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Argonne National Laboratory, with facilities in the states of Illinois and Idaho, is owned by the United States government, and operated by The University of Chicago under the provisions of a contract with the Department of Energy.

- DISCLAIMERS-, This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

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ANL-88-26 Corrected

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY 9700 South Cass Avenue Argonne, Illinois 60439

OPERATIONAL HEAFTH PHYSICS TRAINING

bY

H. J. Moe

Environment, Safety, and Health Division

E. J. Vallario DOE Project Manager

June 1992

/ ANL-88-26

DE89 OO&-- '

Prepared for the U. S. Department of Energy

Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health

FOREWORD

For many years the Radiation Safety Technician Training Manual, ANL-7291

(affectionately referred to as the "Moe Handbook"), has provided the basis for

technician training throughout the nuclear industry. Though a sound document,

changes in radiation protection standards and measurement technology since its

publication in the early 1970's suggested that a revision would be timely.

Due to our keen interest in radiation protection training, the Office of

Nuclear Safety, U.S. Department of Energy, was pleased to provide support for

such a revision. The end result, Operational Health Physics Training, should

provide a useful reference for applied health physicists and technician

training courses for years to come.

We want to express our sincere appreciation to' Harold Moe for his dedicated

efforts in the revision to this document. It is truly a contribution to the

,

nuclear industry.

Acting Director Radiological Controls Division Office of Nuclear Safety

.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT........................... xxviii

SECTION 1 - BASIC INFORMATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l

A. Atomic Structure. ................. l-l B. Ionization. .................... l-6 C. Isotopes, Nuclides, Isobars ............ l-8 D. Particle Dynamics ................. l-9 E. Work and Energy .................. l-10 F. Charged Particles ................. l-11 G. Relativistic Corrections. ............. l-16 H. Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field. ....... l-17

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-19

SECTION 2 - RADIOACTIVITY AND ITS PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . 2-l

A. Early History ................... 2-l B. Radioactive Transformations ............ 2-3 C. DecayLaw ..................... 2-10 D. Half Life and Mean Life .............. 2-14 E. Activity Units. .................. 2-16 F. Specific Activity ................. 2-18 G. Decay Chains. ................... 2-19 H. Decay Curve of a Mixture. ............. 2-22

REFERENCES ....................... 2-25 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ..................... 2-26

SECTION 3 - PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA, X RAYS, ANDNEUTRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Alpha Particles .................. 3-l 1. Specific Energy Loss ............. 3-2 2. Stopping Power ................ 3-5 3. Range ..................... 3-6 4. Relative Hazard. ............... 3-8

B. Beta Particles. .................. 3-8 1. Specific Energy Loss ............. 3-10 2. Stopping Power ................ 3-11 3. Radiation Production . Bremsstrahlung. .... 3-12 4. Range ..................... 3-15 5. Exponential E-particle Absorption. ...... 3-16 6. Relative Hazard. ............... 3-17

C. Wave Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

3-l

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS - (cont'd.)

Page

D. Electromagnetic Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19

E. X and Gamma Radiation. ................ 3-22 1. Interactions with Matter ............. 3-26 2. Photoelectric Effect ............... 3-27 3. Compton Effect .................. 3-31 4. Pair Production. ................. 3-33 5. Absorption of X and Gamma Rays .......... 3-34 6. Half Value Layer-Tenth Value Layer ........ 3-38 7. Mean Free Path .................. 3-39 8.pen/p .................. 3-40 9. Buildup Factor .................. 3-42

10. Relative Hazard. ................. 3-42

F. Neutrons ....................... 3-43 1. Sources of Neutrons. ............... 3-44 2. Neutron Energy .................. 3-46 3. Interactions with Matter ............. 3-47 4. Cross Sections .................. 3-51 5. Neutron Absorption ................ 3-53 6. Removal Cross Section (pR/p) ...... 3-55 7. Neutron Activation ................ 3-57 8. Relative Hazard. ................. 3-60

REFERENCES ......................... 3-61 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 3-62

SECTION 4 - CONCEPTS OF RADIATION QUANTITIES AND APPROACHES TO DOSEDETERMINATIONS.................. 4-1

A. Definition of Terms. ................. 4-l 1. Mean Energy Imparted, dT-. ........... 4-1 2. Absorbed Dose. .................. 4-l 3.Kerma ....................... 4-2 4.Exposure ..................... 4-4 5. Dose Equivalent. ................. 4-5

B. Quality Factor .................... 4-6 C. Exposure ....................... 4-8 D. Exposure Rate - Isotropic Point Source ........ 4-9 E. Exposure Rate - Fluence Rate ............. 4-14 F. Exposure - Kerma in Air Relationship ......... 4-14

Vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS - (cont'd.)

G. Absorbed Dose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

H. Absorbed Dose Rate - Isotropic Point Source of Photons 4-17 I. Absorbed Dose Rate - Fluence Rate of Photons . . . . . 4-19 J. Absorbed Dose Rate - Isotropic Point Source-Alpha

and Beta Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19 K. Absorbed Dose Rate - Fluence Rate of Particles . . . . 4-22

L. Absorbed Dose and Kerma for Neutrons . . . . . . . . . 4-22

M. Neutron Dose Equivalent. . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . 4-25

REFERENCES ......................... 4-27

BIBLIOGRAPHY. ........................ 4-29

SECTION 5 - BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND RISKS OF RADIATION. . . . . . . 5-l

A. The Cell - Basic Unit of Structure .......... 5-l B. Radiosensitivity ................... 5-4 C. Radiation Damage ................... 5-4

D. Factors Influencing Radiation Effects. ........ 5-5 1. Individual Sensitivity - Dose-Effect Curve .... 5-6 2. Type of Radiation. ................ 5-7 3. Absorbed Dose. .................. 5-9 4. Time Distribution or Fractionation ........ 5-10 5. Dose Distribution. ................ 5-10 6. Age at Irradiation ................ 5-10

E. Early Somatic Effects - Acute Radiation Syndrome . . . 5-11

F. Late Somatic Effects ................. 5-12 1. Cancers ...................... 5-12 2. Tissue Effects .................. 5-14 3. Life-Span. .................... 5-14 4. Growth and Development ............... 5-14

G. Hereditary Effects .................. 5-15 H. Stochastic and Nonstochastic Effects - Risk. ..... 5-16

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS - (continued)

I. Biological Responses of Specific Organs. ....... 5-18 1. Blood and Bone Marrow. .............. 5-18 2. Lymphatic System ................. 5-20 3. Digestive Tract (GI Tract) ............ 5-20 4. Reproductive Organs. ............... 5-21 5. Nervous System .................. 5-21 6. Thyroid Gland. .................. 5-22 7. Eyes ....................... 5-23 8.Lungs ....................... 5-24 9. Liver and Gall Bladder .............. 5-24

10. Kidneys. ..................... 5-25 11. Circulatory System ................ 5-25 12.Skin ....................... 5-25 13.Hair ....................... 5-26 14.Bones ....................... 5-26 15.Muscle ...................... 5-27 16.Breast ...................... 5-27

REFERENCES ......................... 5-27 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ....................... 5-28

SECTION 6 - BACKGROUND RADIATION AND MAN-MADE CONTRIBUTIONS. . . . 6-l

A. Cosmic Radiation ................... 6-2 B. Radioactivity of the Earth .............. 6-4 C. Radioactivity of Air ................. 6-5 D. Radioactivity of Water ................ 6-6 E. Radioactivity of the Human Body. ........... 6-7

F. Fallout. ....................... 6-8 1. Production of Fallout. .............. 6-9 2. Effects of World-Wide Fallout. .......... 6-11

G. Nuclear Facilities .................. 6-12 H. Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources. ..... 6-12 I. Medical and Dental Exposures ............. 6-13

REFERENCES ......................... 6-14 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ....................... 6-14

ix


SECTION 7 - RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS. . . . . . . . . . . . 7-l

A. History of Protection Standards ......... . . 7-l 1. Erythema Dose ................ . . 7-2 2. ICRU, ICRP, and NCRP. ............ . . 7-2

B. Radiation Exposure Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4

C. ICRP Basic Recommendations. ........... 1. Justification ................ 2. Optimization. ................

ba: Application to Protection Measures ... ALARAProgram. ............. 1) Education and Training. ...... 2) Design Considerations ....... 3) Operational Health Physics Program.

3. Dose Limits .................

ba: Occupational Limits. .......... Members of the Public. .........

D. Federal Policy on Radiation Matters ....... . . 7-16 E. Regulating Agencies ............... . . 7-17

REFERENCES. ...................... . . 7-19 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ..................... . . 7-22

SECTION 8

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

. . 7-6

. . 7-7

. . 7-7

. . 7-8

. . 7-10

. . 7-10

. . 7-11

. . 7-12

. . 7-13

. . 7-14

. . 7-15

EXTERNAL PROTECTION FACTORS - TIME, DISTANCE, SHIELDING ......................

Factors Affecting Exposure in a Radiation Field ... 1. Time ....................... 2. Distance. .................... 3. Shielding ....................

Alpha Radiation ...................

8-l

8-l 8.1 8-3 8-3

8-5

Beta Radiation. ................... 8-5 1. Electron Accelerator Shielding. ......... 8-6

Gamma Radiation ................... 8-8 1. Calculations of Shield Thickness. ........ 8-9 2. Buildup Factor. ................. 8-13 3. Effective Atomic Number ............. 8-18 4. Point Kernel. .................. 8-20

Neutrons. ...................... 8-24 I 1. Shielding Approaches. .............. 8-26

Page

X


Page

F. Shielding Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28

REFERENCES. ........................ BIBLIOGRAPHY. .......................

SECTION 9 - INTERNAL DOSIMETRY CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 9-l

A. Main Factors Affecting Dose Calculations. ...... B. Reference Man .................... C. Internal Exposure - ICRP 2 Model. ..........

D. Internal Exposure - ICRP 30 Model .......... 1. Dose Limits ................... 2. Dosimetric Model. ................ 3. Respiratory Model ................ 4. Gastrointestinal Tract Model. .......... 5. Systemic Model. ................. 6. Bone Dosimetry Model. .............. 7. Submersion Exposure ...............

E. Absorbed Dose Computations. ............. 1. MIRD Method. ..................

ba: Penetrating and Nonpenetrating Radiations. . Cumulated Activity .............

F. Specific Effective Energy (SEE) ........... 9-30 G. Committed Dose Equivalent H50 T ........... 9-32 H. Internal Intake Assessments .'. ........... 9-34


SECTION 10 - RADIATION DETECTION PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . 10-l

A. General....................... 10-l

B. Ionization Method .................. 1. Gas-Filled Chambers ...............

ba: Pulse Size Considerations. ......... Ion Chamber Region .............

:: Proportional Region. ............ Region of Limited Proportionality. .....

e. Geiger-Miiller Region ............

8-31 8-32

9-l 9-5 9-5

9-8 9-11 9-12 9-15 9-17 9-19 9-22 9-23

9-24 9-24 9-27 9-28

9-38 9-41

10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-8 10-8

xi


C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

2. Semiconductor Devices .............. a. Semiconductors ................

1) Electron-Hole Pairs .......... 2) Effect of Impurities; n- and p-type

Semiconductors. ............ 3) Impurities; Traps ........... 4) Recombination .............

b. Conduction Counters. ............ C. Semiconductor Junction Counters. ......

Scintillation Devices ................ 10-17 1. Phosphors .................... lo-18 2. Types and Properties of Phosphors ........ lo-18 3. Detection of Pulses ............... 10-20 4. Photomultiplier Action. ............. 10-20 5. Scintillation Counters. ............. 10-22 6. Optical Coupling. ................ lo-23

Chemical Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lo-23

Solid-State Devices ................. 1. Optical Properties. ............... 2. Trap Depth. .................... 3. Optical Effects .................

ba: Color Changes. ............... Degraded Luminescence. ...........

:: Radiophotoluminescence ........... Thermoluminescence .............

e. Stimulated Luminescence. .......... f. Exoelectron Emission ............

Activation Detectors for Neutrons .......... 1. General ..................... 2. Activation Detector Applications. ........

a. Thermal-neutron Detection; Cadmium- difference Method. .............

b. Resonance Measurements ........... C. Threshold Detection. ............

Solid State Track Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-35

REFERENCES. ........................ lo-36 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ....................... 10-39

Page

10-9 10-9 10-11

10-11 10-13 10-13 10-14 10-15

lo-25 lo-25 lo-25 lo-26 lo-26 lo-27 lo-27 lo-28 10-29 10-29

10-29 10-29 10-31

10-31 lo-32 10-33

.---- --. ----~ -.

xii


SECTION 11 - INSTRUMENT OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND COUNTING STATISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Current Mode System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B. Pulse Type System .................. 1. General ..................... 2. Pulse Counter ..................

C. Count Rate Meter. .................. 11-3 D. Counter Plateau ................... 11-5

E. Pulse Height Analysis ................ 1. Pulse Size. ................... 2. Pulse Height Analyzer ..............

ba: Integral Count ............... Window ...................

C. Differential Count .............

F. Resolving Time. ................... 11-13 1. Resolving Time Correction ............ 11-14 2. Resolving Time Determination. .......... 11-16 3. Dead Time in Geiger-Miiller Counters ....... 11-17

G. Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18

H. Sensitivity ..................... 11-20 1. Intrinsic Efficiency. .............. 11-20 2. Background Count Rate .............. 11-21 3. Absorption Factors. ............... 11-22 4. Geometry. .................... 11-23 5. Absolute Sensitivity. .............. 11-24 6. Yield ...................... 11-25

I. Statistics of Measurement .............. 11-26 1. Poisson Distribution and Gaussian Error Curve . . 11-28 2. Standard Deviation of a Count .......... 11-30 3. Error Designation ................ 11-31 4. Standard Deviation of a Count Rate. ....... 11-33 5. Background Influence on Standard Deviation. ... 11-33 6. Relative Standard Deviation ........... 11-34

Page

11-l

11-l

11-2 11-2 11-2

11-8 11-8 11-10 11-10 11-11 11-12

xiii


J. Counter Reliability ................. K. Minimum Detectable Activity .............


SECTION 12 - HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTS .............

A. Radiation Dosimetry ................. 1.

2. 3.

Ionization Method ................ a. Bragg-Gray Principle ............ b. Air- and Tissue-Equivalent Material. .... C. Energy Dependence. ............. d. Charged Particle Equilibrium ........ e. Kerma .................... f. Ion Chamber Dose Measurements. ....... g. Other Ionization Dose Measurements ..... Other Dosimetry Methods ............. Present Dosimetry Techniques. .......... a. Linear Energy Transfer and Quality

Factor Relationship. ............ b. Distribution in LET of Dose. ........ C. Problems.of Neutron Dosimetry. ....... d. Depth Dose Equivalents ........... e. Summary ...................

B. Survey Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.

2.

3.

4.

Ion Chamber Dosimeters. .............

ba: Electroscope ................ Condenser Chambers .............

C. Tissue-Equivalent Dosimeter. ........ Ion Chamber Survey Meters ............ a. Victoreen Panoramic Survey Meter .... ; . b. Bicron Ion Chamber Survey Instrument .... Geiger-Muller Survey Meters ...........

ba: Design Features. .............. Energy Dependence. .............

C. Application. ................ Proportional Counter Survey Meters. .......

ba: Air Proportional Alpha Counter ....... Gas Proportional Alpha Counter .......

:: BF3 Proportional Neutron Counter ..... Long Counter ................

e. Other Proportional Neutron Survey Meters . .

Page

11-38 11-40

11-41 11-42

12-l

12-l 12-l 12-2 12-3 12-3 12-4 12-6 12-6 12-7 12-8 12-9

12-10 12-10 12-11 12-14 12-15

12-15 12-16 12-16 12-17 12-18 12-20 12-21 12-23 12-26 12-26 12-27 12-29 12-30 12-31 12-31 12-33 12-34 12-37

- - - - - - -~ I - - - - - -

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

5. Scintillation Survey Meters ...........

,": General Features .............. Gamma Scintillation Counters ........

:: Alpha Scintillation Counters ........ Neutron Scintillation Counter. .......

6. Activation Unit Survey Meters ..........

ba: High-Energy Neutron Monitor. ........ Spherical Neutron Foil Monitor .......

C. Microprocessor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-46

D. Special Purpose Instruments ........... 1. Extrapolation Chamber ............ 2. Spectrometry Units. ..............

ba: LET Spectrometer ............ Surface-Barrier Alpha Spectrometer ...

C. Gamma-ray Spectrometers. ........ 1) Scintillation Method. .......

(a) Interactions in the Crystal. . (b) Spectrum Peaks ........ (c) Pulse Height Spectrum Examples

2) Semiconductor Method. ....... 3) Spectrum Analysis Principles. ...

d. Fast Neutron Spectrometry. ....... 3. Liquid Scintillation Counting ........

. . 12-48

. . 12-48 . . 12-50 . . 12-52 . . 12-54 . . 12-55 . . 12-55 . . 12-56 . . 12-57 . . 12-59 . . 12-63 . . 12-67 . . 12-72 . . 12-74

E. Calibration ..................... 1. Approach. .................... 2. Checkout for Calibration. ............ 3. Calibration Methodology ............. 4. Calibration Sources ...............

ba: Photon Sources ............... Beta Sources ................

:: Alpha Sources. ............... Neutron Sources. ..............

REFERENCES. ........................ 12-81 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ....................... 12-85

SECTION 13 - PERSONNEL MONITORING DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-l

A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-l

B. Photographic Film Dosimetry ............. 13-l 1. Emulsion Properties ............... 13-2

12-39 12-39 12-39 12-40 12-41 12-43 12-44 12-44

12-75 12-76 12-77 12-78 12-79 12-79 12-79 12-80 12-80

xv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

C.

D.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Photographic Effect ............

ba: Latent-Image Formation ........ Film Density .............

Properties of Film Response ........

ba: Characteristic Curve ......... General Features of the Characteristic Curve .................

:: Latent-Image Fading. ......... Sensitivity. .............

e. Energy Dependence for Unfiltered Film. f. Energy Dependence for Filtered Film. . Reading and Interpretation. ........

ba: Calibration Films. .......... Interpretation .............

Filter Holders. .............. Film Packets. ............... Electronic Equilibrium Conditions ..... Neutron Dosimetry ............. a. Fast Neutrons. .......... .- .

1) Track Counting. ......... 2) Sensitivity ........... 3) Latent-Image Fading ....... 4) Reading and Interpretation. ...

b. Thermal Neutrons ...........

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . . 13-6

. . . 13-6

. . . 13-7

. . . 13-7

. . . 13-9

. . . 13-9

. . . 13-10 . . . 13-10 . . . 13-11 . . . 13-12 . . . 13-12 . . . 13-13 . . . 13-14 . . . 13-14 . . . 13-14 . . . 13-15 . . . 13-15 . . . 13-16

Pocket Dosimeters .................. 13-17 1. Principle of Operation. ............. 13-17 2. Exposure Measurement. .............. 13-18 3. Characteristics ................. 13-19 4. Energy Dependence ................ 13-20

Solid State Dosimeters. ............... 1. Thermoluminescence. ...............

ba: Lattice Defects or Traps .......... GlowCurve .................

C. Characteristics. .............. 2. Albedo Dosimeters ................

ba: Energy Dependence. ............. Dosimetric Features. . ; ..........

3. Radiophotoluminescence. .............

it: General. .................. Characteristics of Silver-Activated Glass. .

4. Conductivity Methods. .............. 5. Thermally Stimulated Exoelectron Emission (TSEE).

13-21 13-21 13-22 13-23 13-24 13-27 13-28 13-28 13-29 13-29 13-30 13-31 13-32

E. Track Etch Dosimeters ................


13-32

13-34 13-37

13-3 13-3 13-4 13-4 13-5

xvi


SECTION 14 - AIR SAMPLING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-l

A. B. C. D.

E. F.

G.

H.

I.

J.

Introduction .................... Nature of the Contaminant. ............. Natural Airborne Radioactivity ........... Obtaining a Representative Sample, Choice of Sampler Location .................. Sampling Program .................. Choosing a Sampler .................

14-l 14-2 14-3

14-5 14-6 14-7

Sampling Methods and Devices ............ 1. Filter Samplers. ................ 2. Grab Samplers. ................. 3. Impingers and Impactors. ............ 4. Condensation Devices .............. 5. Adsorbers. ................... 6. Continuous Air Monitors. ............

14-8 14-8 14-11 14-13 14-15 14-15 14-16

Filters ....................... 14-17

Analysis of a Filter Sample. ............ 1. General. .................... 2. First-Count Factor ............... 3. Concentration of Long-Lived Contaminants .... 4. Concentration of Short-Lived Contaminants. ...

14-19 14-19 14-21 14-24 14-28

Stack Sampling ................... 14-29

REFERENCES ........................ BIBLIOGRAPHY. ......................

SECTION 15 - REACTORS AND NUCLEAR SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-l

A. History of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-l

B. Fission ....................... 1. FissionType. ................. 2. Fission Yield. ................. 3. Fission Rate ..................

C. Nuclear Reactors .................. 1. Reactor Components ............... 2. Critical Size. ................. 3. Four-Factor Formula. .............. 4. Effective Multiplication Factor. ........

Page

14-33 14-35

15-2 15-4 15-5 15-6

15-7 15-8 15-9 15-11 15-12

xvii


Page

5. Reactor Control ................. 15-13 a. Reactor Period ............... 15-14 b. Reactivity ................. 15-15 C. Reactor Control Systems. .......... 15-15

6. Reactor Materials ................ 15-17 7. Power Level ................... 15-17 8. Reactor Types .................. 15-18

D. Fusion Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-19

E. Radiation from Reactors ............... 15-24 1. Leakage Radiation ................ 15-24 2. Sources of Contained Activity .......... 15-26 3. Sources of Airborne Activity. .......... 15-28 4. Sources of Contamination. ............ 15-32

F. Radiation Surveys .................. 15-33 G. Reactor Survey Instruments. ............. 15-35 H. Fixed Monitors. ................... 15-37

I. Nuclear Safety. ................... 15-38 1. Characteristics of Unwanted Nuclear Criticalities 15-38 2. Prompt and Residual Radiation Dose Estimates. .. 15-39 3. Safety Approach ................. 15-43 4. Control Methods ................. 15-44 5. Administrative Controls ............. 15-47 6. Monitoring & Dosimetry Practices. ........ 15-48

REFERENCES. ........................ 15-50 BIBLIOGRAPHY. ....................... 15-54

SECTION 16 - HEALTH PHYSICS ASPECTS OF ENCLOSURES AND CONTAMINATION CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-l

A. Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-l

B. Control Procedures - Gloveboxes ........... 16-6 1. Worker Procedures ................ 16-7 2. Facility Layout ................. 16-10 3. Area Contamination Control Practices. ...... 16-12 4. Control Problems. ................ 16-13 5. Health Physics Control Measures ......... 16-14

a. Fixed Monitors ............... 16-15

1) Personnel Monitor ........... 16-15

2) Continuous Air Monitors ........ 16-16

3) Stack Monitors. ............ 16-17

C.

D.

E. F. G.

H.

I.

xviii


b. Monitoring Services. ............ 16-17 1) Surface Contamination Surveys ..... 16-18 2) Personnel and Item Surveys. ...... 16-19 3) Continuous Monitoring ......... 16-20 4) Air Sampling. ............. 16-20

Internal Exposure Control .............. 16-21 1. Personnel Monitoring Measures .......... 16-21 2. Therapeutic Measures. .............. 16-22 3. Protective Equipment. .............. 16-23

External Exposure Control .............. 1. Exposure Control Practice ............ 2. Shielding .................... 3. Health Physics Services .............

ba: Monitoring Services. ............ Personnel Monitoring Devices ........

16-24 16-25 16-26 16-28 16-28 16-29

Nuclear Safety. ................... 16-30 Waste Removal Practices ............... 16-30 Emergency Procedures. ................ 16-31

HotCells ...................... 1. Shielding .................... 2. Ventilation ................... 3. Viewing Facilities. ...............

ba: Windows. .................. Periscopes, Mirrors and Television .....

4. Remote Handling Devices ............. 5. Monitoring Hot Cell Operations. .........

a. Cell Transfers ............... b. Decontamination Operations ......... C. Filter Changes ...............

6. Control Measures. ................

16-34 16-34 16-37 16-37 16-37 16-38 16-38 16-40 16-40 16-41 16-41 16-41

Decontamination ................... 1. Principles of Decontamination .......... 2. Decontamination Approaches. ...........

ba: Working Areas. ............... Equipment. ..................

i: Clothing .................. Personnel. ................. 1) Hand Washing. ............. 2) Titanium Dioxide to Remove Fission

Products. ............... 3) Potassium Pennanganate to Remove

Plutonium ...............

16-42 16-43 16-45 16-45 16-46 16-47 16-47 16-49

16-50

16-50

Page

_ -----_ - ----_ ~_._.

xix


e. Glovebox Approach - General. ........ f. Hot Cell Approach - General. ........

J. Waste Disposal. ................... 1. Types and Sources of Waste. ........... 2. Disposal Philosophy ............... 3. Solid Waste Disposal. .............. 4. Liquid Waste Disposal .............. 5. Gaseous Waste Disposal. .............

K. Transportation of Radionuclides ........... 1. Packaging Requirements. .............

ba: Type A Packaging .............. Type B Packaging ..............

C. Fissile Material Packaging ......... 2. Radiation Limits. ................ 3. Warning Labels. ................. 4. Limited Quantities, Instruments & Articles. ...


SECTION 17 - PARTICLE ACCELERATORS. ...............

A. Accelerators. ............. ; ...... 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Cockcroft-Walton Accelerator. .......... Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator ...... a. General. .................. b. Tandem Van de Graaff Machine ........ Linear Accelerators ...............

ba: Linear Linear

C. Linear Cyclotron . Betatron. . Synchrotron a. Proton

Radio-frequency Accelerator ..... Electron Accelerator. ........ Proton Accelerator. ......... ................... ................... ................... Synchrotron .............

b. Electron Synchrotrons. ........... 1) Synchrotron Radiation Characteristics . 2) ANL Advanced Photon Source. ......

C. Pulsed-Neutron Source. ...........

B. Elementary Particles. ................ 1. General ..................... 2. High Energy Processes ..............

IT: Hadron Cascades. ............... Electromagnetic Cascades ..........

Page

16-51 16-52

16-54 16-55 16-56 16-57 16-64 16-69

16-71 16-73 16-74 16-77 16-78 16-79 16-80 16-82

16-84 16-89

17-l

17-l 17-2 17-5 17-5 17-7 17-7 17-7 17-9 17-10 17-12 17-14 17-15 17-15 17-18 17-19 17-20 17-21

17-23 17-23 17-25 17-25 17-27

-----

xx

TABLE OF CONTENTS - (continued) Page

C. Radiation Sources .................. 1. Beam Interactions ................ 2. Stray Radiation ................. 3. Induced Radioactivity .............. 4. Skyshine. .................... 5. Klystrons ....................

D. Special Considerations. ............... 17-36 E. Radiation Protection Surveys. ............ 17-38

F. Radiation Survey Instruments. ............ 1. Survey Devices. ................. 2. Performance Limitations .............


SECTION 18 - X RAY PRODUCING MACHINES AND SEALED GAMMA SOURCES. . 18-l

A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-l

B. X Ray Machines. ................... 1. Production. ................... 2. Efficiency. ................... 3. Quality - HVL .................. 4. Analytical X Ray Studies. ............

ba: X Ray Diffraction. ............. Fluorescent X Ray Spectroscopy .......

5. Sources of Radiation Exposure .......... 6. Safety Devices. ................. 7. X Ray Survey Instruments. ............

C. Electron Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13

D. Sealed Gamma Sources. ................ 1. Radiographic Applications ............ 2. Research Applications ..............


APPENDIX A - Selected Constants ................. APPENDIX B - Radiation Quantities and Units ........... APPENDIX C - Signs and Symbols-Alphabetically by Symbol ..... APPENDIX D - Signs and Symbols-Mathematics. ........... APPENDIX E - Mass Attenuation Coefficients & Mass Energy

Absorption Coefficients. .............. APPENDIX F - Selected Mathematical Topics ............ APPENDIX G - List of Elements and Chart of Nuclides ....... INDEX ..............................

17-28 17-29 17-31 17-32 17-35 17-36

17-41 17-42 17-43

17-44 17-47

18-2 18-2 18-4 18-4 18-6 18-7 18-8 18-9 18-10 18-10

18-14 18-15 18-18

18-19 18-21

A-l B-l C-l D-l

E-l F-l G-l I-l

xxi

LIST OF FIGURES

No 1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.10

3.11

3.12

3.13

Periodic Chart. ...................

The Stable Fluorine Atom (1'F). ..........

The Ionization of an Atom ..............

The Electric Field E is Perpendicular to the Plates .

A Charged Particle Traveling Perpendicular to a

Magnetic Field Which is Directed into the Plane

of the Paper. ....................

Radiation Deflection in a Magnetic Field. ......

Decay Schemes for Various Modes of Decay. ......

Decay Scheme of 24Na ................

Excerpt from Chart of Nuclides. ...........

Location Chart for Nuclear Products .........

Radioactive Decay, Linear Plot. ...........

Radioactive Decay, Semilog Plot ...........

Decay Curve using Example Data in Text. .......

Illustration of Alpha Tracks as Seen in a Cloud

Chamber .......................

Electrostatic Interaction. .............

Excitation .....................

The Ionization Increases as the Velocity of the Alpha

Particle Decreases with Depth of Penetration .....

Typical Beta Spectrum. ...............

The General Shape of the Stopping Power vs. Energy

Curve for 13 Particles. ................

Bremsstrahlung. ...................

Electromagnetic Wave. ................

Typical X Ray Spectrum. .... ; ..........

X Ray Intensity ...................

The Photoelectric Effect. ..............

Auger Electron Effect ................

The Compton Effect. .................

PaRe 1-3

l-6

1-7

1-12

l-18

2-2

2-4

2-7

2-9

2-10

2-11

2-11

2-24

3-2

3-3 3-3

3-4

3-9

3-11

3-13

3-19

3-23

3-26

3-27

3-29

3-31

----- ----

No 3.14

3.15

3.16

3.17

3.18

3.19

3.20

4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4 5.1

5.2

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

10.1

10.2

xxii

LIST OF FIGURES - (continued)

Pair Production and Annihilation. ..........

Relative Probability of Gamma Interaction in

Iron (Fe) vs. Energy E ...............

Absorption of X and Gamma Rays. ...........

Wide Beam of Gamma Rays in an Absorber. .......

Elastic Collision-Energy and Momentum are Conserved .

Inelastic Collision .................

Impact Area .....................

Isotropic Point Source. ...............

Fluence Rate and Energy Fluence Rate for Exposure

Rate of 1 C/kgs ...................

Mass Stopping Power of Alpha Radiation as a

Function of Energy. .................

Neutron Kerma Rate Factors for Air and Tissue ....

Dose-Effect Relationship. ..............

Survival Curves for Low LET and High LET Radiation. .

High-Energy Electron Interaction in Matter. .....

Relationships for Calculating Shield Thickness. ...

Exposure Buildup Factor in I?b ............

Transmission of Gamma Rays Through Iron .......

Transition Zone ...................

Mathematical Model Used to Describe Clearance from

the Respiratory System. ...............

Mathematical Model Used to Describe the Kinetics of

Radionuclides in the Gastrointestinal Tract .....

Mathematical Model Usually used to Describe the

Kinetics of Radionuclides in the Body ........

ICRP-30 Pu Metabolic Model. .............

Two-electrode, Gas-filled Chamber ..........

Pulse Size as a Function of Voltage in Gas-Filled

Two-electrode Chamber ................

Page 3-33

3-35

3-36

3-41

3-48

3-49

3-53 4-9

4-15

4-20

4-24

5-6

5-8

8-7

8-10

8-15 8-22

8-29

9-16

9-18

9-19

9-20

10-3

10-4

,

xxiii


No 10.3

10.4

10.5

10.6

10.7

10.8

11.1

11.2

11.3

11.4

11.5

11.6

11.7

12.1

12.2

12.3

12.4

12.5

12.6

12.7

12.8

12.9

12.10

12.11

12.12

Title Band Structure in Conductors, Semiconductors,

and Insulators. ...................

Effect of "Doping" with a Desired Carrier Type. ...

Diffused and Surface-barrier p-n Junctions. .....

Illustrating Photomultiplier Action .........

Trap Effects in Solids Leading to Thermoluminescence

and Radiophotoluminescence. .............

Idealized Representation of Actual Cross Section

Variations with Energy ...............

Count-rate Meter Circuit. ..............

Counter Plateau in Geiger Region. ..........

Plateau Regions in Proportional Counters. ......

Variation of Pulse Size with Time ..........

Types of Pulse Height Spectrum. ...........

Geometry for a Circular Aperture and a Point Source .

Probability Distributions for Low & High Values of N.

Equilibrium Thickness, t , for Charged-Particle

Equilibrium .....................

Quartz-fiber Type Electroscope. ...........

Victoreen Ion Chamber ................

Bicron Portable Ion Chamber .............

Ludlum End Window Geiger Counter. ..........

Eberline Alpha Counter with 0.005 m2 Probe. ....

Typical Setup for Long-Counter Application. .....

Long-Counter Response ................

Ludlum Neutron Counter. ...............

Variation in Detector Response for Different

Initial Neutron Energy. ...............

Sensor Geometry for the Spherical Neutron

Foil Monitor. ....................

Response Curves for Three Spherical Neutron Detectors

Compared to the Dose-Equivalent Rate Function ....

10-10

10-13

lo-16

10-21

lo-26

10-34

11-3

11-6

11-7

11-9

11-11

11-24

11-29

12-5

12-17

12-22

12-24

12-28

12-32

12-35

12-36

12-38

12-42

12-44

12-45

--11_-1_------ . - . - -

xxiv


No 12.13

12.14

12.15

12.16

12.17

12.18

12.19

12.20

12.21

12.22

12.23

12.24

13.1

13.2

13.3

13.4

14.1

14.2

14.3

14.4

14.5

14.6

14.7

14.8

14.9

15.1

15.2

Eberline Microprocessor Readout ...........

Extrapolation Chamber for Surface Dose Measurements .

Plot of Extrapolation-Chamber Data. .........

LET Spectrometer Pulse Height Distribution. .....

Alpha Pulse Height Spectrum in Silicon Detector ...

137Cs Pulse Height Spectrum in a NaI(T1) Crystal. ..

24Na Pulse Height Spectrum in a NaI(T1) Crystal ...

A Gamma Spectroscopy System Utilizing a Desk-top

Personal Computer for Data Analysis .........

Portable MCA Which can be Used With a NaI or

Portable Germanium Detector. ............

Geometry for a Cylindrical Detector and Point Source.

Peak Parameters of a Normal (Gaussian) Distribution .

Energy Distribution of Recoil Protons from Neutron

Elastic Scattering in a Detector. ..........

Cross Section Through a Typical X Ray (Photon) Film .

Characteristic Curve for a Photon Film. .......

Energy Dependence in Typical Photon Film, with

and without a Filter. ................

Thermoluminescent Glow Curve. ............

Uranium and Thorium Decay Chains. ..........

Isokinetic Sampling .................

Typical Filter Sampler Arrangement Diagram. .....

3.5 Liter Grab Sampler. ...............

Greenburg-Smith Impinger. ..............

Cascade Impactor. ..................

Activity Buildup on a Filter. ............

Contaminated Activity Fraction vs. Activity Ratio . .

Correction Factor for Short-Lived Emitters. .....

Fission Process in 235 U Due to a Thermal Neutron. ..

Fission Yield in 235u ................

Page 12-47

12-49

12-50

12-53

12-55

12-60

12-62

12-64

12-66

12-68

12-70

12-73

13-3

13-5

13-8

13-24

14-4

14-6

14-10

14-12

14-14

14-14

14-19

14-27

14-30

15-3

15-6

xxv


No 15.3

15.4

15.5

15.6

15.7

15.8

15.9

16.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

16.5

16.6

16.7

16.8

16.9a

16.9b

16.10

16.11

16.12

16.13

16.14

16.15

16.16

16.17

17.1

17.2

17.3

17.4

Title Nuclear Assembly for Thermal Fission. . . . . . . . .

Power Reactor Designs ................

Cross-Sectional View of Toroidal Fusion Reactor ...

Prompt Radiation Dose from a Burst of 1018 Fissions .

Dose Rate due to Residual Radiation .........

Example of Safe Geometry for Pipes and Cylinders. ..

Interaction Effects due to Adjacent Containers. ...

Typical Glovebox Train. ...............

Manipulators on a Hot Cell. .............

Concentration (Confinement) and Containment Scheme

for a Plutonium Laboratory. .............

Facility Design for Contamination Control ......

Multicell Hot Cell Facility in the Form of an H ...

Section through a Hot Cell Wall ...........

Worker Dressed for Tent Entry ............

Separate Temporary Contamination Control Enclosure

Attached to a Glovebox. ...............

Solid Radioactive Waste Containers. .........

TV Carton and Secondary Containers. .........

Shielded SRW Container. ...............

TRU Solid Radioactive Waste Containers. .......

Shipment of Low Specific Activity (LSA) Bins. ....

Liquid Radioactive Waste (LRW) Containers ......

Typical Retention Tank System ............

Examples of Type A Packaging. ............

Typical Type B Packagings ..............

Radioactive Package Labels. .............

Voltage Multiplier. .................

A 750 keV Cockcroft-Walton Used as a Preaccelerator

at the IPNS-1 ....................

Van de Graaff Electrostatic Generator ........

Linear Radio-frequency Accelerator. .........

Page 15-10

15-20

15-23

15-40

15-42

15-44

15-46

16-2

16-3

16-4

16-11

16-35

16-39

16-48

16-53

16-59

16-60

16-61

16-63

16-65

16-67

16-68

16-76

16-77

16-81

17-3

17-4

17-6

17-8

xxvi


No 17.5

17.6

17.7

17.8

17.9

17.10

la.1

la.2

la.3

18.4

E.l

E.2

Title &g A 50 MeV Proton Linac Used for IPNS-1 . . . . . . . . 17-11

Cyclotron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-12

Synchrotron (The Cosmotron) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-16

Proposed Components of the Advance Photon Source. . . 17-21

The IPNS-1 Facility for Producing Pulsed Neutron

Bursts........................ 17-22

i Conversion Factors as a Function of Energy for

Different Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-40

Typical Conventional X Ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . la-3

Measured Attenuation Curve for an X Ray Machine . . . 18-6

Geometry for Calibration and for Beam Area Less Than Detector Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . la-13

Radiography Projector and "Pigtail" Source. . . . . . 18-17

Mass Attenuation Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . E-2

Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients . . . . . . . . . E-3

LIST OF TABLES

No A Title Pape

2.1

4.1

4.2

4.3

5.1

6.1

SI Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17

LoJ -Q Relationship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Recommended Q Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Mean Quality Factors, Q, and Neutron Fluence Rates

for a Maximum dose Equivalent Rate of 25 @v/h

(2.5 mrem/h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26

Summary of Clinical Effects of Acute Ionizing

Radiation Doses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13

Summary of Average Annual Dose Equivalents in $Sv

from Natural Background Radiation in the U.S. . . . . 6-9

xxvii

6.2

7.1

9.1

11.1

16.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

16.5

16.6

16.7

16.8

16.9

16.10

17.1

17.2

18.1

Projected Annual WB Dose Equivalent to U.S.

Population from Fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Weighting Factors for Stochastic Risk . . . . . . . .

SEE (MeV per gram per transformation) of Sr-89. . . .

Types of Counting Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Occupational DAC and AL1 for Selected Radionuclides .

Transmission of X and Gamma Rays in Selected Materials

Sources of Federal Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . .

Availability of International Regulations . . . . . .

Type A Package Quality Limits for Selected c

Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .

Shipment Controls for Fissile Radioactive Materials .

Radioactive Materials Packages Maximum Radiation

Level Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Removable External Radioactive Contamination-Wipe

Limits........................

Radioactive Materials Packages Labeling Criteria. . .

Activity Limits for Limited Quantities,

Instruments and Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Radionuclides Commonly Identified in Solid

Materials Irradiated Around Accelerators. . . . . . .

Potential Induced Radioactivity in Particle

Accelerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Characteristic X Rays from Common Diffraction

Tube Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6-12

7-15 9-31

11-32

16-13

16-27

16-72

16-73

16-75

16-78

16-79

16-80

16-82

16-83

17-33

17-34

18-8

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