1 Foundations of Individual Behavior Dr. Fred Mugambi Mwirigi JKUAT.

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Foundations of Individual Foundations of Individual Behavior Behavior

Dr. Fred Mugambi MwirigiDr. Fred Mugambi Mwirigi

JKUATJKUAT

Wednesday, April 19, 20Wednesday, April 19, 202323

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Why study OB?Why study OB?

‘‘It helps to develop best fit between It helps to develop best fit between the employee and the job, the the employee and the job, the employee and other employees, employee and other employees, the employee and the the employee and the organization’organization’


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Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics

Does Does ageage influence productivity at work? influence productivity at work? Does Does marital statusmarital status influence productivity influence productivity

at work?at work? Do Do physical characteristics physical characteristics influence influence

productivity at work?productivity at work? Does Does GenderGender influence productivity at influence productivity at

work?work? Does Does ethnicityethnicity influence productivity at influence productivity at

work?work?


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Abilities Abilities Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in Everyone has strengths and weaknesses in

terms of ability in performing certain tasks or terms of ability in performing certain tasks or activitiesactivities

AbilityAbility refers to an individual’s capacity to refers to an individual’s capacity to

perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current assessment of what one can do.assessment of what one can do.

Abilities can be categorized into:Abilities can be categorized into:1.1. intellectual intellectual 2.2. physicalphysical


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Intellectual abilitiesIntellectual abilities

Intellectual abilitiesIntellectual abilities The capacity to do The capacity to do

mental activities such mental activities such as thinking, reasoning as thinking, reasoning and problem solving.and problem solving.


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Multiple Intelligences Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence can be subdivided into four subparts: Intelligence can be subdivided into four subparts:

Cognitive intelligenceCognitive intelligence

• Traditional aptitudes associated with intelligenceTraditional aptitudes associated with intelligence

Social intelligenceSocial intelligence

• Ability to relate effectively to othersAbility to relate effectively to others

Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence

• Ability to identify, understand and manage emotionsAbility to identify, understand and manage emotions

Cultural intelligenceCultural intelligence

• Awareness of cross-cultural differencesAwareness of cross-cultural differences

Another view (Howard Gardner’s Another view (Howard Gardner’s Theory)Theory)


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Contd. Contd. Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental Intellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental

activities – for thinking, reasoning and problem solving. activities – for thinking, reasoning and problem solving. IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general

intellectual abilities. Examples of such tests are intellectual abilities. Examples of such tests are admission tests used by some universities such as the admission tests used by some universities such as the GMAT.GMAT.

The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: intellectual abilities are: number aptitude, verbal number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualisation, and memory.visualisation, and memory.


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Physical abilityPhysical ability

The capacity to do tasks demanding The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength and similar stamina, dexterity, strength and similar characteristics.characteristics.

Employee’sAbilities

Job’s AbilityRequirements

Ability-JobFit


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Contd Contd

Research has identified nine basic abilities Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical involved in the performance of physical tasks, tasks, dynamic strength, trunk strength, dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, explosive strength, static strength, explosive strength, extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility, extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility, body coordination, balance, stamina. body coordination, balance, stamina.


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Influencers of Abilities Influencers of Abilities 1. Biographical factors 1. Biographical factors

Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status—that are objective and easily and marital status—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.obtained from personnel records.

2. Social factors2. Social factors

The society and its interplay with the personaThe society and its interplay with the persona society influences abilities society influences abilities 3. Learning 3. Learning Is the key influencer of abilities Is the key influencer of abilities


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Learning Learning

Any relatively permanent change in Any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.experience.

Characteristics of learning:Characteristics of learning:1.1. Involves changeInvolves change2.2. Is relatively permanent Is relatively permanent 3.3. Is acquired through experience and Is acquired through experience and

exposure to learning materialexposure to learning materialLearning enhances ability.Learning enhances ability.


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Theories of Learning Theories of Learning

Three main:Three main:

1.1. Classical conditioning Classical conditioning

2.2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning

3.3. Social learningSocial learning


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Classical conditioningClassical conditioningA type of conditioning in which an A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a would not ordinarily produce such a response.response.

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned response


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Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning grew out of experiments Classical conditioning grew out of experiments conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian physiologist, physiologist, Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov, to teach , to teach dogs to salivate dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell.in response to the ringing of a bell.

The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; it The meat was an unconditioned stimulus; it invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way. invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way.

The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call The bell was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus. the conditioned stimulus.

The conditioned response. This describes the The conditioned response. This describes the behaviour of the dog; it salivated in reaction to the behaviour of the dog; it salivated in reaction to the bell alone.bell alone.


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Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.prevents a punishment.

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behaviour

• Conditioned (learned) behaviour

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behaviour

• Conditioned (learned) behaviour

• Reinforcement


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Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Premiered by Harvard psychologist Premiered by Harvard psychologist B.F. B.F. SkinnerSkinner..

Operant conditioning argues that Operant conditioning argues that behaviour behaviour is a function of its consequences.is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they do they want or to avoid something they do not want.not want.

The tendency to repeat behaviour The tendency to repeat behaviour influenced by reinforcement or lack of it.influenced by reinforcement or lack of it.


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Tenets of Operant ConditioningTenets of Operant Conditioning

1.1. Behaviour is learned.Behaviour is learned.2.2. People are likely to engage in desired People are likely to engage in desired

behaviours if they are positively reinforced for behaviours if they are positively reinforced for doing so. doing so.

3.3. Rewards are most effective if they immediately Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.follow the desired response.

4.4. Any situation in which it is either explicitly stated Any situation in which it is either explicitly stated or implicitly suggested that reinforcements are or implicitly suggested that reinforcements are contingent on some action on your part involves contingent on some action on your part involves the use of operant learning.the use of operant learning.


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Social-learning theorySocial-learning theory

People can learn through observation and People can learn through observation and direct experience.direct experience.

Key Concepts

• Attention processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts

• Attention processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes


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Social Learning Theory Contd. Social Learning Theory Contd.

Individuals can also learn by observing Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people, by being what happens to other people, by being told about something, as well as by direct told about something, as well as by direct experiences. experiences.

The influence of models and celebrities is The influence of models and celebrities is

central to social learning.central to social learning.


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Determinants of influence of modelsDeterminants of influence of models

1.1. Attentional processes. People learn from a model only Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognise and pay attention to its critical when they recognise and pay attention to its critical features. features.

2.2. Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend Retention processes. A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. action after the model is no longer readily available.

3.3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the model, the seen a new behaviour by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing.watching must be converted to doing.

4.4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if positive motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided.incentives or rewards are provided.


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Shaping Behavior Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response- especially closer to the desired response- especially by rewarding or punishing.by rewarding or punishing.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behaviour

• Some rewards are more effective than others

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behaviour

• Some rewards are more effective than others

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.


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Types of Reinforcement Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement

Providing a reward for a desired behaviourProviding a reward for a desired behaviour Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant consequence when the Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behaviour occursdesired behaviour occurs

PunishmentPunishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an

undesirable behaviourundesirable behaviour ExtinctionExtinction

Withholding reinforcement of a behaviour to cause its Withholding reinforcement of a behaviour to cause its cessation.cessation.


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Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Two main types:Two main types:

1.1. Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement A desired behaviour is reinforced each A desired behaviour is reinforced each

time it is demonstrated.time it is demonstrated.

2.2. Intermittent reinforcementIntermittent reinforcement A desired behaviour is reinforced often A desired behaviour is reinforced often

enough to make the behaviour worth enough to make the behaviour worth repeating but not every time it is repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.demonstrated.


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Types of intermittent Types of intermittent reinforcementreinforcement

Fixed-interval scheduleFixed-interval schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time Rewards are spaced at uniform time

intervals.intervals.

Variable-interval scheduleVariable-interval schedule Rewards are distributed at random Rewards are distributed at random

times; reinforcements are times; reinforcements are unpredictableunpredictable

Contd. Contd.

Fixed-ratio scheduleFixed-ratio schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or Rewards are initiated after a fixed or

constant number of responses (e.g. constant number of responses (e.g. payment for piece-rate workers)payment for piece-rate workers)

Variable-ratio scheduleVariable-ratio schedule Rewards are varied relative to the Rewards are varied relative to the

behaviour of the individual.behaviour of the individual.


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Behavior Modification Behavior Modification

The application of reinforcement concepts to The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.individuals in the work setting.

Problem-solving model for Behavioral

Problems

• Identify critical behaviours

• Develop baseline data

• Identify behavioural consequences

• Apply intervention

• Evaluate performance improvement.

Problem-solving model for Behavioral

Problems

• Identify critical behaviours

• Develop baseline data

• Identify behavioural consequences

• Apply intervention

• Evaluate performance improvement.


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Critical behavioursCritical behaviours

Critical behaviours make a significant Critical behaviours make a significant impact on the employee’s job impact on the employee’s job performance; these are those 5–10 performance; these are those 5–10 percent of behaviours that may account for percent of behaviours that may account for up to 70 or 80 percent of each employee’s up to 70 or 80 percent of each employee’s performance. performance.


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Implications to Managers Implications to Managers Ability directly influences an employee’s level of Ability directly influences an employee’s level of

performance.performance. An effective selection process will improve ability-job-fit.An effective selection process will improve ability-job-fit. The fit can also be improved by fine-tuning the job to The fit can also be improved by fine-tuning the job to

better match an incumbent’s abilities.better match an incumbent’s abilities. Biographical characteristics are readily observable to Biographical characteristics are readily observable to

managers, however, that doesn’t mean all must be used managers, however, that doesn’t mean all must be used to select employees to select employees

Any observable change in behaviour is prima facie Any observable change in behaviour is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place.evidence that learning has taken place.

Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying behaviour.behaviour.


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End of lesson twoEnd of lesson two

Wednesday, April 19, 2023 30Compiled by Fred Mugambi Mwirigi

1 Foundations of Individual Behavior Dr. Fred Mugambi Mwirigi JKUAT.

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