV, respon pengobatan biasanya memakan waktu lebih lama namun harus terjadi dalam 8 hari pertama. Jika respon tidak terjadi dalam waktu yang diharapkan, rejimen alternatif yang sesuai harus digunakan. Menambahkan obat PCP tambahan untuk rejimen saat ini hanya meningkatkan risiko efek samping obat tanpa meningkatkan kemungkinan

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hasil yang baik. Sampai dengan 10% dari ringan sampai sedang kasus PCP gagal untuk merespon pengobatan antibiotik karena kurangnya khasiat obat.Semua pasien yang membutuhkan kortikosteroid harus dirawat di rumah sakit karena risiko kompromi pernafasan progresif.Karena semakin banyak bukti penularan manusia mungkin (lihat Patofisiologi dan Etiologi PCP), [34] CDC Rumah Sakit Pengendalian Infeksi Praktek Komite Penasehat telah merekomendasikan bahwa pasien dengan PCP tidak memiliki kontak langsung dengan pasien immunocompromised lain.Antibiotik TerapiAntibiotik terutama direkomendasikan untuk pengobatan ringan, sedang, atau berat P carinii pneumonia (PCP). Trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol (kotrimoksazol) telah terbukti seefektif pentamidin intravena dan lebih efektif daripada rejimen pengobatan alternatif lain [2, 35]. Rute parenteral dapat dipertimbangkan pada pasien yang hadir dengan penyakit serius atau pada mereka dengan pencernaan efek samping.Thomas dkk telah melaporkan bahwa dosis lebih rendah dari TMP-SMX (10 mg / kg / hari) efektif untuk PCP terkait dengan infeksi HIV dan membawa efek samping yang lebih sedikit, [36] namun hal tersebut tidak lagi dianggap sebagai rekomendasi. Pedoman terakhir telah dipublikasikan. [37]TMP-SMX adalah terapi awal yang lebih disukai selama kehamilan sesuai dengan pedoman konsensus. Neonatologist pasien harus diberitahu jika obat digunakan dekat pengiriman karena potensi untuk hiperbilirubinemia dan kernikterus. Untuk pengobatan infeksi yang resisten terhadap TMP-SMX, kombinasi klindamisin dan primakuin mungkin akan lebih efektif dibandingkan pentamidin intravena [38, 39].Durasi direkomendasikan pengobatan untuk PCP adalah 21 hari pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV dan 14 hari untuk semua pasien lain. Pasien yang terinfeksi HIV cenderung memiliki beban organisme yang lebih tinggi dan merespon pengobatan lebih lambat dibandingkan pasien tanpa infeksi HIV dan karena itu membutuhkan durasi yang lebih lama terapi.Terapi ajuvan KortikosteroidKortikosteroid digunakan sebagai terapi awal adjunctive hanya pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV yang memiliki berat P carinii pneumonia (PCP) seperti yang didefinisikan oleh tekanan udara ruang oksigen arteri kurang dari 70 mm Hg atau arteri alveolar-gradien O2 yang melebihi 35 mm Hg. Steroid ajuvan tidak dianjurkan pada pasien tanpa infeksi HIV.Mikroba degradasi dan clearance dapat memicu peradangan lebih lanjut, yang dapat memprovokasi respon inflamasi parah di paru-paru yang sering memburuk setelah terapi dimulai. Ajuvan terapi kortikosteroid dapat menumpulkan respon inflamasi, mengurangi kerusakan oksigenasi, dan mengurangi timbulnya kegagalan pernafasan [40, 41].Selanjutnya Rawat Jalan PerawatanMengatur dekat medis tindak lanjut dengan penyedia perawatan primer pada dikeluarkan dari rumah sakit sangat penting untuk memantau resolusi penyakit dan untuk memulai pengobatan profilaksis (lihat Pencegahan PCP).Terapi oral dengan trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol (kotrimoksazol) telah terbukti sangat efektif di luar pasien. Namun, terapi oral harus dipertimbangkan hanya pada pasien dengan ringan sampai sedang P carinii pneumonia (PCP) yang memiliki rawat jalan dapat diandalkan tindak lanjut perawatan.Pencegahan PCPBerhenti merokokBerhenti merokok sangat dianjurkan pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV, karena penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa, di samping efek buruk umum dari penggunaan tembakau, perokok berada pada peningkatan risiko P carinii pneumonia (PCP) dan memiliki program perawatan yang lebih rumit. [ 42]Kemoprofilaksis pada pasien dengan HIV InfeksiDua jenis terapi rawat jalan chemoprophylactic ada. Profilaksis primer digunakan pada pasien immunocompromised tanpa riwayat PCP. Profilaksis sekunder digunakan pada pasien dengan serangan sebelumnya dari PCP.Sebuah panel pakar diawasi oleh US Public Health Service dan Penyakit Infeksi Society of America telah menerbitkan panduan tentang profilaksis terhadap P carinii pneumonia (PCP) pada pasien dewasa dan anak dengan infeksi HIV. Kemoprofilaksis direkomendasikan untuk kelompok berikut:

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• Dewasa, remaja, dan pasien hamil dengan jumlah CD4 kurang dari 200/μL, kandidiasis orofaringeal, demam yang tidak jelas melebihi 100 ° F (37,7 ° C) selama lebih dari 2 minggu, dan episode sebelumnya PCP terlepas dari jumlah CD4 harus menerima profilaksis.• Anak-anak yang lahir dari ibu terinfeksi HIV harus menerima profilaksis dengan trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol (kotrimoksazol) dimulai pada usia 4-6 minggu. Obat ini harus dihentikan jika mereka kemudian memutuskan untuk tidak terinfeksi HIV.• Anak-anak yang bertekad untuk menjadi HIV positif melalui tahun pertama kehidupan, maka sebagai ditentukan oleh usia tertentu tingkat CD4, harus menerima profilaksis.Profilaksis dapat dihentikan pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV yang jumlah CD4 melebihi 200/μL selama 3 bulan berturut-turut sedangkan pada terapi antiretroviral (ART). Profilaksis harus restart jika jumlah CD4 turun di bawah 200/μL. Profilaksis harus dilanjutkan untuk hidup pada pasien yang mengembangkan PCP sementara CD4 tingkat melebihi 200/μL.Satu studi menunjukkan bahwa penghentian profilaksis mungkin tidak aman pada pasien dengan HIV dan jumlah CD4 101-200 sel / uL dan viral load ditekan. [43]Kemoprofilaksis pada pasien tanpa infeksi HIVTidak seperti pada pasien dengan infeksi HIV, tidak ada PCP spesifik pedoman profilaksis ada untuk pasien immunocompromised tanpa infeksi HIV. Secara umum, kemoprofilaksis harus dipertimbangkan dalam salah satu pasien berikut:• Pasien dengan defisiensi imun yang mendasari primer (misalnya, parah immunodeficiency dikombinasikan atau hypogammaglobulinemia)• Pasien dengan CD4 persisten menghitung kurang dari 200/μL• penerima organ transplantasi Padat• induk hematopoietik transplantasi sel (HSCT) penerima, dengan profilaksis dikelola (1) selama 6 bulan setelah bulan engraftment atau (2) selama lebih dari 6 bulan setelah HSCT pada mereka yang masih menerima terapi imunosupresif (misalnya, prednison, siklosporin) atau yang memiliki cangkok kronis dibandingkan Pasien penyakit host menerima terapi kortikosteroid sistemik harian (setidaknya 20 mg setiap hari selama minimal 1 bulan)• Pasien dengan kanker, vaskulitid, atau gangguan kolagen vaskuler dan lain-lain menerima perawatan sitotoksik atau imunosupresif seperti siklosporin atau analog purin yang fludarabine atau cladribineChemoprophylactic rejimenTMP-SMX adalah agen pilihan untuk profilaksis PCP bila tidak ada kontraindikasi. Pada pasien yang tidak dapat mentoleransi TMP-SMX, opsi lainnya termasuk dapson, dapson ditambah pirimetamin, atovakuon, dan pentamidin aerosol. Rejimen profilaksis sering digunakan adalah sebagai berikut.Untuk TMP-SMX, dosis normal adalah satu tablet dua kali kekuatan (160 mg TMP sampai 800 mg SMX) setiap hari. Satu tablet tunggal-kekuatan (80 mg TMP sampai 400 mg SMX) setiap hari juga efektif. Alternatif lain adalah salah satu ganda kekuatan tablet 3 kali per minggu. Namun, rejimen sehari-dosis memberikan manfaat tambahan perlindungan silang terhadap infeksi Toxoplasma gondii dan infeksi bakteri lainnya.Penggunaan TMP-SMX untuk jangka panjang profilaksis PCP tampaknya tidak mempengaruhi tingkat infeksi yang resistan terhadap obat oleh organisme seperti pneumococcus atau Staphylococcus aureus. TMP-SMX resistensi telah dilaporkan di antara beberapa isolat Pneumocystis. [44]Untuk dapson, dosis adalah 100 mg setiap hari melalui mulut jika dikelola sendiri. Jika dapson diberikan dengan pirimetamin (ditambah leucovorin), dosis adalah 50 mg dapson setiap hari melalui mulut dengan 50 mg pirimetamin mingguan dan 25 mg leucovorin mingguan. Dapson dengan pirimetamin (ditambah leucovorin) memberikan perlindungan terhadap infeksi Toxoplasma T tetapi infeksi bakteri tidak lain.Untuk atovakuon, dosis adalah 1500 mg per oral sekali sehari diberikan dengan makanan. Agen ini memiliki profil toksisitas rendah dan merupakan alternatif jika pasien tidak dapat mentolerir TMP-SMX atau dapson. Namun, atovakuon sangat mahal.Untuk pentamidin aerosol, dosis normal adalah 300 mg dalam 6 mL air steril melalui Respirgard nebulizer setiap 4 minggu. Agen ini lebih baik ditoleransi daripada dapson atau TMP-SMX. Namun, jauh lebih mahal dan kurang efektif daripada agen profilaksis lainnya. Efek samping termasuk batuk dan bronkospasme. Potensi manifestasi

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Pneumocystis luar paru dan penyakit paru-paru apikal ada. Selain itu, pentamidin aerosol dapat mengurangi sensitivitas diagnostik induksi dahak dan lavage bronchoalveolar.