062375eo.pdf

Towards universalization of

primary education in Asia and the Pacific

n e

SOME CASE STUDIES

China India

Peninsular Malaysia Socialist Republic of Viet Nam

Sri Lanka Thailand

UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Bangkok, 1984

@ Unesco 1984

Published by the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific

P.O. Box 1425, General Post Office Bangkok 10500, Thailand

Printed in Thailand

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

BK R/84/OPE/230-800

PREFACE

The countries in the region in which universal primary education i s yet t o be achieved have in recent years announced policies for achieving full enrolment of a l l children of the primary age group.

One of the persistent problems which has held back universalization of primary education i s the early dropping-out of children from the schools. This represents enormous wastage of resources and contributes directly t o the numbers of illiterates.

The present publication brings together the experiences of six countries of the region in dealing with the problem of dropping-out:

Grateful acknowledgement i s made to the contributions o f the authors of these studies and to M r s . Ellen Sattar for the regional overview presented as an introduction.

CONTENTS

Page

Drop-out in primary education: a regional overview. by Ellen Sattar .................................. The nature o f the problem

Act ion to prevent drop-out ......................

....................... Some factors responsible for drop-out ..............

Conclusions .................................. Shaanxi Province. Peoples Republic of China ...........

Sampling analysis o f drop-out .................... Measures taken to reduce the drop-out rate .......... Huxian Countys experience in universal primary educa- t ion ........................................ A tentative plan for education in Huxian County . . . . . .

India. by K.N. Hiriyanniah and K. Ramachandran ........ Efforts towards equalization o f educational opportunities

Sample study o f wastage (repeaters and drop-outs) at

Measures for preventing drop-outs at the elementary

at the primary stage ............................

stage o f education ............................. Measures to remove or lessen the drop-out problem

Pedagogical measures t o prevent drop-outs

Measures for retrieving drop-outs .................. Summary and conclusions .......................

Peninsular Malaysia, by Lee Meow Fatt ................. The drop-out problem. magnitude and trend

The genesis o f action projects

.... ...........

......... .....................

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25

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45

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Page

Intervention .................................. Intervention actions ............................ Conclusion ................................... Recommendations .............................

.A Supplementary figures .......................... Supplementary tables ........................... Bibliography ..................................

Magnitude and causes of drop-out

Actions t o prevent drop-ou t

Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. by L e Nang An .......... .................

...................... Steps t'oward better organization and management .... Steps t o enable drop-outs to re tu rn t o school ......... Supplementary tables ...........................

Sr i Lanka. by S.M.D. Perera and R . Wijedasa ............ Magnitude and characteristics o f the drop-out problem . . Actions t o prevent drop-outs .....................

Supplementary tables ........................... Bibliography ..................................

Conclusion ...................................

Thailand. by Chinnapat Bhumirat .................... Theproblem .................................. Projects t o prevent drop-out and increase educational opportunity .................................. Actions t o prevent drop-out ...................... Supplementary tables ...........................

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DROP-OUT IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: A REGIONAL OVERVIEW

by Ellen Sattar

Introduction

This introductory section draws mainly o n the country reports, o f six countries supplemented by data f rom others. Japan, and t h e Union o f Soviet Socialist Republics, Australia, New Zealand have n o t been included in t h i s survey. The analysis concentrates, as much as possible, on those countries where drop-out i s highest. Availability o f data in t h e region i s a problem, as has been noted in t h e recent Unesco world survey o n drop-out. As drop-out constitutes a major source o f wastage at t h e primary level, lack o f data, and therefore more pert inent analysis, i s an obstacle in seeking efforts t o solve t h e problem.

Wastage, (drop-out and repetition), i s a problem in many o f the school systems in t h e Region. I t s intensity varies f rom country t o country, but where it i s most prevalent, it i s usually associated also wi th non-enrolment, and a lower percentage o f g i r l s than boys in t h e school system. I t i s closely associated also with socio-economic conditions. Where poverty i s greatest, wastage will b e highest.

T h e ideal situation towards which all countries are striving i s 100 per cent enrolment o f bo th boys and girls, and 100 per cent retention at least up t o t h e end o f the primary school stage o f education, usually a minimum o f five years. T h i s i s the presupposition upon which i s based t h e drive for universal primary education (UPE). Within that context, drop-out i s perhaps t h e most critical f rom o f wastage; that having enrolled a chi ld in school, the school fai ls t o retain t h e child.

Countries striving t o attain UPE have t o eliminate wastage and in particular drop-out. W E i s n o t possible in an educational system

* M r s Eiien Sattar i s the author of Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh.

Unesco, Wastage in Primary and General Secondary Education: A Statistical Study of Trendsand Patterns in Repetition and Dropout. Paris, Unesco. 1980.

The drop-out problem in primury education

where drop-out exists. By i t s presence, i t proclaims that UPE has n o t been attained.

There were 390 mil l ion primary school-aged children in the region at the beginning o f the 1980s. O f these, some 60 mil l ion (15.4 per cent) were out o f school. T h e average annual percentage o f repeaters was approximately 10 per cent o f the total enrolment, 327 million. The total number o f drop-outs per year f rom primary education i s estimated t o be 31.6 million.2

Drop-out represents a staggering loss. Although it i s found at bo th primary and secondary levels, it i s more crucial at the primary level. An early school drop-out soon lapses t o illiteracy. Re-entry t o t h e formal school system i s closed o f f in most cases. A secondary school drop-out has at least acquired literacy and some other educational s k i l l s and knowledge. H e or she may more easily resume schooling, or take up training outside t h e system. T h e primary school drop-out wil l remain locked in to the closed world o f the illiterate and thus have further restriction placed upon a background o f poverty and ignorance.

Drop-out has been recognised as a particular problem by Unesco for the last two decades. Member States have been aware that it was an obstacle t o t h e achievement o f t h e targets set out by the Karachi Plan in 1960. Reports published by Unesco since then, have emphasised t h e continuing nature o f the problem. They have delineated i t s causes, and have offered many suggestions t o overcome it.4 In addition, individual Member States init iated actions aimed at becoming aware o f the problem o f wastage. Several com- missions, for example in India and in Malaysia, were set up t o examine t h e dimensions o f t h e wastage problem. The resultant reports set out clearly the reasons for wastage and make suggestions t o curb both repeti t ion and drop-out.

These figures exclude Australia, Japan, New Zealand, and the USSR.

Source Unesco Office of Statistics Unesco paris

FOI example, to quote oniy three:

Unesco Bulletin, Vol.1 No.2. The Iroblem of Eduartional Wastage Bangkok, 1967 M.A. Brimer and L. Pauli, Wastage in Education: A World hoblem Paris Geneva, IBE: Unesco, 1971.

Unesco. Wastage in Primary and General Secondary Education: A statistical Study of Trends and Patems in Repetition and Dropout. Paris, Unesco 1980.

2

A regional overtnew

I t is instructive a t t h i s time, as so many countries set goals for UPE and for basic education for all, to look a t the extent o f the drop-out problem in the region in the 198Os, a t what progress has been made over the last two decades to overcome it, and at what further avenues need exploring in order to lessen or eliminate drop- out and thereby improve the efficiency of the existing school systems.

The nature of the problem

A drop-out can be defined as a child who enrols in school but fails to complete the relevant level of the educational cycle. At the primary level t h i s means that the drop-out fails to reach the final grade, usually grade V or VI.

A repeater i s a chi ld who has to repeat the same grade, due to examination failure, low attendance record, or for any other reason.

A repeater may or may not become a drop-out, but there i s a high probabil i ty that h e or she will. The drop-out may or may not re-enter the school a t a later date, but there i s more probabil i ty that h e or she will remain lost to the educational system. Both represent wastage. Whereas the repeater may stay on and eventually repeat the primary cycle, the drop-out i s very frequently lost to the system and may also fa i l to retain even the vestiges of academic s k i l l s gained earlier. Evidence from several countries shows that early drop-out results in a lapse to illiteracy. For example, a recent study in the Philippines found that l i teracy was not retained i f there was drop-out before grade III.

The extent of repetition

The extent of repetit ion in the region vanes considerably. Several countries have rates from O to 2 per cent such as Malaysia, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines.6 Countries with rep- et i t ion rates of 7 to 10 per cent include Indonesia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam (See Table 1). Bangladesh and Bhutan have repetit ion rates of 21 per cent.

MOM Dumko Valisno, The Accreditation and Equivalency Programme of the Philip-

Unesco. Statistical Yearbook, 1982 III 160-163

pines: Its Status and Possibilities. Manila, 1983. (mimeo.).

Unesco. Wastage in Pnmary and General Secondary Education. op. cit. p. 21. 3

The drop-out problem in primary education

Table 1. Primary level repetition in selected countries

Countries Total Repetition Rate

Afghanistan 29 Buma

India

21

21

Indonesia 8

Singapore I

Sri Lanka 10

Thailand 10

Viet Nam I

Source: Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982, III 160-163

Data i s not readily available, and comparative data over one or two decades i s lacking, for many countries, thus making the estima- tion of trends difficult. For the Asia and Pacific Region as a whole', it has been estimated that there has been a steady decline in the level of repetit ion between 1965 and 1978.9 Although the percentage of repeaters may have declined slightly, absolute numbers probably have increased, in particular in the more populous countries with high fert i l i ty levels.

Differences between repetit ion rates for boys and girls are shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Repeaters by sex in selected countries (latest year available)

Country Boys Girls

Afghanistan

Bangiadesh

Burma

India

Iran

Singapore

Thailand

31.8

20.4

20.1

20.5

10.5

15.3

11.0

19.8

21 .O

20.8

21.4

6.5

9.6

9.3

Source: Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education op. cit. p. 34

T h i s includes Japan, the USSR, and the Pacific nations.

Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education. op. ut. p. 28

4

A regional overvtew

For most countries, the differences between extents of repetition by sex are slight, except for Afghanistan where more boys than girls repeat the grades. T h i s i s probably due to the fact that few girls enrol in school. T h i s may have some effect on the rate for I ran too, but this pattern i s different in Bangladesh, Burma and India where fewer girls also enrol, and repetion rates for g i r l s and boys are almost s imi lar . Singapore and Thailand show higher repetit ion rates for boys and this pattern i s the same as that found in the West European countries.

Variation of repetit ion by grade i s found also, and details for a few countries may be seen in Table 3.

Table 3. Percentage of primary grade repeaters in selected countries

Grades

country Year Z zz zzz z v V n

Afghanistan 1978 36 27 27 32 26 24

Burma 1970 25 17 21 18 21

India 1970 26 20 18 17 16 Indonesia 1980 17 9 7 5 4 Singapore 1980 1 1 1 8 11 18 sri Lanka 1980 6 12 14 12 10 8 Thailand 1977 18 11 11 4 9 4 Viet Nam 1978 10 7 6 5 4

Source: Unesco. Sfatistimi Yearbook 1982. III 160-163

The majori ty of countries for which data i s available show higher levels of repeti t ion in grade I, gradually decreasing to grade 5 or 6. Two countries show rises in repeti t ion in the higher grades, S r i Lanka and, to a marked degree, Singapore. The Singapore figures are due to policy changes such as those made about repetition. Automatic promotion w a s abolished in 1977.

The need to reduce wastage further, by reducing repetition, i s recognised in most countries. As the V ie t Nam country report states: as far as repetit ion i s concerned, the number of repeaters in primary and secondary schools through the land, represents a major obstacle to universalization. T h i s i s because repeaters clog the grades

lo See viet ~ a r n report, this m i m e

5

The dropout problem in primary education

making classes far larger than they need be. The chi ld who repeats the grade i s over-age for that grade and this, added to his feelings of failure, will encourage dropout. As many children enter school when they are older than 5 or 6 years, repeating a grade compounds the age differentials. The high levels o f repeaters in the early grades makes individualized instruction dif f icult and children will receive l i t t le help with their problems. The materials and textbooks for grade I are writ ten for children who are 5 o r 6 years old and these will have l i t t le appeal t o a 9 or 10 year old child.

Just as there are wide variations in the level of repeaters between countries in the region, there are wide variations also within countries. Under-developed regions will have higher rates of grade repetit ion a3, for instance, in the mountainous regions o f Viet Nam.' ' There will be differences too between rural and urban regions, with the former usually having the higher repetit ion rates as shown in Table 4 below. In India, rural repetit ion rates are high and the need to reduce wastage in the primary cycle by reducing repetit ion i s widely recognized?

Table 4. Level of repetition in rural and urban schools in selected countries

Country Percentage of enrolment constituted by repeaters

Total

Rural Urban

Afghanistan 31.1 27.5 30.0

Bangladesh 20.9 15.6 20.6

Indonesia 16.0 15.0 15.8

ran 11.5 10.5 10.9

Source: Unesco. Wastage in primary and General Secondary Education op. cit. p.45.

Repetit ion i s closly t ied to drop-out. Many repeaters eventually drop-out of school. One study in Thailand found that two-thirds of drop-outs had been repeaters? Data f rom Bangladesh shows drop- outs to be several years over-age for the i r grade' 4and t h i s greater age

l1 ibid.

l2 See India report this volume

See Thailand report in this volume

l4 Foundation for Research in Educational Planning and Development. m e Situation of Children in Bangladesh, 1981 p. 86.

6

A regional overview

must be not only due to late entry but also t o repetition. The Bang- ladesh study found, for example, that the average age of a grade I drop-out was almost 11 years. A grade II drop-out averaged 12 years and a grade III drop-out w a s o n average 12% years old. The estimated mean difference between current age o f drop-outs and of enrolled children w a s over three years in grade I. This decreased slightly in the higher grades.

Percentage distribution between grades

An indirect indicator o f repetit ion i s t he percentage distribu- t ion in each grade. In an ideal (five year) primary school system, it would be around 20 per cent in each grade, if all age chorts were enrolling at the same t ime and moving smoothly through the grades. (For a six year system the percentage would be about 17 per cent). A system with 30 to 40 per cent enrolment in grade I and I X o r 10 per cent enrolment in grade V i s a system with a high drop out rate and a high repetit ion rate. Table 5 shows percentage distribution rates, over the last decade, in some countries of the region. There i s considerable variation. In Bangladesh the situation has worsened since 1970, as grade I has a higher percentage of enrolment and grade V a lower percentage than at the beginning o f the 1970s. In Burma the situation remains practically unchanged, while countries such as India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand show improvement of distribution between grades. I t may be surmised that repetit ion in these countries has been reduced, and that students are moving through the grades more smoothly than previously.

The extent of dropout

As with repeaters, data o n drop-out i s not readily available and a comparison with drop-out rates in the early 1960s i s possible for only a few countries. Table 6 gives wastage rates for the 1959 primary school cohort and represents both drop-out and repetition. A comparision with Table 7, showing the cohort survival figures calculated by Unesco for the late 1970s, aIthough not strictly com- parable, illustrates the tremendous improvements in many countries over the past two decades. As the base years in Table 7 for calculat- ing the cohort survival rates vary, comparisons between them would be inconclusive.

Many other factors have to be taken into account, such as the percentage of the age-group actually enrolled in school. For example,

7


Sri Lanka enrols 90 per cent of i t s primary school age group, Bang- ladesh about 70 per cent. Several of the most populous countries do not enrol all their primary age children in schools,and these countries are the ones that have the highest drop-out rates.

Table 5. Percentage distribution rates at primary level (Selected couniries between 1 9 7 w 981)

Grades

Country Year I II III I V V V I

Per cent

Bangladesh 1970 38 22 16 13 11 1981 41 21 16 12 9

Burma 1970 37 22 17 14 10 1977 37 21 17 14 11

China 1980 25 21 20 18 16

India 1970 36 22 17 14 11 1978 31 23 19 15 12

Indonesia 1975 27 21 17 14 11 9 1980 23 23 18 14 12 10

Nepal 1915 57 24 19 1980 55 26 20

Pakistan 1970 32 22 18 15 12 1979 32 22 17 16 13

Philippines 1970 23 19 17 15 14 12 1980 21 18 17 18 14 12

Sri Lanka 1970 25 22 21 18 15 1980 17 17 17 19 16 14

Thailand 1970 27 21 20 17 7 5* 1980 20 18 19 17 15 12

Viet Nam 1979 27 21 19 17 16

* 4% in Grade VI1

Source: Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982. III 137-141.

A regional overview

Table 6. Wastage of 1959 primary school cohort

Wastage Ratios (%) Countries

15-25

26-35

36-55

5 6-80

over 80

Korea, Malaysia

Singapore, Ceylon, Iran

Thailand, Philippines, Afghanistan

Viet Nam, India, Cambodia, Pakistan

Burma, Laos

Source: Unesco. Bulletin 1 9 6 7 0 ~ . cit. p. 8

Table 7. Primary cohort survival, late 1970s

Country Cohort Number of .% survival to % Drop-out Year Grades last grade

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Burma -- Indonesia

Korea, Republic of

Malaysia

Philippines

Singapore

Sri Lanka

1976

1974

1977

1972

1969

1977

1977

1978

1975

1977

1977

6

5

6

5

5

6

6

6

6

6

5

65

19

11

32

41

78 96

95

69

91

95

35

81

89

68

59

22

4

5

31

9

5

Source: Unesco. Wastage at Primary and General Seconday Level. op. cit. Chart

4.1 adapted; drop-out calculated.

Rapid expansion of the primary school system may b e part ly responsible for this. The 1967 Unesco survey found that when countries expanded their education systems and enrolment increased up to 70 per cent of an age cohort, then there was a tendency for wastage ratios to increase. T h i s was because they are drawing on a n increasing number of children from the vulnerable sections. This observation i s probably correct today for many countries. When enrolment i s low, most students will come from middle and upper class families who will be motivated to keep their chi ldren in school, and the drop-out rate will be low. Higher enrolment figures include

9


children from lower social strata, disadvantaged groups, and girls. These children are socially or economically disadvantaged and the motivation o f their families will b e lower than that o f the more economically well o f f groups. T h i s will lead t o a higher drop-out rate and helps t o account for the drop-out rate seen in many coun- tr ies o f the region, even when enrolment i s around 70 per cent o r more o f the age group. Unless other factors are present t o counteract the drop-out tendency, i t will remain high.

Enrolment ratios between sexes, shown in Table 8, may be compared with the cohort survival figures o f Table 7. Low ratios o f girls in school usually mean high drop-out rates. However, here too, improvement over t h e last two decades i s noticeable. For example, in Bangladesh the rat io improved f rom 72:28 for boys:girls in 1960 t o 63:37 in 1980'51n Nepal the rat io of 84:16 in 1973 hadimproved t o 72:28 by 1980!6 In bo th these cases, sustained improvement in sex ratios at t h e primary level can be observed. At the same time, girls' drop-out rates are slightly higher than those for boys in much o f the region. For example, in Tamil Nadu State in India, an average o f 10 year drop-out rates at the primary level found that whereas boys averaged 38 per cent drop-out over the 1 0 year span, the figure fo r girls was 48 per ceni!.'Probably this pattern may be found in those countries with lower girls enrolment.

In Table 9 are presented drop-out figures f rom some countries, and the i r target year for achieving UPE. By 1982 Malaysia had eliminated drop-out at the primary level. Viet-Nam had achieved a remarkably l o w figure considering that in the late 1950s the wastage rat io had been estimated over 65 per cent (see Table 6 above). The rate for the Philippines was affected by the length of the primary school cycle, six years but several rural schools had classes only up t o grade IV. I f these schools were upgraded t o six-year schools the drop- out would probably improve considerably. Thailand has a similar problem related t o t h e length o f the primary cycle. Parents used t o the pre-1966, 4-year cycle, prefer t o send their children t o school for only four years though the primary cycle i s now six years.

l5 E. Sattar. UniversaIfiimary Eduaation m Bangkzdesh. Dhaka. 1982. p. 32

l6 Education Day Souvenir. National Education Committee. Kathmandu, 1983. p.19

l7 K. Venkata Subramania. Wastage in Primary Education Department of Education, University of York. 1977.p. 19-20.

10

A regional overua'ew

Table 8. Sex ratios at primary iewl in selected countries

Cbuntv Year Boys: Girls Enrolment Ratios %

14 (2) 13) Afghanistan 1979 84: 16

Bangladesh 1981 63:37

Burma 1977 52:48

chilla 1980 55:45 India 197b 62:38 Indoneh 1980 54:46

Nepal 1980 72:28

Pakistan 197: 73:27

Sri Lanka 1980 52:48 niailand 1977 52:48 Viet Nam 1979 52:48

source: Cois. 1 & 2 Unesco Statistical Yearbook 1982, op. cit. III 108411. Col. 3 girls percentage ibi& boys calculated.

Table 9. Primary level drop-out in selected counties ____ ~~ ~ ______ ~ _ _ _ _

amtry Gmdes Year Dropout Target Year Rate per cent for W E Enrolment

(1)

Bangladesh

India

Malaysia

Nepal

Philippines

Thailand

Viet Nam

(2)

I-v I-v I-v I - IV

I-VI I V - v

I-v

(3)

1981

1978

1982

1970

1980

1977

1978

(4)

70.0

63.0

O .O

69.2

34 .O

42 .O

7.7 North ) 9.8 South )

(5 i 90 per cent by 1987

100 per cent by 1990

achieved

75 per cent by 1985




Source: Co1.5 APEID/Unesco. Univer~kieingprimmy Education. Bangkok, 1983. p.9

Bangladesh: E. Sattar, op. cir., p. 41

India, Mslaysia, Thailand, Wet Nam: See reports in this Volume.

Nepal: Mogendra ali Singh, Educational Wastage in Nepal. Kathmandu,

Philippines: MOM Dumiao Valisno, op. cit

office of National Education Committee, 1973. p. 28 (mimeo).

11


Data on actual grade-wise drop-out i s di f f icult to find. Table 10 presents data for three countries. No clear cut pattern emerges, but grade III had the highest drop-out in India, grade V in Sr i Lanka, grades I and I V in Viet Nam. Probably grades with the highest repetition rates would also have the highest drop-out rates in many countries, but data i s lacking.

Table 10. Drop-out by grade in three countries

Grades Country Cohort I II III I V V

Year

India 1971-2 12.7 15.9 17.0 14.7 N .A

sri Lanka 1978 1.3 1.2 3.4 4.3 4.9 Vied Nam 1975 5.3 2.7 2.3 4.9 2.9

Source: See reports th is volume

In Bangladesh, 60 per cent of drop-out occurs before grade 3? T h i s proportion may be similar in other countries of the region with s i m i l a r socio-economic characteristics, and is, ironically, a contribu- tion of the education system to the pool of illiterates in these countries.

Differences in drop-out rate between grades, sexes, and countries are further complicated by differences in rural and urban locations. Just as literacy i s less in rural than urban areas, so drop-out i s highest in rural locations. T h i s may be illustrated from the Republic of Korea where, in 1967, rural drop-out rates were 2.7 per cent, while those in the urban areas were only 0.8? Evidence from other countries also emphasises that rural schools usually have higher drop-out rates.

Some factors responsible for dropout

Reasons for drop-out may be classified into those internal and those external to the educational system. Neither group

* E. Sattar, op. cit., p. 41 l9 Ran-Soo Kim. Universalization of Primary Education in Korea. APEID/UNESCO.

2o See reports in t ~ s volume.

Bangkok, 1983.

12

A regional overview

should be treated in isolation. An educational system reflects the values and priorities o f the society it serves. It can rarely be more advanced than the general cultural matr ix which supports it. Interac- t i on between internal and external factors i s continual and, this inter- relationship should be borne in mind when the various factors are discussed in the fol lowing sections:

i ) Internal factors affecting drop-out. The primary school itself, i t s facilities, and pedagogical methods, a l l affect the childs learning experience and exert an influence upon retention or drop-out. In some countries, the facilities available are inadequate for t h e number of students who attend the schools. There are not enough schools, and within existing schools there are not enough benches, desks, or chalkboards t o mention only the most basic equipment. This i s particularly t rue o f many schools in the poorer nations of t h e region.

In some countries, there appear t o be enough schools, for example in Ind ia over 90 per cent o f her habitations have either the i r own primary school or primary section, or have one located within one kilometre.2 The problem i s that around one third are only one teacher schools, and few have actually one teacher for each primary grade, as Table 11 illustrates.

Table 11. Teachers per school in India in 1987 ~~~

Schools Percentage*

One-teacher 35

Two-teacher 27

Three-teacher 15

Four-teacher 8

Five-teacher 5

Six or more 9

* does not total 100 due to rounding

Source: India report this volume

As some states had only four primary grades, the actual provision of one teacher per grade i s slightly better than it appears. One teacher schools may be very good, particularly in situations where

21 See India report in th is volume.

13


there are few children and a wide variety of learning materials are available, and the teachers have been adequately trained for the purpose. The school situation then resembles an ungraded classroom, and the teacher becomes a resource person to all h i s or her pupils. Unfortunately, the best conditions for one teacher schools are rarely available and the need to change them has been recognized in Ind ia and in other countries also. The upgrading of many of the single teacher schools to accommodate a l l the primary school students seems a necessary condition in helping to prevent drop-out. I f there i s not even seating room for the children there i s l i t t le incentive for the chi ld t o attend. Provision o f suf f ic ient basic facilities would be a major factor in preventing drop-out.

Provision of basic physical facilities i s not enough. In addition, a sufficient number o f trained teachers must also be provided. Mem- ber countries acknowledge that number and quality o f the teaching force has an effect upon retention or drop-out of students. Strenuous efforts have been made t o overcome shortages, to provide in-service training, and to improve pre-service training. All the country reports in this volume stress the need for quality trained teachers to improve educational standards and to retain students in the schools. In Viet- Nam, for example, teachers are required to take in-service training in an effort to improve teacher quality. Table 12 shows most o f the primary level teachers were untrained in 1979 to 1980, thus the emphasis o n in-service training i s very practical.

Table 12. Number of Teachers and Percentage Trained in Vie Nam 11979 to 1980)

Level Number Percentage named ~~

Primary 21 7,473 13.7

Secondary 125,672 32.0

Senior High 30,492 73.0

Source: Wet Nam report in t h i s volume

Apart from inadequate facilities and poorly trained teachers, organizational practices within the school also have an impact o n drop-out or retention. Many countries do n o t automatically promote a child. In these countries, annual examinations are a wel l established feature and the chi ld who fails the examination i s not promoted, but

14

A regional overview

has t o repeat the grade. T h i s practice o f repetition i s dubious b o t h pedagogically and psychologically. Studies f rom many countries show that failure i s powerful inhibitor o f a childs educational attainment. In one study f rom Thailand, two-thirds o f drop-outs had been repeaters2? Similar findings may be quoted f rom other countries. Although the practice o f automatic progression through the grades i s no t free f rom problems, i t poses far less than those which resul t f rom repetition and it appears t o be a major factor in the elimination o f drop-out. I t i s significant that the educational systems of Malaysia and the Republic o f Korea have automatic promot ion and virtually n o drop-out at the primary level o f education.

The above three measures: provision o f sufficient schools and leaminglteaching materials and equipment, o f enough teachers who are adequately trained, and abolition o f repetition, are o f major importance in increasing the holding power o f the school and in preventing drop-out. Other measures used by many countries include primary education free o f fees payment, provision o f free textbooks and uniforms, and use o f the mother tongue as the medium o f instruction. In addition, it i s recognised that pre-schooling fo r the socially deprived chi ld may be a necessity in the drive t o prevent drop-out. The school situation and environment may b e so alien to the young chi ld that the chi ld does no t wish t o stay in it. Entering school brings conformity t o external ru les and conditions o f be- haviour which may be so wholly new that the chi ld i s unable t o adjust. A pre-school class or kindergarten would help t o prepare the chi ld for the formal school experience in grade I and help in the adjustment t o the discipline and needs o f a school routine. I t would also provide a headstart for the disadvantaged groups by improving in particular, the childs language and other cognitive s k i l l s before entering the f i rs t grade.

Exactly how far these measures affect retention o r drop-out i s unclear, as several countries which do provide some or all o f these measures s t i l l experience high drop-out. There i s a range o f factors external t o the educational system which also work on the chi ld and these external factors must be considered now.

ii) External factors affecting drop-out. The external factors are those within the childs socio-cultural milieu.Of these, the economic

~- ~ See ha il ami report in this volume 15

:it.? drop-out problem in primary education

and social condit ion o f the family i s the single most crucial variable affecting drop-out. AU the country reports in this volume bear out this fact, that drop-out i s greatest, o f children from poor and deprived sections o f society 2 ? Although many apparent external causes may be cited, such as parental illiteracy, malnutrition, parents land holding, rural or urban residence and so on, al l spring f rom the one main cause, the parental socio-economic condition. Many such parents have l i t t l e understanding o f the need t o enrol and ensure attendance o f their children, and such children become the f i r s t drop-outs. Moreover, in a situation o f extreme poverty where the family struggles at the margin o f survival, education has no im- mediate significance. The contr ibution o f the childs labour t o the family welfare i s the only reality.

The familys ethnic or social status also influences drop-out. Minor i ty groups o f l ow status have higher drop-out rates, as for example the Scheduled groups in India, the Muslim minorities o f Sri Lanka, and the ethnic minorities o f V iet Nam! Even in countries o f the region where the medium o f instruction in primary education i s in the mother tongue, for linguistic minorities, the need t o master a second language at a higher level may be a factor leading t o drop- out.

The childs age and sex also affect drop-out. In societies where less attention i s given t o women and girls, fewer girls enrol in school and more girls than boys drop out o f school as has been shown above. I f UPE were for boys only, it would be a fairly easy achievement for countries o f South Asia. In many o f those countries, enrolment of girls lags behing that o f boys. For instance, in Bangladesh, two mi l l ion less girls are enrolled at the primary level than boys: Lower percentages o f g i r ls enrolment may be cited f rom Nepal, Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan.

Many children o f the region enter school late. In grade I, children may be 7 , 8, 9, or even l O years o f age. In any grade, about 20 per cent o f the children w i l l have ages higher or lower than the supposed

23 Studies from Nepal, Philippines and Bangladesh also come to the same conclusion,

24 See reports in the volume 25

that the main cause of drop-out i s paiental poverty.

E. Sattar, op. cit., p.35

16

A regional overw'ew

norm for the grade. T h i s i s not in i t se l f particularly important, especially in an ungraded school where each chi ld progresses at h i s or her own rate. I t may be a factor in drop-out in many Asian schools because girls may be withdrawn from school at menarche and boys when they are strong enough t o help in the male agricultural tasks. A 12 year o ld who drops out o f grade III may n o t have acquired sufficient competencies t o stay literate. Had h e entered school at six years o ld h e might have been able t o complete the primary school cycle before he had t o leave school. The importance o f enrolling the chi ld at the correct age in order t o begin the primary school cycle, i s l i t t l e understood in most rural areas o f Asia.

'

Another major factor affecting bo th enrolment and drop-out i s geographical location. Mountainous areas experience higher drop-out rates, as do deltaic regions. Provision o f primary school and o f teachers in these regions can be very di f f icul t and travelling t o school poses a problem for many school attenders.

Health and general nutr i t ion o f the individual chi ld may affect drop-out also. I f a chi ld i s in poor health, school attendance may be affected, leading t o repetition or eventually drop-out. Even if a chi ld attends regularly, the chi ld may n o t be able t o give sufficient atten- t ion t o the chssroom situation because o f physical or mental fatigue due t o hunger or undernourishment. Children f rom poor homes do no t receive the nourishment they require and malnutr i t ion and stunting o f development, leading t o fatigue and poor concentration, probaby help t o determine eventual drop-out o f many poor children.

All the above factors, internal and external, act upon the child, upon enrolment and upon eventual completion o f the primary cycle or dropping out f rom it. Countries have evolved ways o f dealing with the provision o f primary education taking in to account, as far as possible, all the variables o f a given situation. The fol lowing reports upon some o f the measures Member States have taken t o reduce drop-out and upon several o f the methods being t r ied out.

Action to prevent drop-out

Most measures taken to prevent drop-out are indirect and part o f a wider scheme t o enhance attainment o f UPE. Practically n o data exists t o indicate which measures work best t o eliminate drop-out. All have been init iated with the intent ion o f enhancing the holding

17


power o f the school or o f persuading parents t o send and keep their chi ld in school. Five categories o f measures may be distinguished (i) organizational; (ii) pedagogical; (iii) incentives; (iv) community participation; and (v) non-formal approaches. These categories are n o t exclusive. They act together and interact upon the child, the school and society.

There i s also the possibility o f legal action. Compulsory attendance laws for the primary level o f education are in force in several countries o f the region. Implementation o f t h e law i s no t a necessary pre-requisite for attaining UPE. Malaysia, for instance, has attained UPE, but has no compulsory law. India, which has compulsory attendance laws in 16 States, has n o t been able t o enforce them2! The utility o f such a compulsory law probably l ies in the timing o f i t s passage in to law and the judiciousness o f i t s enforcement, which can be assessed only by each individual country.

i) Organizational measures. Automatic progression between grades, or continuous progression across the primary cycle, i s probably the single most important organizational action which may be taken t o prevent drop-out. Repetit ion makes classes far larger than they need be, discourages children who fai l t o be promoted, exacerbates problems o f late entrants, and ensures that most drop- outs quickly lapse t o illiteracy. Those Asian countries which have attained WE already have inst i tu ted automatic progression, as in the Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Japan. Pedagogical measures t o help children w i th learning difficulties t o enable them t o be promoted with the res t o f the class. are an essential concdmitant t o automatic progression.

In the Philippines, special placement tests have been worked out t o enable school drop-outs t o gain accreditation and return t o the formal school system and this i s a practical way t o encourage drop-outs t o complete their education? Easy re-entry o f drop-outs t o the education system implies an open system at all levels. Place- ment tests for accreditation would be useful at the primary level in many countries.

26 See Indian report in th is volume.

27 MO^ D W ~ O valisno, op. cit.,

18

A regional overuiew

Re-organization o f the grades within t h e primary school may also discourage drop-out, as shown by the Indian experience w i th the ungraded school in several areas. Evaluations have indicated en- couraging signs in terms o f reduction in drop-out rate, wastage and stagnation2! In t h i s system, the children work through learning materials at their own pace. The quicker students can receive enrichment activities and the students with particular learning problems may be given the individualized instruction they need. A variation o f this re-organization i s being tr ied out in Thailand with alternate year entrance, and thus two age-cohorts working together for two years in a combined 1 + 2, 3 + 4, and 5 + 6 grade??This has the added advant- age o f lessening the number o f teachers required in the school although t h e classes may become rather large.

ii) Pedagogicid measures. It has long been recognized that a highly qualified and trained teacher i s the preferred teacher at a l l educa- t ional levels. All Member States in the region have been paying much attention t o in-service training t o upgrade qualifications, and t o pre- service training t o ensure a more effective teaching force. Sex o f the teacher may be as important as training. Table 13 shows the female percentage o f the teaching force in several countries. At the primary level, female teachers are preferred in most countries, bo th for the i r gentle approach t o very young children and for the model they present to girls. Several countries with far fewer female than male teachers, do experience high drop-out, although no clear connection between t h e two has been established. Nor do trained teachers by themselves guarantee ei ther enrolment or retention. Levels o f trained teachers may be high, but drop-out may be high also. For instance, in Andhra Pradesh State o f India, 97 per cent o f the teachers are trained, but the State i s classified as one o f the educationally back- ward states! Bangladesh has 70 per cent o f i t s teaching force trained, but i t s drop-out rate i s equally high I The important factors are probably t h e educational level o f the teacher, the quality of pedagogical training imparted, and the working conditions in which the teacher must teach.

28 See Indian report in th is volume.

29 See Thailand report in th is volume in details.

30 See India report in this volume.

31 E. Sattar, op. cit.

19


A pedagogical measure o f significance i s the establishment of pre-primary schools, in particular t o give deprived rural and urban children a headstart t o the formal educational process. As a Malay- sian report states, much of the verbal and intellectual development of the chi ld upon which success depends, occurs during the pre-school years. Poor and illiterate parents, and isolated rura l environments, create an educational disadvantage prior t o school entry%? Enrichment activities in these schools, particularly in the area of language a r t s such as listening and speaking, will aid the children when they make the transition t o the formal primary grades. Such a school may be attached to the primary school itself, so that a five-year primary cycle becomes in fact six, by virtue of the pre-school class. It may be a separate institution, or it may b e organized in a non-formal manner and consist o f several small pre-schools clustered around the primary school. Whether government, private, formal or non-formal, these schools can provide a valuable experience for the children. Viet Nam and China have a wide network of these pre-primary and they are expanding, though mainly in urban centres, in all countries o f the region.

Teachers themselves have long recongnised the value o f such pre-school classes. In many areas o f South Asia where grade I enrolment i s very high, there i s a hidden pre-school class. Whenever possible, head masters o f large primary schools have designated one teacher for the pre-school class, knowing full well that the younger children were generally unable t o make t h e transition from home environment to grade I successfully. The f i r s t few months o f school are probably crucial t o the childs perceptions.

Those f i r s t months set the pattern. They establish either a desire t o continue, or an aversion to the school. As the Indian report in this volume states, children come for the first time and are faced with a new environment. I f they are introduced t o a school situation earlier, it will encourage them t o come t o the primary school. For this purpose, efforts should be made t o open pre-primary schools, particularly in rural areas, and support such schools which are already in existence.

32 See Malaysian report in t h i s volume.

33 See Viet Nam report in t h i s volume.

34 See India report in t h i s volume.

20

A regional overview

Table 13. Percentage of female teachers at primary level in selected countries

country Year Percentage

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Burma

China

India

Indonesia

Republic o f Korea

Malaysia

Nepal

Pakistan

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

1979

1981

1977

1980

1978

1978

1981

1981

1980

1979

1980

1978

1977

1979

19

8

48

37

27

37

39

46

10

33

80

60

46

64

Sowce: Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982. op. cit. p.III 108-1 11

Annual examinations have long been used as a means of promot ion in Asian schools. Abolishing the annual examination at the primary level will remove much stress and strain f rom the system, both for the chi ld and for the teacher. With a system of automatic promotion, the annual examination i s superfluous. It i s preferable to institute a system of continuous criterion-referenced evaluation, so that learning problems and difficulties are detected early and the child i s helped to overcome these, rather than ignoring problems and failing the chi ld at the examination. The primary level o f education should require mastery of ski l ls, not competitive attainment in an annual examination. Improvement of teaching methods and materials i s a factor which also may have some bearing on drop-out. In the Philippines, use of individualized learning modules in such experimental projects as Project Impact, has had an appreciable success o n enrolment and retention of children.

i) Incentives. As a means to encourage enrolment of children at the primary level and to attain UPE, varying incentives have been used in almost all countries of the region over the past t w o decades. These have taken the fo rm of free education, provision of textbooks,

21


provision of mid-day meals, clothes and scholarships? Bangladesh abolished fees a t the primary level in the early 1970s, and in the 1980s, has introduced free textbooks and some uniforms to poor girl students as incentives t o enrolment. More wealthy countries, such as Malaysia, provide free medical and dental care.

There i s l i t t le data available which show actual decline in drop- out as a direct consequence of the introduction o f any o f these measures. All, however, were introduced t o bene f i t t he poorest and most deprived sections o f society, and it i s assumed that they have had an impact upon the increased enrolment and retention rates over the past two decades. I t i s noteworthy that the Indian State of Kerala provides over 90 per cent of primary school children with textbooks, uniforms, and meals. The drop-out rate in Kerala i s only 6 pe r cent while in al l other Ind ian States it i s in excess of 50 per cent '!On the other hand evidence from Tamil Nadu, a neighbouring State, showed that the midday meal alone may no t be a sufficient incentive. One study found that 64 per cent o f drop-outs had been receiving a midday meal9'While there may be other factors accounting fo r Kerala's success or for the lack o f success in Tamil Nadu, the widespread provision of incentives i s assumed t o have been significant, but t o what extent i s unknown.

Free or subsidised transportation facilities may be necessary t o enable children t o attend school in sparsely populated areas, o r in regions of dif f icult terrain. Where the primary level terminates at grade I V in rural schools, transportation for the students to more distant schools for grades V and VI may be necessary. Thailand has init iated a project t o provide students with bicycles for j u s t t h i s purpose 'B

iv) Community participation. Involving the community in primary level education may be a means of enhancing enrolment and preventing drop-out. When parents are active in the educational process, it i s more l ikely that their children will stay in school. Community participation may range f rom the establishment o f a parent-teacher

35 See reports in this volume

36 See India report in this volume

37 See K. Venkata Subramania op. cit. p.58

38 See Thaiiand report in this volume.

22

A regional overm'ew

association and school open days, t o actually bui lding a school. In China and in Vie t Nam, many communities donated a building or provided land and labour t o build sch0ols.3~ In the Meher WE project in Bangladesh4: and in the Pamong project in Indonesia4; any village structure may be utilized for a school. In the former project, also, the community built over one dozen schools.

In some cases, the community needs educating about the importance o f education, especially o f girls. T h i s may be done by the mass media, by pol i t ical parties, by district administration, fo lk media, and by the teachers themselves. Involving the community in primary education may enable governments t o share t h e costs with the community. T h i s may be particularly important in highly populous countries where provision o f basic facilities might be pro- hibitively expensive i f the usual .formal model i s followed.

v) Non-formal measures. Many new models are being investigated at the primary level in the region, usually involving a non-formal component, either o n a supplementary or a complementary basis. In the formal model, non-formal programmes using community resources are applied at one or two grades of the primary level and the children are than sent on t o the formal school. The non-formal component supplements the formal school. T h i s has been successfully done o n a small scale in the models in Bangladesh and Indonesia cited above. In India, many programmes use such non-formal com- ponents especially t o reach the deprived and disadvantaged groups. The DACEP and CAPE projects discussed in the India report are examples o f this. In Pakistan mosque schools are used t o supplement the formal system in areas where schools are scarce. T h i s has been considered a viable model and during 1978-1983,?2 8200 mosque schools were in existence, taking in grades 1-111, and thus reducing overcrowding in the existing primary schools for grades I V and V.43

39 See China and Viet Nam papers in this report.

40 E. Sattar, op. cif. chapter 9

41 The Pamong Primary School System in APEID, Universalizing Educafion: Linking

42 Sixth Four Year Plan, 1983/84-1987/88, Planning Cornmussion, Government of

43 Government of Pakistan, Finance Division. Pakistan Economic Survey, 1982-83,

Formal and Non-Formal Programmes, Bangkok, UNESCO, 1919, p. 11-20.

Pakistan, (Part IV).

p. 181.

23


Other countries have used non-formal programmes t o impart primary education. The Republic of Korea, China and Burma have used primary level evening schools. Such aspects o f primary education usually held outside the formal system, use non-professionals as teachers, although teachers may be used also, as in the CAPE project, either for direct teaching, or as supervisors. The CAPE project has as one o f i t s objectives to develop a non-formal system o f education as an alternative t o formal schooling. In this project the aim i s t o give accreditation to the children so that they may either enter the formal school system or continue on another training track using their accreditation for entrance.

Complementary programmes may utilize school premises or school teachers, but do so in a manner which i s quite separate t o the formal system. They aim t o give the chi ld a primary school education but in a manner which s u i t s h i s l i fe circumstances. In Madhya Pradesh State in India, the primary school course has been condensed in to two years, consisting of 18 graded uni,.s. The child can attend the course at the non-formal education centre and do h i s j ob at the same time 4?

The UCEP scheme in Bangladesh i s similar, with a school day consisting of two hour shifts, six days a week. These models have simplified and condensed the primary school course and have provided a flexible structure in to which t h e chi ld can fit h i s time. They are suitable for the older drop-out o f 9-11 years or for t h e older child who never enrolled. The older age level enables the child t o pass rapidly through t h e primary learning sequence and quickly attain the necessary ski l ls. The shortened school day enables him t o give time to the process o f earning his living at the same time.

These and other new ideas are bound t o increase over t h e next decade, particularly in the highly populated countries in t h e region. Non-formal education at the primary level will become a viable and practical supplement t o the formal system. Such a system may place stress in one o f several ways. As a supplement t o the formal system, the non-formal approach would enhance the efficiency o f the formal system and thereby help t o reduce drop-out. As a complementary system, the non-formal system, usually in a shortened learning cycle, would be concerned with minimum learning

44 See India reports in th is volume

24

A regional overview

competencies rather than the complete primary curriculum. In t h i s way the non-formal system would be helping to attain basic education for all.

Conclusions. The Asian region presents a scene o f wide diversity between countries, and even within countries, with respect to repetition and drop-out during the primary education cycle. Repetit ion and drop-out are main indices of wastage. While drop-out prevails in a country, i t cannot reach UPE. There i s so much variation between countries and within countries, that general observations are extremely dif f icult t o make. Added t o this i s t h e dearth o f comprehensive data o n drop-outs. What i s available comes usually f rom samples or case studies and l i t t le up-to-date data i s available. The country reports presented in t h i s volume serve to point up the data gaps for the rest of the region.

In general, countries with high drop-out rates have high repetition rates, inadequate school provision, low female enrolment, and disparities of drop-out between urban and rural children. The issue of girls enrolment and retention i s particularly crucial for UPE. The low enrolment o f girls depresses the to ta l enrolment rate. Girls drop-out rates, usually slightly higher for girls, especially in South and West Asia, further depletes the number of girls attending school, with adverse consequences for female literacy rates, and fo r the re- cruitment of female teachers.

High repetit ion and high drop-out rates are usually in the early grades of school. Patterns different from this are due t o exceptional circumstances. I t i s clear that the war on drop-out will be lost or won in the lower grades, particularly grade I. T h i s fact calls for careful attention t o the grade I school environment, the physical setting, teachers, and learninglteaching materials. This underlines the need for extensive pre-school classes especially for the rural poor and the deprived and disadvantaged groups of children of a l l localities.

Utilising both community resources and non-formal education, consolidation of the present school system and improvement of i t s efficiency i s possible, with consequent reduction in drop-out rates. There i s need for continuous investigation in this area, to explore newer pathways to solve the problem. Uti l izat ion of community resources i s hardly tapped except in very few countries in the region, but the potential i s great.

25


There i s n o one single o r simple answer to the problem of drop-out. There are many desirable measures which may be taken t o enhance the holding power o f the school, but their effectiveness and importance will vary according t o numerous socio-cultural factors. Both the 196745 and the 198046 Unsco surveys found l i t t le correlation between wastage and selected socio-economic indicators. The rather more complex 1980 analysis concluded that while drop-out wos more closely related t o overall economic, educa- t ional and demographic factors, repetition seemed more related t o fact ors within the educational system.

When the primary cycle i s over long or too short it can be changed. For instance Thailand shortened i t s primary cycle fr2m seven t o six years in 197g4? In India, some states count the f i r s t five years as the primary cycle and some count only the f i r s t four, leading n o t only t o some overall statistical confusion about what constitutes the primary level, but probably also contributing t o the drop-out rate at grade IV4? In the Philippines also, rural schools that end the primary level at grade I V probably account for part o f the drop-out rate observed there? Lengthening the primary cycle by one year may be helpful t o upgrade the quality o f literacy reten- t ion and o f primary education in general. Upgrading o f incomplete schools must be done also. One or two-teacher schools are mostly inadequate for the attainment o f UPE and elimination o f drop-out.

In some cases, shortening the school day may b e useful in preventing drop-out. In the large urban slums, a school day o f only two t o three hours i s far more attractive t o working children than one o f five or six hours. In some p i lo t projects, a two-hour school day enables street children t o gain an education, while at the same t ime n o t neglecting t o earn their own livelihood !

45 Unesco Bulletin Vol. 1. No.2. op. cit.

46 Unesco Wastage at Prnnav and General Secondas, Education, op. cit.

47 Ibid. p. 134-135.

48 See Thaiiand report in this volume.

49 See Indian report in this volume.

MOM Dumlao Valisno. op. cit., p. 43

51 For example, Underprivileged Childrens Educational Project (UCEP) in Bangladesh. E. Sattar. op. cif., p.105-107.

26

A regional overziew

Shortening the school cycle from five to two years for older students may be a way o f imparting primary education t o them and preventing drop-out. For the late entrant to the primary sthool, a shortened primary cycle would b e more attractive than being placed in the beginning grade with very much younger children.

From very l imi ted data presented here, there appears to be a strong link between repetit ion and drop-out with repetit ion pre- disposing children towards eventual drop-out. As it would b e easier t o improve internal conditions inducive of wastage than external ones, i t seems that one way to prevent drop-out would be t o tackle f i r s t the problem o f repetition. Measures taken to abolish repetit ion and t o improve the holding power and attractiveness of t h e school might be an indirect way of helping to reduce drop-out also. For children of the poor and disadvantaged groups, the onus should surely be o n the school t o help them stay in the system and complete the primary cycle.

There are n o clear cut answers. However, in the region as a whole, much progress has been made between 1960 and 1980 with respect t o increased enrolment ratios, increased retention, decreased drop-out rates and decreased rates of repetition. During t h i s time, several countries have increased enrolment t o 95 per cent o r more of the primary school age-group, and retention to the end of the primary cycle o f 100 per cent. These countries include Malaysia, Singapore, and the Republic of Korea.

Another group o f countries enrol 90 to 100 per cent o f their students but experience drop-out during the primary level. These countries are the Philippines, S r i Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma and Viet Nam.

The third group which comprises Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh, enrol less than 90 per cent. o f their age-group and they experience high drop-out rates usually in excess o f 50 per cent. As compared with 1960 however, these countries have also improved their position.

In the push for WE, the elimination of drop-out i s possibly the most vital factor. As H.M. Phillips stated, in h i s comprehensive world survey, the greatest single quantitative contr ibution t o be made would be to eliminate drop-out:? I t the schools could retain al l those who enrol, the boost to the literacy rate would be significant

52 H.M. Phillips. Basic Education : A World Challenge. London, John Wiley, 1975. p. 142.

27


and the efficiency of the school system greatly enhanced. Unfortunate- le drop-out occurs, even in those countries with fair ly high literacy rates, while the problem in those with literacy rates less than 40 per cent i s severe.

In general, factors affecting drop-out, both those internal as wel l as external to the educational system are wel l known. The importance of these factors will vary between countries and between regions within the countries. The use of more incentives needs con- sideration, and continued encouragement should be given to disadvantaged groups especially to the very poor and to girls. Involvement of the community in the primary educational process has hardly be- gun, but several experimental models illustrate ways of community participation. In the same way, non-formal structures and approaches may be extended to supplement the existing formal primary school system.

Measures taken need not be costly. Structural reorganization i s almost cost free and yet can be effective. Automatic promotion to abolish repetit ion i s not an expensive measure, particularly if skilled community persons are used to help children overcome difficulties and keep up with their grade level. Tapping community resources may be the most cost-effective measure and also the most educationally rewarding, particularly in provision of basic educational in- frastructure. The measures are not simple, but given the polit ical and administrative will to eliminate drop-out in the drive for UPE, much can be accomplished to bring equality of opportunity to every chi ld who enrols, as experiences of the countries reported here illustrate.

28

SHAANXI PROVINCE, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Introduction

During the period from July t o October 1983, the Shaanxi Pedagogical Ins t i tu te made an inquiry in to the question o f drop-out in the primary schools in the rural areas o f Huxian County, Shaanxi Province, w i th a view t o studying the effect o f the policy, orientation and measures adopted in primary education in the countryside.

The survey covered the population, natural resources, economic development and educational facilities o f the Huxian County, and attempted to investigate the actual situation of the schoolage children and the 3 13 primary schools o f the whole county.

The findings show that, relying on the superior socialist system and under the leadership o f the County Committee o f the Communist Party o f China, the vast number o f educators and the broad masses of t h e people o f Huxian County have achieved universal primary education in the county after hard work over a period o f more than 30 years, and especially in the recent five years.

The enrolment in the primary schools has reached 70,922, which i s 15.1 per cent o f the total population. The average enrolment rate i s over 98 per cent in the past five years, t h e stable enrolment rate being maintained at 97 per cent. T h e rate o f drop-out has been reduced t o 1.04 per cent and the rate o f graduation has reached 88.8 per cent.

The universalization o f primary education in Huxian County shows that although the development of education i s naturally gov- erned by economic growth, it is, at the same time, affected by polit ical and other factors.

The survey covers the following aspects:

- A Brief View o f Huxian County - Educational Development in Huxian County, a Historical

Review

- Sampling Analysis o f Drop-out in Huxian Primary Schools

29


- Measures Taken t o Reduce Drop-out in Huxian County

- Huxian Countys Experience in Universal Primary Educa- t ion

- Thoughts o n the Countys Education in Future

A brief view of Huxian County

Huxian County i s situated in the middle o f Guanzhong Plain, about 40 kilometres from t h e provincial capital, the ancient c i ty o f Xian. It has a total area of ,255 square kilometres, including a mountainous area of 704 square kilometres. T h e whole county consists o f twenty-three communes and towns, including two mountain communes, with a total population o f 469,550 in 94,944 households. The agricultural population i s 41 8,850, in 86,990 households.

Being endowed with favourable natural conditions, fer t i le land, mild climate and r ich resources, the county i s often known as Silver Huxian.

Huxian County i s now one o f the grain and cotton base areas of Shaanxi Province. The main cereal crops are wheat, rice and maize, while t h e industrial crops include cotton, rape, peanuts, cayenne pepper and garlic. According to the recent data there are such mineral resources as gold, copper, iron, quartz, marble, l ime- stone, graphite, asbestos, talcum, dolomite and red feldspar.

Since t h e Third Plenary Session of t h e Eleventh Central Com- mi t tee o f the Communist Party o f China, the economic development o f the county has been gaining impetus. In 1982, the gross industrial and agricultural output value o f the county topped 200 mil l ion yuan, surpassing all previous records.

As the economic situation improved, it has provided increased material assurances for educational development. N o w the county has 375 middle and primary schools, among which there are 13 senior middle schools and regular middle schools, 27 junior middle schools, four agricultural schools, 258 regular primary schools (including 42 primary schools with junior middle school classes attached),, and 73 lower primary schools. There are also one teachers training school and one kindergarten run by the county.

* Approximately 1.Y8 Chinese Yuan ( y ) =One United States dollar. 30

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The total enrolment o f the middle and primary schools i s 106,278, among which there are 7,173 senior middle school students, 27,668 junior middle school students, 515 agricultural school students and 70,922 pupils. The number o f teaching and administrative staff o f middle and primary schools i s 5,564, o f which 2,606 are in middle schools and 2,929 in primary schools. The enrolment o f students has increased by 5 1 per cent and the number o f teaching and administrative staff by 280 per cent, as compared with the respective figures o f 1965. Since the restoration o f the college entrance examination in 1977, 4,954 new students have been sent t o institutions o f higher education and specialized secondary schools, f rom Huxian County.

Educational development in Huxian County: A historical review

In the Qing Dynasty, the l iterati pursued their studies in academies o f classical learning or o ld style private schools, and scholars were selected for the officialdom through the imperial examination system. Towards the end o f the Qing Dynasty, some forms o f innovations in education were initiated, with the resul t that the imperial examination system was abolished and Westernized schools were set up. After the Revolution o f 1911, education in such types o f schools spread gradually.

In the last years o f the Qing Dynasty, t h e academy o f classical learning in Huxian County, i.e., Mingdao Academy, was closed, and a higher primary school w a s set up in i t s place. Later, it was named the First County Higher Primary School. This was the earliest new type school founded in Huxian County.

Under the sponsorship o f the Chinese patriots, educational undertakings made much headway in Huxian County. By 1933, there were already t e n higher primary schools and 235 lower p i - mary schools in the county. Nevertheless, as the labouring people were living in poverty, none o f them could af ford t o send their children t o school. I t was only those from the well-to-do families who could get an education. Until 1949, the enrolment rate o f school-aged children w a s s t i l l below 30 per cent.

After the founding o f the Peoples Republic o f China, t h e Chinese Communist Party and the Peoples Government paid great attention t o cultural emancipation o f the labouring people and their childrens r ight t o receive an education. They no t only organized numerous learn-to-read classes t o wipe out ill iteracy among t h e

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young men and women, but also exerted al l efforts to make primary education universal. By 1955, the enrolment rate of the primary schools in Huxian County had already risen t o 70 per cent. In 1958, the number o f pupils in the primary schools reached 45,333, an increase of 15,792 over that of 1956, and the enrolment rate increased to 97 per cent. During the period o f the temporary difficulties for three years (1960-1962), the enrolment rate dropped. From the Period o f Readjustment till 1965, the county set up 341 part-farming and part-study schools, in addition t o the 94 regular primary schools and 233 lower primary schools. The number of pupils rose again t o 59,354, and the enrolment rate returned to 97 per cent.

During the ten years of great disturbances, o f the Cultural Revolution, the steadily developing national economy suffered serious setbacks and the newly flourishing educational undertakings were also affected. The state-paid teachers of the county were sent t o the countryside t o do manual labour. The part-farming and part-study schools were closed down, and the school-houses, furniture, books, teaching apparatus and other facilities were neglected. Some classes were given in mills or o n stages. Earthen platforms and wooden boards of ten served as tables or benches. Some students brought their own stools and did the writing sn thei r laps. School administra- t ion w a s chaotic. In 1972, the statistics showed that the enrolment rate o f the school-age children of the whole county was only 88 per cent, while the drop-out rate was around 10 per cent.

In 1976, the Bureau o f Education o f Huxian County spent a year consolidating the 375 middle and primary schools in the county. The Bureau appointed headmasters and deans for the 261 regular primary schools and sent senior teachers t o the 91 lower primary schools. Teachers f rom state-run schools were required t o register anew, and their qualifications checked. Teachers in schools run by local people were subjected t o a comprehensive examination concerning their cultural level, teaching experience and state of health. 480 unqualified teachers were dismissed. Files were established for teachers in schools run by local people, and the teachers were issued certificates of appointment or probation. T h i s has laid a good foundation for universal primary education.

The Bureau also urged al l the schools t o check school property and accounts and established a rational system of administration. The teachers and students were called upon t o mend school walls,

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tidy up the school yards and repair the desks and benches. The teachers were encouraged to take initiatives in teaching, and the students, to study diligently. The state of disorder in the schools w a s completely changed.

After t h e National Conference o n Educational Work held in 1978, the Party Committee and the Peoples Government o f Huxian County studied the documents of the conference in earnest, reviewed the educational work, summed up their experience, drew lessons from the past, and applied these to the current situation. They speeded up the elimination of ill iteracy andset about establishing universal primary education. Af ter five years of assiduous effort, remarkable success has been achieved. I l l i teracy has been wiped out among most of the young men and women, and primary education has been made nearly universal.

Sampling analysis of drop-out

Raising the stable enrolment rate and reducing the drop-out rate i s the key t o universal primary education. The Bureau of Educa- tion o f Huxian County has made it a r u l e t o check the drop-out in primary schools, analyse the causes, and adopt appropriate measures at the beginning and the end of each school term. T h i s has been car- r ied out every year with perseverance. An extensive inquiry about drop-outs in the 3 13 primary schools of the whole county was made in July 1983.

Table 1. Drop-out at the various grades m primary schools, Huxian County (School 1982-1983)

Item Total No. No. of Dropout Drop-out NO. of Rate

Grade Pupils Total Boys Girls (per cent)

Grade I 13271 92 50 42 0.63

Grade U 12783 66 27 39 0.52

Grade iI1 14347 140 47 93 0.97

Grade iV 16273 237 104 133 1.30

Grade V 14248 207 91 116 1.45

Total 70922 742 322 420 1.04

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Table 1 shows that the number of female drop-outs i s larger than that of males, and the number for the higher grades exceeds that for t h e lower grades. The reason i s that people do not pay much attention to girls schooling owing to t h e influence o f the remnant feudalistic ideology. This has i t s historical and social roots. In Old China, the traditional concept was: Ignorance i s a virtue of women. As girls were t o get married sooner or later, very few o f them went to school. Although more than 30 years have elapsed since liberation, some people have not yet freed themselves from the feudal ideological yoke o f regarding men as supeior t o women.

The different situations in the mountain area and the plains district have also been examined.

Table 2 shows that the drop-out rate in the mountain area i s higher than that in the plains district. According to statistics of recent years, t h e enrolment rate in the mountain area i s about 5 per cent lower than that in the plains district. Statistics of drop-outs f rom t h e well-off suburb commune, the Shijing Commune, which i s economically a l i t t le below the average, and t h e relatively poor Taping Commune in the Qinling Mountains, have also been analyzed.

The statistics in Table 3 show that the drop-out rate in the well developed area i s relatively l o w compared to the others. T h e economic conditions o f t h e three communes are shown in Table 4.

From the above figures t h e higher the pupils grade i s and the older the pupils grow, the higher the drop-out rate becomes. T h i s i s the consequence brought about by t h e traditional contempt for education. This way o f thinking, comes f rom the influence of the self- sufficient small scale peasant economy. China has had a long period o f feudal society o f over 2,000 years, in which the self-sufficient small scale peqsant economy occupied a dominant position. One of the characteristics o f this economy i s reflected in the saying: Men are to plough and women t o weave. People acquired the knowledge they needed in their daily l i fe and production f rom t h e simple experience o f their fore-fathers, without resorting t o culture and education. T h i s mode o f production and way o f living served to mou ld their views on knowledge and education. Such remnant influences can s t i l l b e observed today. Short-sighted parents l e t their school children help in household and farm chores so as to add a l i t t le t o t h e family earnings, without thinking of the future.

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in Zu-an Commune, there are .35 pupil drop-outs (accounting fo r 0.8 per cent of the to ta l number of pupils of the commune), of whom 17 (49 per cent of the drop-outs) serve as family auxiliary labourers. The situation i s more or less the same with Songcun Commune and Pangguang Commune.

Table 5 gives i s an analysis of pupil drop-out in Zu-an Com- mune, Songcun Commune and Pangguang.

With regard to sex, the number o f drop-out girls i s larger than that of boys; as to locality difference, the drop-out rate in the mountain area i s higher than in the plains; so far as the economic condi- .tions are concerned, the ra.te in underdeveloped areas exceeds that in well-developed areas; and in respect of age and grade, the number in the higher grades i s above that in the lower grades. Pupils leave school more often because of financial difficulties or lack of labour force in the family, than for other reasons.

Huxian County i s one o f the counties in Shaanxi Province and in the Northwest, whose educational undertakings has developed fairly rapidly, and hence the question o f pupil drop-out i s no t very serious. But if positive preventive measures are not taken, new illiterates will certainly appear. in view o f this, a t the beginning of the fa l l term th i s year, the County Bureau o f Education organized an inspec- t ion team to find out how al l the schools undertook to get the school-agers enrolled in the new term.

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Measures taken to reduce the drop-out rate

a) Developmenel motivation. After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party o f China, the economic system in the countryside in Huxian County changed a great deal. The agricultural economy developed quickly with the practice of various systems of production. The economy thrived and the peasnts grew rich. Presently, agriculture i s in a period o f transition from the traditional t o the modem production practices. Peasants have come to realize that the past experience in production, handed down from older generations, and the conventional farming methods can hardly fit in with the needs of developing rura l agriculture. The broad masses of the peasants earnestly demand better education, the training o f qualified and talented persons, and scientific farming experiments.

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Cadres at the county level said that reports o n scientific farming and diversified economy organized in the county were most welcome. Al l the peasants who had some schooling were eager t o consult this kind of report, as wel l as materials o n science and technology in agriculture. Statistics show that 16 training sessions on science and technology were organized by the departments concerned in the county in 1982, totalling more than 23,600 (person - time). The above figures suggest that peasants have a bet ter understanding of the importance of intelligence investment. They were n o t satisfied with the conditions o f t h e existent primary schools where boys at earthen desks became dusty toys after class hours.

b) improving school facilities. There was a great deal o f mass support for improving education, both by the collective and by individuals. In four years time, the problem has been solved. Con- tributions have been made by the State, with t h e collective making- up o f remaining amount from the local school funds. Thus, classrooms, desks and other school facilities are now, by and large, sufficient. Necessary funds were guaranteed t o provide for universal elementary education and help lower the rate o f dropouts.

During t h e four years f rom 1979 to 1982, t h e people of Huxian County invested over 6,380,000 yuan in increasing school facilities, out of which a s u p i of approximately 4,800,000 was from collective capital, including t h e conversion o f labour power and bui lding materials. I t was about 75 per cent o f the total investment, averaging 12 yuan per head o n the basis o f the local rural population. They built 3,401 bays o f new classrooms, with a total f loor space of 33.3 per cent o f the figure pr ior t o 1979. Most o f the new classroom buildings are of br ick and timber construction. The length, width and daylighting of these classrooms generally are in accordance with the teaching requirements. They also repaired and rebuilt 2,6 16 bays o f o ld classrooms. T h e f loor space o f al l t h e new classrooms and the repaired or rebui l t ones i s 47.per cent o f the total space. In t h e meantime, they bought and repaired 33,236 sets o f desks and benches, or 60 per cent o f the total number existent presently in the whole county. Now, there i s n o bui lding considered as dangerous in 90 per cent o f the county schools; every class has i t s own classroom; 98 per cent o f the pupils have wooden desks and benches; teachers have office and bedroom in one, and wri t ing tables, chairs and beds t o furnish their rooms; 85 per cent o f schools there have their school signs, gates, walls, gardens *and sports ground; 70 per cent o f the

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