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Learning

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Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to

experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of

Salmon, for example.

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How Do We Learn?

We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in

sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested

this law of association. Then 200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated

this law.

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

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On your own paper, respond to the following questions and turn them in today:

• Can you remember some example from your childhood of learning through classical conditioning? Perhaps salivating at the sound or smell of some delicious food cooking in your family kitchen?

• Can you remember and example of operant conditioning, when you repeated (or decided not to repeat) a behavior because you liked or hated its consequence? Can you recall watching someone else perform some act and later repeating or avoiding that act?

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Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His

work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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foto

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

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Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in

salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits

salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Directions:Rest for two minutes. Take pulse for 30 seconds

Pulse rate: ____x 2= ___

Tap Pencil 5 times

Participant hops on one foot for 30 seconds. Record pulse rate at the end of the hoping. Repeat 5 times.

After the fifth time, tap the pencil 5 times and immediately record the pulse rate (participant does not hop first).

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Make your paper look like this:You measure the heart rate for 30 seconds, and multiple it by 2*

Resting for one minute. Measure heart rate ___x 2=___

1) Tap Pencil. Hop 30 sec. Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

Wait 30 sec.

2) Tap Pencil. Hop 30 sec. Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

Wait 30 sec.

3) Tap Pencil. Hop 30 sec. Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

Wait 30 sec.

4) Tap Pencil. Hop 30 sec. Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

Wait 30 sec.

5) Tap Pencil. Hop 30 sec Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

Wait 30 sec.

6) Tap Pencil. DO NOT HOP Heart rate ___ x2 =_____

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• Complete the classical conditioning worksheets on your own paper, and turn them in today.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.

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Classical Conditioning Presentations• You will be assigned a certain section of your text and provided a list

of questions to answer from the information found in your text.

• Answer each of the questions, and create a presentation to convey the information to your classmates.

• One the presentation include:– The facts that you obtained from answering each of the questions on your

worksheet.– At least one picture

• You have 40 minutes to COMPLETE this activity.• ALL members of your group must participate. I will be observing the

room to assess for participation and in-class work grades will be given in accordance with my observations.

• Presentations of the information will be today

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Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus takes place.

1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.

2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

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Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

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Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to

decrease and eventually causes extinction.

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Spontaneous Recovery

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS

(tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

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Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When

he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation

dropped.

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Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus.

https://youtu.be/yJulnBmHtjQ (4:31)classical conditioning video

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Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of

cognitive processes and biological constraints.

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Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a

stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

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Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.

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Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in

conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to

conditioning and not to others (light or sound).

Courtesy of John G

arcia

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Biological Predispositions

Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

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Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology

is isolating elementary behaviors from more

complex ones through objective scientific

procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

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• Little Albert

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE (2:35)

Treatment of Phobias

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Uses for ranchers

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Psychoneuroimmunology

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As a joke

• http://youtu.be/2c4_l2oe22U (1:10)

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Watson used classical conditioning procedures to

develop parenting strategies and advertising campaigns for a number of

organizations, including Maxwell House, making

the “coffee break” an American custom.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

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Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s

thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to

occur again.

Yale U

niversity Library

law of effect

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8#action=share (2:21)

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Operant Chamber

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the

Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

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Skinner Conditioning

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U (1:21)

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Operant Chamber

The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that

an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record

the animal’s response.

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Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards

the desired target behavior through successive approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

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Types of Reinforcers

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a

meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ C

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1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

2. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

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1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large

delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

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Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

Conditioning

• https://youtu.be/qy_mIEnnlF4 (2:45)

• https://youtu.be/EWyZHSZf3TM (1:44)

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Ratio Schedules

1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

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Interval Schedules

1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)

2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable ratio schedule

• https://youtu.be/I_ctJqjlrHA (3:57)

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Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

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Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear

in its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear

in place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,

2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

Negative reinforcement

• https://youtu.be/LhI5h5JZi-U (2:30)

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Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for

discounting them.

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Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during

a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious

reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the

layout of the maze (environment).

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Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

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Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

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Biological Predisposition

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations

that are naturally adaptive.

Breland and Breland (1961) showed that

animals drift towards their biologically

predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey

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Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and

feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements

for correct rewards.

In School

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.

In Sports

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

I am going to a picnic game

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Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

© H

erb Terrace

©H

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children see children do

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw  (1:32)

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Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

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Imitation Onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This

14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

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Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others who receive rewards and punishments.

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8 (5:17)

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Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have

antisocial effects.

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Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

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Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children

in elementary school who are

exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased

aggression.

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Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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Types of learning and the bobo beatdown:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE (9:34)

Observational LearningArticle Review

• Review the articles provided and summarize the findings. Answer the following questions in your summary:

• 1. What is the problem or question's) this research concerns? You should be able to identify the central focus. If there are additional secondary problems, identify these too. (1-4 sentences)

2. What is the source of the data? (That is, questionnaire, intensive interview, documents, existing statistical information, observations, laboratory manipulations, field manipulations, etc.) In some studies there are two or more sources of data. Give a brief overview of how the data were acquired. (2-5 sentences)

3. Briefly, what do the key findings turn out to be? (1-5 sentences)

Different Types of Learners

• Temple Grandin, diagnosed with autism as a child, talks about how her mind works — sharing her ability to "think in pictures," which helps her solve problems that neurotypical brains might miss. She makes the case that the world needs people on the autism spectrum: visual thinkers, pattern thinkers, verbal thinkers, and all kinds of smart geeky kids.

• https://www.ted.com/talks/temple_grandin_the_world_needs_all_kinds_of_minds#t-61160

Kinesthetic Learning 

• Kinesthetic Learning (also known as Tactile Learning) is a learning style in which learning takes place by the student carrying out a physical activity, rather than listening to a lecture or watching a demonstration. People with a preference for kinesthetic learning are also commonly known as "do-ers". Tactile/kinesthetic learners make up about five percent of the population.

Visual learning

• Visual learning is a teaching and learning style in which ideas, concepts, data, and other information are associated with images and techniques. It is one of the three basic types of learning styles in the widely used

Auditory learning

• Auditory learning is a learning style in which a person learns through listening. An auditory learner depends on hearing and speaking as a main way of learning. Auditory learners must be able to hear what is being said in order to understand and may have difficulty with instructions that are drawn but if the writing is in a logical order it can be easier to understand . They also use their listening and repeating skills to sort through the information that is sent to them

Take Learning Styles Assessment

• Total the score for each section. • A score of 21 points or more in a modality indicates a

strength in that area. The highest of the 3 scores indicates the most efficient method of information intake. The second highest score indicates the modality which boosts the primary strength.

• For example, a score of 23 in visual modality indicates a strong visual learner. Such a learner benefits from the text, from filmstrips, charts, graphs, etc.

• If the second highest score is auditory, then the individual would benefit from audio tapes, lectures, etc.

• If you are strong kinesthetically, then taking notes and rewriting class notes will reinforce information.

Three Types of Learners

Visual

· Mind sometimes strays during

verbal activities

· Observe rather than acts or

talks

· Likes to read

· Usually a good speller

· Memorizes by seeing graphics

or pictures

· Not too distractible

· Finds verbal instruction

difficult

· Has good handwriting

· Remembers faces

· Uses advanced planning

· Doodles

· Quiet by nature

· Meticulous, neat in appearance

· Notices details

Auditory

· Talks to self aloud

· Enjoys talking

· Easily distracted

· Has difficulty with written

directions

· Likes to be read to

· Memorizes sequentially

· Enjoys music

· Whispers to self while reading

· Distracted by noise

· Hums or sings

· Outgoing by nature

Kinesthetic

· Likes physical rewards

· In motion most of the time

· Likes to touch people when

talking

· Taps pencil or foot when

studying

· Enjoys doing activities

· Reading not a priority

· Poor speller

· Likes to solve problems by

physically working through

them

· Will try new things

· Outgoing by nature; expresses

emotions by physical means

· Uses hands while talking

· Dresses for comfort

Toy development

• You are a marketing psychologist and you have been hired to design and build a new educational toy. Your new toy will be marketed across the nation this summer.

• Your Design Team has 40 minutes to accomplish the following tasks:

• 1 – Think of a prototype of a new toy. You will need to decide the following:– What do you want to teach with your toy?– What method of learning will your toy use to teach whatever you have decided to teach with the toy? (Classical

conditioning, Operant Conditioning, or Observational Learning?– What learning style will the toy appeal to? (Visual, Tactile, Kinesthetic?)– What age group will the toy be geared towards?

• 2 – Create a poster-sized magazine ad with the following elements: • _____ The name of the new toy your group designed • _____ A hand-drawn picture of the toy • _____ The price of the toy • _____ The name of your Design Team • _____ The targeted age for your toy • (3-5 years; 6-8 years; 9-11 years; 12+ years) • _____ A slogan, jingle, or catch-phrase for your new toy • _____ Persuasive comments that would convince parents to purchase the new • toy for their child(ren). • _____ Remember: your poster should look like a magazine ad and should • convince parents to purchase your new toy! • • 4 – Be prepared to give a 2-3 minute oral presentation to the class, demonstrating your • your ad poster. Each member of the team should speak during this presentation.