© Cambridge University Press · Oyo empire, 67 Songhai kingdom, 48 Africans. See also Africa...

INDEX

Abercrombie, Thomas, 204abolition of slavery

in Brazil, 201, 211England and, 373in Haiti, 373in Lesser Antilles, 373in Mexico, 373by Spain, in Americas, 251in Spanish colonial regimes, 184, 258

Acosta, Jose de, 117, 275, 299Adamawa-Ubangi language (Africa), 47“administered trade” systems, 291Africa (Central/West)

Bantu migration within, 47–48Bight of Biafra in, 63currency systems in, 54demography of, 53–55domestic economies of, 50–55economic history for, 512estimated population of (in 1500), 44, 53ethnic identifications in, 49–50European expansion (1400–1500) into, 7, 29forests in, 45–46GDP changes in, 69gold in, 52languages in, 46–48Muslim-led revolutions in, 67Niger-Congo languages in, 46–47ore deposits in, 52politics systems in, 48–50Portugal’s early exploration of, 11, 397research studies on, 511–512savanna in, 44–45slave trade’s effect (1650–1820) on, 61, 65, 66slavery within, 52smallpox in, 58social organization in, 52

textile production in, 52vegetation in, 44–46woodwork in, 52

African kingdoms. See African political systemsAfrican political systems, 48–50

in Benin, 49Borno kingdom, 48in Burkino Faso, 48Dahomey kingdom, 61in Ife, 49Jolof kingdom, 48Kongo kingdom, 49Mali kingdom, 48Mwenemutapa kingdom, 49Oyo empire, 67Songhai kingdom, 48

Africans. See also Africa (Central/West)biological impact of, in Americas, 109in Brazil, 159, 212in Caribbean, 125ecosystem knowledge of, in Americas, 124livestock management and, 110under Spanish colonial regimes, 261

Afro-Asiatic languages, Niger-Congo languages(Africa) and, 48

agrarian systems. See also agro-pastoralismchacras hundidas, 280demography for, 276–277land cultivation for, 278–284pre-colonial, 275–293

agriculture. See also coffee industry; commercialagriculture; corn; cotton textilesproduction; farming systems; highlandagriculture; irrigated agriculture; livestockmanagement; sugar industry

in African savanna, 45chinampas, 149, 279, 294

581

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582 Index

agriculture (cont.)colonial systems for, 293–297, 314commercialization of, 183crops for, 283–284“garden,” 294highland (Latin America), 81–84, 171irrigated, 281, 294livestock management and, 121“poor man’s,” 218sedentary, effects of, 150terraced, 282tropical (Latin America), 78–81

agro-pastoralism, 118agrarian syncretism from, 118in Americas, 119in Andes, 118from livestock management, 121in Pacific highlands, 118in South Atlantic colonies, 122

Alaman, Lucas, 349Albuquerque, Rodrigo de, 191alcabala (excise tax), 302, 436, 446, 484aldeias (Jesuit mission villages), 164

disease within, 164Alejandro Bustamante, Jose, 337Algranti, Leila, 222almojarifazgo (duty taxes), 415Alonso Barba, Alvaro, 354alpacas. See camelidsaltiplanos (high plains), 91, 172. See also highland

agricultureAlvarez, Antonio, 321Amaral, Samuel, 444, 464, 484Amaru, Tupac, 168, 380American War of Independence, 32Americas. See also Latin America; Mesoamerica;

USAfrican slave labor in, 43, 66, 207–208African-descended population in, 70agro-pastoralism in, 119caste system in, 445colonial core regions within, 165–177disease in, 128, 146, 150–151, 525domesticated animals in, pre-colonization, 115ecosystem knowledge of, for Africans, 124estimated population (1492), 143, 147Eurasian species in, 115, 116, 117external defense for, 246–248Iberian bureaucracy in, 254–255, 256indigenous flora in, 115–118indigenous production systems in, 129land use in, 116, 129, 140, 141mortality rates in, 150North Atlantic colonies in, 138–142Pacific highlands colonies in, 118–122

Pacific v. Atlantic orientation within, 139Queen Isabel and, 242, 243–244silver production in, 141South Atlantic colonies in, 122–125Wars of Independence in, factors for, 139, 270

Andean coloniesagro-pastoralism in, 118commercial agriculture in, 171depopulation in, 202labor systems in, 201–206land use estimates in, 149mining industry in, 171–172m’ita in, 264Pizarro, Gonzalo in, 245population estimates for (c.1492), 147pre-colonial land use in, 286private property grants in, 258, 259Santiago del Estero in, 279slave rebellions in, 252textile production in, 375Wars of Independence in, 270

Anglo-Mexican Mining Association, 348United-Mexican Mining Company v., 349

Angola, slave trade (1650–1820) and, 68Annales School (economic study), 1Anopheles mosquitoes, 169Antonio Ocampo, Jose, 493Antunano, Estevan de, 391Aqlla Wasi (Incan weaving compounds), 87Araucanian tribe, 178, 275Ardant, Gabriel, 450Argentina

Banco de Descuentos de Buenos Aires in, 443Banco Nacional in, 444economic growth in, 489–490fiscal history of (1820–1860), 445Ministerio del Interior in, 455

Argentine-Brazilian War, 443Armada de los Mares del Sur, 403Armadilla, 403. See also Armada de los Mares

del SurArmillas, Pedro, 284Arrom, Silvia, 231Asia

bullion re-exportation to, 37European expansion (1400–1500) into, 7European trade balance with, 38–39oceanic commerce with, 29per capita incomes in, 23Western Europe (1400–1500) v., 23–24, 25

Asiento de Negros, 406, 419England ownership of, 407formation of, in Spain, 419

asientos (contractual agreements), for wage labor,224






Index 583

Assadourian, Carlos Sempat, 225Atlantic language (Africa), 47

Fulfulde, 47Audience de Quito, 378, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386,

387Audiencias (judicial councils), 305, 308–310

at Charcas, 324, 331Australia, 7authoritarian political systems theory, 282aviadores (silver merchants), 337Aztec empire, 105

coatequitl in, 197Codice Mendocino for, 375early trade systems of, 94–95, 127–128“gold standard” in, 127labor systems within, 99Matrıcula de Tributos for, 375pochtecas and, 94, 95, 96, 103population estimates for, from codices, 144population policies within, 150property rights in, 257tlamemes and, 96tribute systems for, 100–101, 130

Backbone of History Project, 105Bairoch, Paul, 23, 32Balmis, Francisco Javier de, 169Banco de Avıo, 390Banco de Descuentos de Buenos Aires, 443. See also

Banco NacionalBanco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 456Banco do Brasil, 443Banco Maua, 456Banco Nacional, 444Banco Nacional de Amortizacion del Cobre, 443banking institutions, 456

Banco de Avıo, 390Banco de Descuentos de Buenos Aires, 443Banco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 456Banco do Brasil, 443Banco Maua, 456Banco Nacional, 444Banco Nacional de Amortizacion del Cobre,

443in Brazil, 443–444in Chile, 456economic growth and, 455Ferrocarril Oeste, 456in Peru, 456Royal Bank of San Carlos, 345secondary purchase, in Bolivia, 354

Bantu migrations, 47–48Barickman, Bert, 218Baudin, 289Bauer, Arnold, 223

beet sugar industry, 373–374France and, 374Germany and, 374

Belgium, 369–370Benin

African political systems in, 49“Bight of Benin” and, 50, 60, 65“Costa da Mina” and, 50slave trade (1650–1820) and, 61

Benue-Congo language (Africa), 47Bergad, Laird, 212“Berkeley School,” 147Berlin, Ira, 211Bertola, Luis, 503“Bight of Benin,” 50, 60, 65Bight of Biafra, 63Black Death, 11. See also Great PlagueBlack Legend, 161Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice

Cultivation in the Americas (Carney), 110Blaut, James, 26, 31Bolivia

mining industry in, 350, 353moneda feble in, 354secondary purchase banks in, 354silver in, 354

Bolton, Herbert, 181Bonney, Richard, 434Borah, Woodrow, 145, 147, 165, 170, 174, 276,

294Borda, Jose de la, 338Borges Martin, Roberto, 219Boserup, Ester, 293Bourbons

for Mexico mining industry, 339Spanish colonial regimes and, 139trade reforms of, 183, 241, 268, 337, 420, 422,

433Boyd-Bowman, Peter, 153Brading, David, 319, 335Braudel, Fernand, 9, 25, 26, 31

“great predators” for, 32Brazil, 163–165

African population in, 159, 212African slave labor in, 67, 123, 155, 184,

209–210, 373, 404, 465Banco do Brasil in, 443Banco Maua in, 456banking institutions in, 443–444brazilwood exports from, 404captaincies in, 245Casa de Moneda in, 444caste system in, 265colonial economic systems in, 136–137colonization of, 245, 404–405






584 Index

Brazil (cont.)Comercio e Obras Publicas in, 455contraband in, 419demographic trends in, 163economic deregulation in, 414economic systems in, 451engenhos in, 123European population estimates in (1802),

156export boom in, 449, 451fazendas in, 123fiscal history of (1827–1888), 452foreign debt for (1824–1888), 452ganhadores in, 221–222GDP in (c.1800), 239gold exports from, 429gold mining in, 210, 413immigration to, 155, 156importance of, 413–414Jesuits in, 255mamelucos in, 159Minas Gerais in, 219–220Ministerio de Agricultura in, 455mulattos in, 159Native American population estimates for,

152, 163The Netherlands in, 405paper currency usage in, 441, 443plantation systems development in, 214–216private property grants in, 259silver mining in, 334smallpox epidemic in, 164–165sugar industry in, 137, 141, 207, 209, 360, 364,

404Treaty of Methuen and, 413Tupinamba, 163Wars of Independence in, 270

The Brazilian Company, 366brazilwood, 404British Navigation Acts, 367bullion. See also gold bullion; silver bullion

Asia and, re-exportation to, 37as colonial trade export, 36–40, 420interest rates and, influence on, 38mercantilism and, role in, 397production deceleration of, 40as trade factor, 38

Bulmer-Thomas, Victor, 463Burgos, Junto de, 305Buritica (Native Americans)

Spondylus shells and, 90trade systems for, 90–91

cabalgadas. See entradasCabello Balboa, Miguel, 276, 277cacao production, in Mexico, 171

Cadiz, Spain, 401oceanic commerce from, 401

Cailloma (mine), 329Caja Real (mine), 326camelids, 83

charki from, 83domestication of, 83as transport system, 97

camellones (ridges), 79, 80chinampas v., 83in highland agriculture, 82

cane sugar. See sugar industrycannibalism, in Spanish Caribbean, 162cantos (territorial neighborhood), 221coatequitl (Aztec labor system), 197Capitaes-de-canto (neighborhood captain),

222capital

gross domestic formation of (Europe),32–33

for Peru mining industry, 333, 342for silver mining, 336

capitalismfrom feudalism, 19“hegemonic capitalists,” 32Marxism and, 18in World Systems School of historical

sociology, 19–20captaincies, in Brazil, 245Carangas (mine), 329Cardinal Cayetano, 304, 305Carerra de Indias (shipping routes), 400–405,

406, 410transpacific navigation in, 403

Caribbean, 161–163. See also Spanish CaribbeanAfricans in, 125Asian contract labor in, 209contraband in, 419demographic impact on, from colonization,

161environmental impact on, by Europeans,

116–118food production declines in, 162mortality rates in, 162Native American population estimates in

(1492), 147, 152, 161Native American slave labor in, 189private property rights in, 259slave labor emancipation in, 67smallpox in, 162sugar industry in, 361, 370, 371–372

Carlos I (king of Spain), 242Carlos II (king of Spain), 267Carney, Judith A., 110Caroline Code, 345–346Carrasco, Pedro, 289






Index 585

Carvalho e Mello, Sebastiao Jose de, 413, 433Casa de Contratacion de Indias, 395, 401, 416

ship size under, 401Spanish monarchy and, 400transfer of, 408

Casa de Moneda (Brazil mint), 444Casa de Moneda de Mexico, 429

during Wars of Independence, 442Casas, Bartolome de las, 161, 198castas, 127, 261. See also mixed race(s)

African slave labor as part of, 157illegitimate births among, 159mestizos as part of, 127in Mexico, population demographics, 159mulattos as part of, 127in Peru, population demographics, 159private property rights for, 259under from Spanish colonial regimes, 134, 261in Venezuela, 155

caste systems, 261in Americas, 445in Brazil, 265encomiendas and, 262Native Americans under, 262under Spanish colonial regimes, 261

“caste wars,” 252. See also slave rebellions“Castilian” ovens, 319

at Porco, 322Castrovirreyna (mine), 329Catholicism, 190. See also Roman Catholic

Churchcedulas (legal decrees), 267Central American Federation, 481

economic growth within, 489national independence within, 489

Central Sudan, 45“Century of Depression,” 326Cerro de Pasco (mine), 355Cerro Rico. See Potosı mineschacras (fields), 120chacras hundidas (sunken fields), 280charki (camelid jerky), 83, 91Charles (Carlos) I (king of Spain), 242Charles (Carlos) II (king of Spain), 267Charles III (king of Spain), 255, 371, 433Charles IV (king of Spain), 371Charles V (emperor), 305, 401Chavez Orozco, Luis, 377Chaudhuri, K. N., 327Chaunu, Huguette, 416Chaunu, Pierre, 416chicha (drink), 83Chichimecas tribe, 275Chile

banking institutions in, 456gold exports from, 429

tax revenues of (1830–1899), 452tax structure in, 451

Chilean and Peruvian Mining Association,351

Chinaearly technical advances in, 20economy of (c.1500–1700), 328–329imported foodstuffs in, 34Ming Empire in, 39oceanic commerce with, 29population growth in, 39precious metals exchange rate in, 328Qing Empire in, 39silver imports into, 56, 334

chinampas (raised fields), 149, 279, 294. See alsoagriculture

camellones v., 83drainage as factor in, 82in Mexico, 280size of, 280soil fertility as result of, 82state intervention for, 280

Chucuito (mine), 329chuno (potato starch), 283

pre-colonial land use and, 286chunu (freeze-dried potatoes), 82, 91, 150chupachus (highland ethnic group), 292“Civil Law,” 266–267

in England, 266Iberian structure of, 267

Classic Maya civilization (250–1000 C.E.), 93,104

“claying”muscavado sugar from, 369in sugar industry, 369, 374

Coatsworth, John, 339, 463, 469, 480, 504cochineal (dye)

under Spanish control, 131–132in textile production, 131–132

Codice Mendocino, 375coffee industry

export boom and, 450imported foodstuffs and, 34slave trade (1650–1820) and, 212–213

Cole, Jeffrey, 203Collier, David, 284Colombia

debt consolidation in, 455export boom in, 450, 452gold exports from, 429tax structures in, 437, 452–453

colonial agricultural systems, 293–314. See alsoagriculture

Audiencias in, 305biological imports from, 298corn in, 313






586 Index

colonial agricultural systems (cont.)Council of the Indies and, 308enclaves of, 302encomiendas in, 295–297exports from, 313–314“garden,” 294Gran Transhumancia in, 300livestock and, 298–301markets for, 302, 303, 311mercedes as part of, 305, 306, 308scales of production in, 297–301Spanish monarchy and, 304–305tribute systems and, 296–297wheat cultivation in, 295

colonial institutions, 239–241credit systems in, 454, 483Iberian economic organization, 239

The Colonial Heritage of Latin America(Stein/Stein), 466

Iberian colonialism in, factors, 467colonization. See also Portuguese colonial

regime(s); Spanish colonial regime(s)Black Legend and, 161of Brazil, 245, 404–405in Caribbean, 161demographic trajectories from, 151–152,

183–184diet changes from, 150, 174–175, 277disease as factor in, 128, 525economic growth effects from, 272–273factor endowments and, 469food shortages from, 167“frontier effect” in, 241global economy (1415–1825) and, effect on, 32governing institutions and, 249internal security and, 248–254labor systems and, 232–233land access under, 260–261life expectancy rates during, 170, 277measurable costs for, 271mercantilism and, 397modernization and, 271–272mortality rates during, 170, 277native depopulation from, 146–147, 166in pre-Columbian Latin America, 92property rights under, 256–258, 260, 261racial composition as result of (c.1810), 160by revocable contract, 242–245technological innovations and, 241in Titicaca Basin, 92Triple Alliance and, 193, 196

The Colonizers Model of the World (Blaut), 26Columbus, Christopher, 7, 30, 109, 117, 360

colonial tax revenues for, 244Hispaniola and, 244, 360

Queen Isabel and, 243, 244–245revocable contract with, 244

Comercio e Obras Publicas, 455comercio libre (free trade), 411, 422

Reglamento y Aranceles Reales of 1778 and, 411commercial agriculture, 183, 230

“debt peonage” and,laborer arrangements within, 228mandatory labor drafts for, 229recruitment for, 228, 230seasonal labor for, 230, 264wage labor in, 228yanaconas in, 229

“Common Law,” 266in England, 266

community obrajes (textile shops), 384, 385Companhia de Pesca da Baleia das Costas do

Brasil, 414Companhia do Maranhao, 405Companhia Geral do Comercio, 405, 419Companhia Geral do Comercio de Pernambuco e

Paraıba, 414Companhia Geral do Comercio do Grao Para e

Maranhao, 414Companıa de Aventureros de las Minas del Real del

Monte, 347, 348Companıa Guipuzcoana de Caracas, 408, 412

goals of, 408Compendio y descripcion de las Indias Occidentales

(Espinosa), 153composicion (claims process), 250compulsory wage labor, 189, 231

in Taxco, 316–317Conde de Revillagigedo, 269Conquest of the Desert, 184conquistadores (explorers), 109, 145

colonial authority of, 244in Ecuador, 245encomiendas and, 262legal abuses under, 258

La Constancia Mexicana, 391Constitution of 1824 (Mexican), 446Consulado de Comerciantes

in Mexico, 402in Peru, 402in Spain, 417, 422

contrabandin Brazil, 419in Caribbean, 419development of, in North Atlantic colonies,

139as economic linkage, 139European military conflicts and, 419in Spanish colonies, 419trade monopolies and, 419, 420, 422






Index 587

conuco system, 80, 191Cook, N. David, 146, 163, 167Cook, O. F., 281Cook, Sherburne F., 145, 147, 149, 165, 181, 276,

294Cope, R. Douglas, 231“Cordilleran Complex,” 82

potatoes as part of, 82quinoa as part of, 82

corn (Zea maize), 83, 284chicha from, 83in colonial agricultural systems, 313in Mesoamerica, 92, 283price fluctuations for, 327as salary payment, 313tubers v., 283

Cortes Conde, Roberto, 428, 444Cortes, Fernando, 194, 195, 196Cortes, Hernan, 276, 306, 360corvee labor system, 106costs and benefits theory, 8–11

comparative methods within, 11–12investments returns as part of, 11maritime exploration and, 8

cotton textiles production, 35–36, 387–391. Seealso textile production

Banco de Avıo and, 390La Constancia Mexicana, 391English production of, 35ethnic demography for, 389as import, 35India and, 35manufacturing of, 387–391mechanization of, 390protectionist policies for, 391regional, 388–389, 390tribute systems and, 101Wars of Independence’s influence on, 390–391

Council of the Indies, 308Counter-Reformation (Europe), 13, 16craft work. See prestige craftscredit systems. See also banking institutions

colonial, 454, 483in republicas de indios, 431

Creole settler elites, 249, 250–251, 253, 482imperial governments and, 249Portuguese monarchy and, 250public office for, 262under Spanish colonial regimes, 261Spanish monarchy and, 250taxation and, 249

Crosby, Alfred, 65, 109, 129Cross, Harry, 346Crown obrajes (royal textile shops), 384, 393

of Otavalo, 384

Cruillas (Viceroy), 410cuadrillas (work crews), 227Cuba

African slave labor in, 156, 184, 193, 362, 373,465

English occupation of, 434GDP in (c.1800), 239labor systems in, 192Maya Indians in, 209sugar industry in, 360, 362Wars of Independence and, 373

Cueta, 7cumbicamayoc andacllas (Incan textile shop), 378currency systems

in Central/West Africa, 54gold as, 429Gresham’s law for, 443in Mesoamerica, early, 102–103moneda de la tierra, 430paper, in Brazil, 441, 443precious metal, 426–427, 428silver peso, 423, 429silver real, 428, 429tlaco, 430

Curtin, Philip, 58, 65, 66, 156Czettritz y Neuhaus, Baron Hermann de, 351

da Gama, Vasco, 7, 29de Acosta, Jose, 117, 275De Bry, Theodore, 361debt, consolidation, 455

in Colombia, 455in Mexico, 455in Peru, 455

debt, forced, for Iberian colonial regimes,438–440

debt, foreignfor Brazil (1824–1888), 452history of, 457loan booms and, 457, 458–459

“debt peonage,” 228debt servitude, 231Denevan, William, 147, 163Denmark

colonial trade for, 411in Spanish Caribbean, 246

Dependency School theory, 466, 486–487“Descripcion de la Villa y Minas de Potosı,” 205Diamond, Jared, 73Dias, Maria Odila, 220Dıaz del Castillo, Bernal, 102Dıaz, Porfirio, 453diet changes

childbearing and, effects on, 174from colonization, 150, 174–175, 277






588 Index

diet changes (cont.)disease susceptibility from, 174infant/child mortality rates from, 174within religious missions, 180

diezmo minero (mining tax), 435, 437disease (in Americas), 150–151

in aldeias, 164colonization and, as factor in, 128, 525from diet changes, 174economic growth and, 472endemic parameters for, 168–169epidemic chronology for, 146gastrointestinal/respiratory, 150influenza, 145malaria, 169measles, 145mining industry and, 335population estimates and, influence on,

145–146smallpox, 145, 169typhus, 145, 169yellow fever, 169

Dobado, Rafael, 498doblas (agricultural quotas), 199, 200Dobyns, Henry, 144, 147, 165domesticated animals

in Americas, pre-colonization, 115highland agriculture and, use of, 83mules, 132

dual-economy modelscommercial production in, 126distribution systems in, 126“new peoples” in, 127for Spanish colonial regimes, 126–127

Dutch East India Company, 28Dutch West India Company, 366Duviols, Pierre, 293Dye, Alan, 267

Early Horizon trade system, 90Eastern Sudan, 45ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin

America and the Caribbean), 1Economic Commission for Latin America and

the Caribbean. See ECLACeconomic history (global). See also global

economy (1415–1825)contemporary research on, 22–23scholarship on, 18–19

economic specializationdomestic production modes and, 85for market exchange, 85within pre-Columbian Latin America, 84–87prestige crafts production as, 84stone-making as, 84

Ecuadorconquistadores in, 245population increases in, 167

education, compulsory labor and, 394Eltis, David, 66eminent domain, 287encomenderos

obrajes and, 385textile production and, 376

encomenderos (labor owners), 195–196, 263, 303in Peru mining industry, 321, 322Potosı mines and, 323Taxco mine and, 316

encomiendas (labor system), 145, 153, 178,190–191, 262–263

in colonial agricultural systems, 295–297conquistadores and, 262distribution of, 192, 194encomenderos and, 195–196in Hispaniola, 262labor abolition under, 175in mining industry, 317negative effects of, 307in New Spain, 363obrajes under, 263repartimiento v., 190, 199royal, 263under Spanish caste systems, 262tribute payments under, 194, 199, 296

Engels, Max, 18engenhos (plantations with mills), 123, 215

in Brazil sugar industry, 365cost-benefits for, 365Native American slave labor on, 364technological advances of, 365

England, 11abolition of slavery by, 373Asiento de Negros and, ownership of, 407“Common Law” in, 266cotton textiles production in, 35in Cuba, occupation of, 434economic policy in, 396exports per capita (1800), 69fleet convoys for, 407Free Ports Act in, 411GDP (in 1800), 70investment in Latin America by (1825–1865),

490, 491Jamaica as territory of, 366oceanic commerce’s effect on, 33in oceanic commerce’s effect on, 33Portugal and, alliance with, 15slave trade (1650–1820) and, 63in Spanish Caribbean, 246, 247–248sugar industry in, 370, 374






Index 589

Enquiry into the Wealth of Nations (Smith), 17Enrıquez, Martın, 361entradas (private ventures), 190, 192epidemics. See also disease (in Americas)

African slave labor and, 207disease chronology for, in Americas, 146in Mexico, 169, 198within religious missions, 180–181smallpox, in Brazil, 164–165

Espinosa, Vazquez de, 153Espiritu Santo (silver mine), 317estancias (large estates), 300

livestock management through, 120, 300Etzatlan (silver mine), 317European expansion (1400–1500)

into Asia, 7, 25into Australia, 7into Central/West Africa, 7, 29counterfactual questions about, 11–12environmental factors for, 24institutional heritage as factor for, 24macro-economic models of, 10by maritime exploration, 8–9, 29metanarratives about, 7–8, 505–506technology as factor for, 23

“European Trajectory” (economic), 20export(s)

from Brazil, 449, 451bullion, to Asia, 37coffee as, 450from Colombia, 450, 452from colonial agricultural systems, 313–314economic boom for, 449–450in England, per capita (1800), 69from Latin America (1830–1870), 491from Latin America (c.1790), 412Latin American crops, 141from Mexico, 453from oceanic commerce, 30from Peru, 453from premodern manufacturing, 358slave labor as, annual rates (1450–1650), 57slave labor as, annual rates (1650–1820), 60

fanegadas, 171fanegas (tribute payment), 297farming systems, 79

conuco, 80landscape modification in, 80mahamaes and, 81“Mediterranean,” 14swamp reclamation as, 79swidden, 79, 80, 81, 147

fazendas, 123Felipe de Alencastro, Luiz, 210

Ferdinand (king of Spain), 242, 400Casa de Contratacion de Indias and, 400

Ferrocarril Oeste, 456fertility rates

among mixed races, 159in Hispaniola, 162within religious missions, 181

feudalism, 204capitalism from, 19

Figueroa, Francisco de, 181Findlay, Ronald, 486fleet convoys, 398. See also Carerra de Indias;

oceanic commerceArmada de los Mares del Sur, 403Asiento de Negros, 406Companhia do Maranhao, 405Companhia Geral do Comercio, 405for England, 407Galeones a Tierra Firma, 402, 416irregularity of, 403navıos de aviso as part of, 403navıos de azogue as part of, 403to New Spain, 410–411in oceanic commerce, 398to Peru, 402–403, 410from Portugal, 405Portuguese Treasury Council and, 405Spanish, 403, 406taxation for, 416travel routes for, 401–402

Florentine Codex for the Aztecs (Sahagun), 74Florescano, Enrique, 194Flynn, Dennis, 327foodstuffs (imported)

in China, 34coffee as, 34population growth from, 33–34surplus of, 33tea as, 34“tropical groceries,” 34

forasteros (Andean labor worker), 223, 225, 311in Peru mining industry, 330

foreign debt. See debt, foreignforeign loans. See loans, foreignFrance, 11

beet sugar industry and, 374in Brazil, 405in Hispaniola, 246, 367slave trade (1650–1820) and, 63Spain and, conflicts with, 16War of Spanish Succession and, 406–407

Franciscan missions, 179Frank, Gunder, 40Free Ports Act, in England, 411French Guinea Company, 406






590 Index

French Revolution (1789), 12“French train,” 369fueros (colonial courts), 268, 272

mercantil, 268de minerıa, 268

Galenson, David, 212Galeones a Tierra Firma, 402, 416Galvez, Jose de, 337, 338, 349Gama, Vasco da, 7, 29Gamboa, Francisco de, 338gang labor system, 216

in sugar industry, 216ganhadores (slaves for hire), 221–222

in Brazil, 221cantos and, 221Capitaes-de-canto and, 222

Garcıa Baquero, Antonio, 416Garner, Richard, 223, 327, 333, 439GDP (gross domestic product), 1, 41

in Brazil (c.1800), 239in Central/West Africa, changes in, 69in Cuba, (c.1800), 239in England (1800), 70international, by nation/region (1820–1898),

500for Latin America, relative (1900–1995), 464national independence and, immediate effects

of, 473in Peru (c.1800), 239

geographyeconomic growth and, 487, 488for Latin America, 73, 74, 124, 476regional, for Sudan, 45

Germany, beet sugar industry in, 374Gibson, Charles, 198, 201“gift trade” systems, 291global economy (1415–1825)

colonization’s effect on, 32endogenous forces on, 33“European Trajectory” in, 20exogenous forces on, 32–33history construction for, 22, 23–24Western Europe in, 27

globalizationLatin America and, 501oceanic commerce’s effect on, 29, 398

gold bullion. See also bullionBrazilian exports of, 429in Central/West Africa, 52Chilean exports of, 429Chinese demand for, 328Colombian exports of, 429as currency, 429immigration and, 155

silver bullion v., production ratios, 398–399slave trade and, 61stockpiling of, 427

gold mining, 171, 413. See also mining industryin Brazil, 210, 413in Mexico, 316at Xaltepec, 317

Gonzalez, Manuel, 453Gootenberg, Paul, 448Gran Colombia, 481Gran Transhumancia, 300Great Depression, 22Great Plague, 11“great predators,” 32gross domestic product. See GDPgrowth, economic

in Argentina, 489–490banking institutions and, 455within Central American Federation, 489colonial mercantilist policies and, 392from colonization, 272–273disease as factor for, 472exogenous/indigenous factors for, 472, 475free trade and, 454geography as factor for, 394, 487, 488illiteracy and, 394Latin America v. Africa/Asia, 471–479legislative adaptation as factor for, 454from maritime exploration (Europe), 9Mexico mining industry and, 335–339national independence and, 465–466, 475regional taxation as factor for, 394transport costs and, 394

growth, populationin China, 39from immigration, 183from imported foodstuffs, 33–34in Mexico, rates for, 151in Peru, 302wage labor and, 230–231

Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe, 284Guanajuato (mine), 335

Anglo-Mexican Mining Association in, 348as production center, 348–349

Guatemala, Ministerio de Fomento in, 455Guerra, Francisco, 162Guns, Germs, and Steel (Diamond), 73Gur-Voltaic language (Africa), 47

Haber, Stephen, 463, 482hacendados (Spanish landowners), 124haciendas (great estate), 251, 262

hacendados and, 124harvest labor on, 263land domination as result of, 120, 121–122






Index 591

livestock, 119mixed, 118–119in Pacific Highlands, 118peasant villages and, 119types of, 118–119

haciendas de beneficio (ore refineries), 226Haiti

abolition of slavery in, 373revolution in 1792, 371

Hamilton, Alexander, 440Hamilton, Earl, 325Hapsburg family, 246Haskett, Robert, 196, 200Hecksher-Ohlin model, 486Herodotus, 17highland agriculture (Latin America), 81–84. See

also agriculturecamellones as part of, 82chinampas in, 82“Cordilleran Complex” and, 82corn’s role in, 83domesticated animals’ role in, 83floodwater irrigation systems as part of, 81qocha, 83swidden farming system as part of, 81terracing in, 81verticality in, 91–92

Hispaniola. See also Spanish CaribbeanAfrican slave labor in, 193Columbus, Christopher, and, 244, 360encomiendas in, 262fertility rates in, 162France in, 246, 367French seizure of, 246influenza in, 162Native Americans as slave labor in, 193Spanish population in, 162sugar industry in, 361–362

Historia natural y moral de las Indias (de Acosta),275

Hodgson, Marshal, 25Hualgayoc (mine), 341

capital investment for, 342discovery of, 342–343

Huantar, Chavın de, 90Huaracane sites, in Titicaca Basin, 92Huayana Capac (Incan Emperor), 146Humboldt, Alexander von, 143, 157, 239Hume, David, 17Hunefeldt, Christine, 220, 221

Iberia. See also Portugal; SpainAfrican slave trade and, 207bullion surplus and, 37“Civil Law” in, 267

colonial bureaucracy of, in American colonies,254–255, 256

early economic histories for, 14–15economic organization in, 239immigration from, 152–156legal systems in, 266–268, 270‘Mediterranean’ farming systems in, 14mercantilism in, 396–400monarchies in, 13native goods v. imports in, 421“Reconquest” of, 239Roman Catholic Church and, 255

Iberian colonial regimes. See also peripheralcolonial regime(s); Portuguese colonialregime(s); Spanish colonial regime(s)

forced debt in, 438–440monetary systems in, 426–431peripheral,taxation for, 431–438

Iberian legal systems, 266–268, 270codification of, 267Recopilacion de leyes de las Indias, 267reforms in, 272social instability as result of, 269–270

illegal trade. See contrabandimmigration, 152–156

to Brazil, 155, 156demographic growth from, 183gender demographics of, 153gold discovery and, 155from Portugal, 155–156restriction of, in Mexico, 488from Spain, 152–155

‘imperial meridian,’ 7, 12imperialism

private-public partnership in, 12by revocable contract, 244in Spain, development of, 12–13

import(s)biological, from Americas, 298into China, 56, 334European military conflicts and, 422from Iberia, 421oceanic commerce’s effect on, 33from Peru, 354–355

Incan empire, 105, 149, 276barter exchange within, 103formal reciprocity as part of, 95Huayana Capac and, 146integrated economies within, 87khipu in, 100labor systems within, 98–99land use within, 149mamkuna and, 87mass marriages within, 150






592 Index

Incan empire (cont.)in Mesoamerica, 95–96m’ita within, 98, 262, 287mitmaqkuna within, 98–99population estimates for, 145population policies within, 150potato production for, 87pre-colonial land use in, 149, 286, 287–288prestige craft production for, 87property rights in, 257redistribution principles of, 87as “socialist state,” 289Spondylus shells in, 95transport systems within, 97tribute systems for, 100, 149yana within, 98, 99

income(s)national independence effects on, 483per capita, in Asia, 23per capita, in Latin America, 469, 499, 502redistribution of, 496, 502from taxes, Mexico (1826–1831), 447from taxes, New Spain (1795–1799), 436tribute taxes and, 435

independence. See national independenceIndia

cotton textiles production in, 35early technical advances in, 20oceanic commerce with, 29

indigenous peoples. See Native Americansindios de servicio, 192

mandatory labor drafts and, 197indirect governance, 478Industrial Revolution, 11, 12industrialization (1820–1850), 66–68

slave trade’s effect on (1650–1820), 66–67influenza, 145. See also disease (in Americas)

in Hispaniola, 162infrastructure development

after national independence, 479foreign loans for, 459from oceanic commerce, 28, 31

ingenios (sugar mills), 363interest rates

imported bullion’s effect on, 38in Spain, adjustments of, 248

Irigoin, Alejandra, 444irrigated agriculture, 281, 294

chacras hundidas, 280chinampas, 149, 279in Mexico, 313open canal, 281

“Irrigation Civilization: A Comparative Study,”284

Isabella (queen of Spain), 242, 400

American colonies under, 242, 243–244Casa de Contratacion de Indias and, 400Columbus, Christopher, and, 243, 244–245

De las Islas del Mar Oceano (Rubios), 305

Jackson, Robert, 181Jamaica. See also Spanish Caribbean

as English territory, 366sugar industry in, 362

“Jamaica trains,” 369, 374, 392Jesuit(s). See also aldeias

expulsion from Brazil, 371missions, 179, 255

Jesuit missions, 179, 255aldeias and, 164in Brazil, 255shifting cultivation under, 180tribal resistance to, 179–180

Joao III (king of Portugal), 245Johnson, Lyman, 223Jose Reis, Joao, 221Joseph I (king of Portugal), 433Just Wars, 190, 196juzgados de indios (colonial courts), 268

Karasch, Mary, 222khipu (knotted string system, Incan), 100Klein, Herbert, 174, 219, 229, 433, 480Knight, Franklin, 207Kroeber, Alfred, 144, 147Krugman, Paul, 487Kuznets, Simon, 22Kwa language (Africa), 47

La Luz (mine), 349La Palata, Duke of, 225, 330La Paz (mine), 329La Plata, Peru, 321labor system(s). See also encomenderos;

encomiendas; m’ita; repartimiento; wagelabor; yanaconas

in Andes, 201–206within Aztec empire, 99colonization and, 232–233corvee, 106in Cuba, 192doblas under, 199, 200encomiendas as, 145, 153, 178, 190–191, 262–263entradas and, 190gang, 216in Incan empire, 98–99“leverage of labor” within, 187mandatory drafts within, 197–199Native American social structures and, 185population changes and, 186






Index 593

in pre-Columbian Latin America, 97–99in Puerto Rico, 192regulation of, by Spanish, 178relocation costs in, 197slave trade and, 187in Spanish Caribbean, 188–193wage distribution as part of, 187

labores, livestock management through, 120labradores (Spanish farmers), 199Ladd, Doris, 226land tenure systems, 259–260. See also property

rightsland use, post-colonial

in Americas, 116, 129, 140in Andes, estimates for, 149changes in, 141population changes and, 173

land use, pre-colonial, 285–286in Andes, 286chuno and, 286crops for, 286eminent domain and, 287exchange principle and, 290–291family cycle and, 286within Incan empire, 149, 286, 287–288management rights for, 287in Mexico, 286redistribution principles for, 289–290terrazgueros and, 286, 288, 296Triple Alliance and, 286, 287, 290

Landes, David, 464, 465Langer, Erick, 227Langue, Frederique, 226Larson, Brooke, 186Las Navas de Tolosa, 240Latin America(n)

Africa/Asia economic growth v., 471–479African slave labor in, 157colonial era in, 2–4development factors within, 74–75English investment in (1825–1865), 490, 491export crops of, 141exports from (1830–1870), 491exports from (c.1790), 412geographic definitions for, 124geographic diversity of, 73, 74, 476globalization and, 501historiography of, 135loan booms in, 457, 458–459migrant labor history in, 232mixed race population estimates (pre-1800),

143monetary systems in, 424nation-states formation in, 232Native population estimates (pre-1800), 143

net barter terms of trade for (c.1811–1880),495

1982 economic crisis in, 1per capita income levels in, 469, 499, 502peripheral colonies in,political transitions in, 2purchasing power of (1830–1870), 491–493,

494railroads’ effect in, 142relative GDP for (1900–1995), 464U.S. economic performance v., 499, 501

Latin America (pre-Columbian)altiplano-coastal exchange in, 95conuco farming system in, 80development factors within, 74–75domestic modes of production in, 77economic development trajectory for, 76economic specialization within, 84–87ethnic colonization in, 92extinct societies in, 104–105family structure in, 77farm crops in, 78–79farming systems in, 79foraging strategies in, 78highland agriculture in, 81–84hominid entrance into, 77labor systems in, 97–99land use in, 77–84markets in, 102–103population dynamics for, 148–151prestige crafts production in, 84property rights in, 257reciprocal economic exchange in, 88redistribution principles within, 88road systems in, 74stone making in, 84storable food in, 75–76swidden system in, 79Titikaka Basin in, 92trade systems in, 88–96transportation within, 96–97tribute systems in, 88, 99–102tropical agriculture in, 78–81

lavradores (cane growers), 124, 215“Law of Brotherhood,” 290Leff, Nathaniel, 470, 471

on domestic v. external sector productivity,470

legal systemsin Iberia, 266–268, 270Spanish colonial, 268written laws as part of, 267

legal systems, Spanish colonial, 268fueros as part of, 268juzgados de indios as part of, 268






594 Index

legal systems, Spanish colonial (cont.)Ordenanzas de Bilbao, 268special courts in, 268

Leon, Cieza de, 287, 289Lesser Antilles (“useless islands nearby”),

192abolition of slavery in, 373foreign seizure of, 246, 366–367

“leverage of labor,” 187Libby, Robert, 220life expectancy rates

during colonization, 170, 277in early Mexico, 150–151

Lindo-Fuertes, Hector, 450livestock haciendas, 119livestock management, 114, 120–122, 301

by Africans, influence of, 110agro-pastoralism as result of, 121chacras and, 120commercial agricultural as result of, 121through encomiendas, 120through estancias, 120through labores, 120for Spanish, 113viceregal centers’ role in, 119

llamas. See camelidsloans, foreign

booms for, 457, 458–459imperial bonds and, 458for infrastructure, 459for Latin America, combined (1850–1875),

459for military, 458for public works, 458for refinancing, 458

Lopez de Quiroga, Antonio, 332

Macera, Pablo, 333Maddison, Angus, 23, 104Maeder, Ernesto, 181Magellan, Ferdinand, 403mahamaes (sunken fields), 81maize. See corn (Zea maize)malaria, 169. See also disease (in Americas)

from Anopheles mosquitoes, 169mamelucos (mixed race), 159mamkunas (Incan weavers), 87

in Aqlla Wasi, 87mandatory labor drafts, 197–199. See also labor

system(s)for commercial agriculture, 229indios de servicio and, 197in Mexico, 226–227for mining industry, 200mita and, 204population for, 205

resettlement under, 199yanaconas, 202

Mande language (Africa), 47Manrique, Juan del Pino, 345manufacturing, pre-modern

cotton textiles, 387–391for exported goods, 358market size as factor for, 358sugar industry, 375textile industry, 360

Mapuche tribe, 178warfare among, 179

Marichal, Carlos, 480maritime exploration (Europe)

into Americas, 8–9, 29in costs and benefits theory, 8published histories of, 9–10

market(s)for colonial agricultural systems, 302, 303,

311in pre-Columbian Latin America, 102–103Tlatelolco, 102, 127urban, African slave labor in, 220–221

“market trade” systems, 291Markham, 289Marques de Pombal, 413. See also Pombaline

reformsMarrero, Gustavo, 498Martınez, Hildeberto, 306Martins Filho, Amılcar, 219Marx, Karl, 9, 17, 18, 28Marxism, 18

“canonical texts” in, 20capitalism and, 18historical scholarship for, 20“modes of production” in, 18, 20

Matienzo, Juan de, 204Matrıcula de Tributos, 375Maximilian, Archduke, 458Maya Indians, 209measles, 145. See also disease (in Americas)

endemic parameters for, 169Medina, Bartolome de, 320‘Mediterranean’ farming systems, in Iberia, 14Mendoza, Antonio de, 299mercantilism. See also trade, colonial

bullion’s role in, 397colonization and, 397English economic policy and, 396historiography of, 396–397in Iberia, 396–400precious metals and, 397, 399Spanish, goals of, 397–398

mercedes (private land grants), 259, 309in colonial agricultural systems, 305, 306,

308






Index 595

mercuryamalgamation, 324mining production for, 326–327, 333shortages of, 335

Mesoamerica. See also Latin America(pre-Columbian)

Aztec empire in, 94–95corn as crop in, 92, 283early currency usage in, 102–103early trade systems in, 93–94environmental zones in, 92–93markets in, 102–103riots in, 251Teotihuacan society in, 104textile production in, 375tierra caliente in, 92tierra frıa in, 92tierra templada in, 92

Mesta monopoly, 398mestizos, 127, 132, 153, 159. See also mixed

race(s)public office and, 262under Spanish colonial regimes, 261

metallurgy, as prestige craft, 86–87metanarratives, about European expansion, 7–8,

27metropolitan exactions, 439

European military conflicts and, 439from Mexico, 439

Mexica empire. See MexicoMexico. See also Mesoamerica

abolition of slavery in, 373African slave labor in, 157, 226Banco Nacional de Amortizacion del Cobre in,

443cacao production in, 171Casa de Moneda de Mexico in, 429castas population in, 159Chichimecas tribe in, 275city-states in, 149colonization costs in, 271Constitution of 1824, 446Consulado de Comerciantes in, 402debt consolidation in, 455depopulation in, 165disease epidemics in, 169, 198economic decline of, 497–498export history of, 453fanegas in, 297female labor force in, 231–232fiscal remittances by, to Spain, 435fiscal surplus in, 434geographic proximity of, to Spain, 171immigration laws in, 488imperial bonds in, 458industrialization in, 394

infant mortality rates in, 170irrigated agriculture in, 313life expectancy rates in, 150–151livestock in, 299mandatory labor drafts in, 226–227metropolitan exactions from, to Spain, 439naborıos in, 226national independence in, 488obrajes in, 386paleodemographic studies for, 277–278population estimates for (1492), 147, 276,

277population growth rates in, 151precious metals in, market values, 340pre-colonial land use in, 286property rights in, pre-colonization, 257, 258repartimiento in, 226resettlement decrees in, 309Secretarıa de Fomento in, 455silver in, 56, 316, 328slave labor emancipation in, 67slave rebellions in, 252smallpox in, 169sugar industry in, 171Tacuba, 149tax income of (1826–1831), 447tax reform in, 446tax revenues of (1867–1910), 453Tenochtitlan, 147, 149Texcoco, 149timbre in, 453tlaco in, 430tribute rates in, 297, 311typhus in, 169U.S. invasion of, 449viceroys arrival in, 245warfare effects in, 151Wars of Independence in, 270, 372, 449wheat cultivation in, 312

Middle East, oceanic commerce with, 29Middle Passage, 210Minas Gerais (Brazil), 219–220

African slave population in, 220internal markets in, 220

Ming Empire, 39mingas (wage labor workers), 224

mita v., 224–225mining industry. See also silver mining

African slave labor population for, 172, 200in Andes, 171–172, 224–226in Bolivia, 350, 353“Castilian” ovens in, 319diezmo minero and, 435, 437disease’s effect on, 335encomiendas in, 317European war’s influence on, 335






596 Index

mining industry (cont.)excavation technology for, 336for gold, 171, 210, 316, 317, 413labor shortages in, 319mandatory labor drafts for, 200mortality rates from, 172Native American depopulation from, 171–172New Laws of 1542 and, 317obrajes v., 380–381in Peru, 320–324, 498refining process in, 203repartimiento in, 317taxation for, 319, 435–436unskilled workers in, 203Wars of Independence and, effects on,

346–347, 441–442worker population in, 205yanaconas in, 203, 330

mining industry, Bolivia, 350, 353Chilean and Peruvian Mining Association

and, 351silver, 354

mining industry, Brazil. See also mining industrysilver, 334

mining industry, Mexico. See also miningindustry

African slave labor in, 226, 318Anglo-Mexican Mining Association and,

348Bourbon reforms for, 339Companıa de Aventureros de las Minas del Real

del Monte and, 347, 348cuadrillas in, 227forms of payment in, 227gold in, 316growth rates for, annual, 335–339at Guanajuato, 335, 348–349haciendas de beneficio in, 226at La Luz, 349mestizos in, 226Mining Tribunal for, 227naborıos in, 226, 317, 318, 319partido in, 226, 337, 338at Real del Monte, 336, 337repartimiento in, 226, 318at San Jose de los Muchachos, 350silver, 316, 328taxation for, 319, 435–436tequıo in, 319United-Mexican Mining Company and,

349–350wages from, 226–227at Zacatecas, 317–318, 326, 335, 338, 442

mining industry, Peru, 320–324at Cailloma, 329capital investment for, 333

at Carangas, 329at Castrovirreyna, 329at Cerro de Pasco, 341, 343at Chucuito, 329encomenderos in, 321, 322forasteros in, 330at Hualgayoc (mine), 341, 342–343La Plata origins and, 321labor census for, 341–342labor organization in, 324–325mercury amalgamation in, 324at Oruro, 329at Pasco, 329Pizarro, Gonzalo, and, 321at Porco, 321at Potosı, 201, 320, 321, 329, 330, 331,

343–344production decline in, 333Royal Mining Tribunal and, 342, 343silver, 56, 325, 329, 334–335, 339–342, 498taxation for, 333Tribunal of Mining, 342tributes systems and, 324

Mining Tribunal, 227mints, Casa de Moneda de Mexico, 429missions, religious

diet changes in, 180epidemics within, 180–181fertility rates within, 181Franciscan, 179infantilization in, 182Jesuit, 179mortality rates within, 181under Portuguese colonial regimes, 179–182

m’ita (obligatory labor), 175, 204, 229, 262,287

in Andean colonies, 264as labor system, 98minga v., 224–225at Potosı mines, 344in Potosı mines, 224tribute systems and, 297as reciprocal exchange, 98

mitmaqkuna (Incan labor), 98–99Mitre, Antonio, 443mixed race(s), 151, 152–161

castas and, 127in Central/West Africa, 58estimated population (pre-1800), in Latin

America, 143fertility rates within, 159mamelucos, 159mestizos as, 127, 132, 153, 159mulattos as, 127, 132, 159republica de espanoles, 158republica de indios, 158






Index 597

from sex ratios, 158women’s role in, 159

Moche society, 104“modes of production,” 18–19

Asiatic, 20in Marxism, 18nonprogressive, 19

Monclova, Count, 330moneda de la tierra (non-metallic currency), 430moneda feble (light coins), 354monetary systems

dual, 430–431gold/silver stockpiling and, 427in Iberian colonial regimes, 426–431in Latin America, 424precious metal currency and, 426–427, 428state formation as factor of, 441–445

monopolies. See trade, monopolies (1500–1700)monotones (mounds), 79Morgan, Philip, 211Morineau, Michel, 428mortality rates

in Americas, factors for, 150in Caribbean, 162during colonization, 170, 277from diet change, 174infant, in Mexico, 170from mining industry, 172within religious missions, 181

Mothes, Federico, 342Mozambique, slave trade (1650–1820) and,

68mulattos, 127, 132, 159. See also mixed race(s)

in Brazil, 159social categorization of, 57

mules, 132Munoz Camargo, Diego, 276, 277Murra, John V., 283, 288, 289, 292muscavado sugar, 369

naborıas de repartimiento, 191naborıas (voluntary laborers), 223

in Mexican mining, 226, 317, 318, 319Nao de China (ship), 404Napoleonic codes, 266national independence

within Central American Federation, 481, 489costs and benefits of, 466economic growth and, 465–466, 475Gran Colombia after, 481income losses from, 483income redistribution from, 496, 502indirect governance and, 478infrastructure development after, 479inherited institutions’ effect on, 478, 484in Mexico, 488

nation size as factor in, 478per capita GDP as result of, 473for Peru, 483, 488–489as political shock, 475–478transaction cost increases after, 485, 502in Viceroyalty of the River Plate, 484–485Viceroyalty of the River Plate after, 481

Native AmericansAfrican slave labor and, 157Buritica, 90–91in Caribbean, post-colonization, 152in Caribbean, pre-colonization, 161depopulation of, factors, 146–147mining industry’s effect on, 171–172Olmec, 89–90population estimates for (1492), 143, 144–147,

148population estimates for (c.1800), 143population estimates for, in Brazil, 152, 163population estimates for, in Caribbean, 152as slave labor, 178, 189, 193, 251, 364, 367, 382under Spanish caste systems, 262Spanish monarchy definitions for, 250

navıos de aviso (dispatch ships), 403navıos de azogue (mercury transport ships), 403Neoclassical trade theory, 486, 496

Heckscher-Ohlin model in, 486The Netherlands, 11

in Brazil, 405slave trade and, 59–60in Spanish Caribbean, 246sugar industry and, 366

New Granada. See ColombiaNew Laws of 1542, 193, 198

mining industry and, 317Native American slavery under, 178

New Spain. See also MexicoAfrican slave labor population in, 208Casa de Moneda de Mexico in, 429“Century of Depression” for, 326encomiendas in, 363fleet convoys to, 410–411labor distribution in, for mining industry, 318obrajes in, 378, 381, 382repartimiento in, 264, 363slave labor in, legality of, 196sugar industry in, 360–361, 363–364tax income of (1795–1799), 436Viceroyalty of, 320, 383woolen cloth production in, 377

Newland, Carlos, 493, 496Nickel, Herbert, 230Niger-Congo languages (Africa), 46–47

Adamawa-Ubangi, 47Afro-Asiatic languages and, 48Atlantic, 47






598 Index

Niger-Congo languages (Africa) (cont.)Benue-Congo, 47Gur/Voltaic, 47Kwa, 47Mande, 47primary crops for, 47

Nordenflicht, Baron, 345North, Douglass, 468North Atlantic colonies, 138–142

contraband development in, 139production/distribution controls in, by

Spanish, 138–140Numeracion General, 170

obrajes (textile shops), 131, 231African slave labor in, 383Audience de Quito, 378community, 384, 385criminals and, 131crown, 384, 393cumbicamayoc andacllas v., 378development of, 131encomenderos and, 385under encomiendas, 263labor recruitment for, 386in Mexico, 386mining industry v., 380–381Native American slave labor in, 382in New Spain, 378, 381, 382pano, 377–387in Peru, 378, 379, 387private, 385size of, 377in Spain, 378

obrajes de pano (wool textile shops), 377–387price declines and, 380

oceanic commerce. See also maritime exploration(Europe)

from Cadiz, Spain, 401early profits as result of, 31English, 33European monopoly over, 29exports from, 30globalization as result of, 29, 398imports surplus as result of, 33infrastructure extension from, 31infrastructure investments in, 28institutional formation from, 31outlays for, 28Portuguese colonial regimes and, 136from Seville, Spain, 400–401in 1600s, 29–30Spanish colonial regimes and, 137–138state formation as result of, 31transpacific, 403War of Jenkins’ Ear’s influence on, 409

Olmec (Native Americans), 89–90Omo sites, 92Ondegardo, Polo de, 287, 289, 292Ordenanzas de Bilbao (commercial code),

268organized labor. See also labor system(s); wage

laborin Peru mining industry, 324–325

“Oriental despotism,” 281, 284Ortiz, Javier, 496Oruro (mine), 329, 331–332Ovando, Nicolas de, 189, 190, 191, 192, 262

Pachuca mines, 320Pacific highlands colonies (in Americas)

agro-pastoralism in, 118haciendas in, 118Spanish in, 118–122

Palacios, Guillermo, 219Palerm, Angel, 284Paraguay, 361Parera, Blas, 289Paroissien, James, 351partido (ore-sharing arrangement), 227

in Mexico mining industry, 226, 337,338

pastoralism. See agro-pastoralismPastore, Mario, 485Patch, Robert, 130peasant villages, haciendas and, 119Pedro II (king of Portugal), 246peripheral colonial regime(s),

Mapuche tribe in, 178tribal warfare and, 178, 181

PeruAfrican slave labor in, 157, 208, 373banking institutions in, 456castas population in, 159cloth transport within, 379Consulado de Comerciantes in, 402debt consolidation in, 455economic history of, 424export boom in, 453fleet convoys to, 402–403, 410GDP in (c.1800), 239livestock and, 299mining industry in, 320–324, 498moneda de la tierra in, 430national independence for, 483,

488–489native depopulation in, 302–303obrajes in, 378, 379, 387population growth in, 302reform efforts in, 331sheep regions in, 377silver bullion imports from, 354–355






Index 599

sugar industry in, 361as Viceroyalty, 245, 363, 380, 383, 434

Peru-Bolivian Union, 481peso. See silver pesoPhilip II (king of Spain), 204, 276, 308, 309Philip III (king of Spain), 383Pizarro, Gonzalo, 245, 321

Alvarez, Antonio, and, 321plantation systems. See also engenhos; slave labor,

Africansin Brazil, 214–216initial expenditures for, 215for Portuguese, 113resistance to, 215sugar industry and, 122

Platt, Christopher, 467, 503pochteca (Aztec merchants), 94, 95, 96, 103Polanyi, Karl, 288, 289, 290, 291poles de croissance, 30Polo de Ondegardo, Juan, 204Pombal, Sebastian de. See Carvalho e Mello,

Sebastiao Jose dePombaline reforms, 241

colonial trade and, 413, 414, 422, 433government-sponsored companies under,

414population estimates. See also growth,

populationof African descent, in Americas, 70archeological evidence for, 144from Aztec codices, 144for Caribbean (c.1492), 147in Central/West Africa (c.1500), 44, 53decreases in, from slave trade (1650–1820), 61,

65, 66disease as factor in, 145–146for Incan empire, 145methodology for, 144, 145for Mexico (c.1492), 147, 151, 276, 277for mixed races, in Latin America (pre-1800),

143for Native Americans (c.1492), 143, 144–147,

148for Native Americans (c.1800), 143for Spain (c.1492), 146from tax records, 145for tierra caliente, 93warfare as effect on, in Mexico, 151

porcelain, 35Porco (mine), 321

“Castilian” ovens at, 322“portmanteau biota,” 109, 124, 129

Spanish colonizers and, 129–130, 132specialized knowledge for, 130species adaptation for, 114

Portobello Fairs, 407

Portugal, 11, 13, 15African exploration (early) by, 11, 397African workers in, 55–56colonial exploitation of, 14Cueta conquest by, 7economic recovery for (1400–1500), 12England and, alliance with, 15exogenous factors for, 12fleet convoys from, 405immigration from, 155–156Native American slavery and, 251in slave trade (1650–1820), 420Spanish unification with, 247Treasury Council in, 405

Portuguese colonial regime(s)African slave labor in, 265–266indigenous culture’s influence on, 134–138missionary activity under, 179–182monetary systems in, 426–431oceanic commerce and, 136plantation systems for, 113settlement locations for, 122–125, 135in South America, 113Spanish colonial regimes v., 137taxation in, 431–438Tupinamba under, 164

Portuguese monarchyBrazil sugar industry and, 371Creole settler elites and, 250Joao III, 245Joseph I, 433Pedro II, 246

potatoes, 284chuno from, 283chunu from, 82, 91, 150

Potosı mines. See also mining industry, Peruannual production rates for, 343–344Cerro Rico, 201, 320, 321, 329, 332, 350encomenderos and, 323mingas in, 224mita labor drafts at, 224mita rent at, 344, 345production declines at, 330, 331, 350–351Royal Bank of San Carlos and, 345silver market values from, 341silver production in, 329–330, 339voluntary migration to, 225yanaconas in, 321–322, 323, 325

The Potosı, La Paz, and Peruvian MiningAssociation (The Potosı Company), 351,352–353

Prebisch, Raul, 486, 487precious metals. See also gold bullion; silver

bullionin China, exchange rates for, 328as currency, 426–427, 428






600 Index

precious metals (cont.)market values for, in Mexico, 340mercantilism and, 397, 399shipments of, 316

pre-Columbian Latin America. See LatinAmerica (pre-Columbian)

Prem, Hanns, 306prestige crafts. See also tribute system(s)

ceramics, 86as economic specialization, 84for Incas, 87lapidary specialization, 86metallurgy, 86–87textile production as, 86

private obrajes, 385wages in, 385–386

property rightsin Aztec empire, 257under colonization, 256–258, 260, 261foreclosures and, 260in Incan empire, 257land tenure systems and, 259–260in Mexico, pre-colonization, 257, 258mortgage credit and, 260pre-Columbian, 257private, 259under Spanish colonial regimes, 258–259

property rights, private, 259in Andean colonies, 258, 259in Brazil, 259in Caribbean, 259castas and, 259mercedes and, 259in Mexico, 259

Proyecto de Flotas y Galeones, 408Puerto Rico

African slave labor in, 193labor systems in, 192sugar industry in, 360, 362

Puig, Francis, 391

Qing Empire, 39qocha agriculture (Latin America), 83quilombos (escaped slave communities), 215quinoa, 82Quiroga, Vasco de, 198Quiroz, Alfonso, 483

race mixing. See mixed race(s)railroads

development of, 142in Latin America, effects of, 142

raw materials (imported), 34cotton, 35porcelain, 35raw silk, 34

Razo, Armando, 482Real del Monte (mine), 336, 337, 348Real Proyecto. See Proyecto de Flotas y Galeonesreciprocal exchange, 88

hierarchy of, 288–289in Incan empire, 95m’ita as, 98

Recopilacion de leyes de las Indias, 267cedulas as part of, 267

reforms, legal, in Iberia, 272reforms, taxation (1820–1850), 445–449

in Mexico, 446US federalist model for, 445, 450, 481

reforms, tradeof Bourbons, 183, 241, 268, 337, 420, 422,

433colonial (1700s), 405–414, 420–421Pombaline reforms, 241, 413, 414, 422,

433of Spanish monarchy, 420

Regla, Count of, 336, 338. See also Romero deTerreros, Pedro

repartimiento (tribute laborers), 191, 192,204

abuses within, 201centralized, 198depopulation and, 263encomiendas v., 190in Mexican mining, 226, 318in mining industry, 317Native Americans as, 363in New Spain, 264, 363quotas as part of, 263repartimiento de mercancıas, 296, 311, 376, 379,

380under Spanish caste system, 262wages for, 200

repartimiento de mercancıas, 296, 311, 376, 379,380

republica de los espanoles, 158, 261under Spanish colonial regimes, 261

republicas de indios, 158, 261credit systems in, 431under Spanish colonial regimes, 261

Reyes Catholicos (Spain), 7Roman Catholic Church

Iberia and, 255Spain and, 255

Romano, Ruggiero, 429Romero de Terreros, Pedro, 337, 338, 347Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 444Rosenblat, Angel, 147Rostworowski, Marıa, 91Royal Bank of San Carlos, 345Royal Decree of 1765 (Spain), 411

trade reform and, 411






Index 601

Royal Mining Tribunal, 342, 343Rubios, Palacios, 305rum production, 371

Sa, Mem de (governor-general), 164Sachs, Jeffrey, 472Sahagun, Bernardino de, 74Sahel, 45sales tax, 432Salvucci, Linda, 483, 493, 497Salvucci, Richard, 381, 483, 493, 497San Jose de los Muchachos (mine), 350Sanders, W. T., 284Sandoval, Alonso de, 210Santa Cruz, Andres de, 443Santillan, Hernando de, 289Sanz, Francisco de Paula, 345

Caroline Code and, 345–346Sao Tome, 361Sauer, Carl, 283savanna (African), 44–45

agriculture in, 45animal husbandry in, 51field crops in, 50fishing industry in, 51

Scheutz, Mardith, 181Schwartz, Stuart, 136, 207Se obedece, pero no se cumple (it [the law] is

obeyed but not fulfilled or complied with),254

senhores de engenho (Brazilian landowner), 124Service, Elman, 134

on Eurocolonial orientations, 134–135Seven Years War, 248Seville, Spain

Consulado de Comerciantes in, 400oceanic commerce from, 400–401

sheep management. See also obrajes de pano(wool textile shops)

in Peru, 377silk, raw, 34silver bullion, 30. See also bullion; silver mining

from Americas, 56in Americas, production of, 141Chinese demand for, 56, 328, 334coins from, 423, 428, 429devaluation of, 329European prices for, 334gold bullion v., production ratios, 398–399importation of, 37market values for, Mexican, 328market values for, Peru, 334market values for, Potosı mines, 341Peruvian imports of, 354–355religious tithing of, 427–428stockpiling of, 427

silver mining. See also mining industry; miningindustry, Mexico; mining industry, Peru

annual growth rates, Peru, 339–342aviadores and, 337in Bolivia, 354in Brazil, 334at Caja Real, 326capital investments for, 336at Espiritu Santo, 317at Etzatlan, 317at Guachinango, 317in Mexico, 56, 316, 328in Peru, 56, 325, 329, 334–335, 339–342,

498in Potosı mines, 329–330, 339at Sultepec, 316at Taxco, 316at Xocotlan, 317at Zacatecas, 317–318, 326at Zumpango del Rio, 316

silver peso, 423, 429, 441common terms for, 428value of, 428

Simpson, Lesley Byrd, 147, 189, 299, 306Singer, Hans, 487slave labor, Africans, 158, 206–222. See also

abolition of slaveryacquired rights for, 214in Americas, 43, 66, 207–208annual export rates for (1450–1650), 57auctions as part of, 210–211biological impact of, on agriculture, 109in Brazil, 67, 123, 155, 184, 209–210, 364, 373,

404castas and, 157within Central/West Africa, 52credit systems within, 211in Cuba, 156, 184, 193, 362, 373, 465demand patterns for, 206–213emancipation of, 67–68epidemics within, 207evolution of, effects, 21, 30in Hispaniola, 193initial destinations of, 56in Latin America, 157, 465in Mexican mines, 226, 318in Mexico, 157Middle Passage and, 210in Minas Gerais, 220for mining industry, 172, 200Native American depopulation and, 206Native American labor and, 157in New Spain, population estimates, 208nonslave production v., 219in obrajes, 383in Peru, 157, 208, 373






602 Index

slave labor, Africans (cont.)Portuguese, 420in Portuguese colonial regimes, 265–266power dynamics for, 213, 214in Puerto Rico, 193in South Atlantic colonies, 123trans-Atlantic deliveries of, 56transportation estimates for (1500–1750), 58in urban labor markets, 220–221in Venezuela, 208, 373

slave labor, Native Americans, 157, 178, 251. Seealso abolition of slavery

in Caribbean, 189, 193on engenhos, 364in New Spain sugar industry, 367in obrajes, 382

slaveowners, 216. See also ganhadoresslave rebellions, 251, 252–253

in Andes, 252in Mexico, 252

slave trade (1650–1820), 59–66abolition of, in Spanish colonial regimes, 184,

258African depopulation from, 61, 65, 66within Angola, 68annual export rates for, 60arrival totals for (American colonies), 66Asiento de Negros as part of, 406, 419Benin and, 61coffee industry and, 212–213demography of, 64–65Dutch wars’ effect on, 59England and, 63France and, 63gender balance in, 62–63, 64gold bullion and, 61goods exchange within, 65Iberia and, 207industrialization and (1820–1850), effect on,

66–67kidnapping as part of, 63labor systems and, 187market data for, 211–212within Mozambique, 68Native Americans and, 178The Netherlands and, 59–60organization of, 213–217Portugal and, 420post-1820, 66price fluctuations within, 61, 68, 212for sugar industry, 59, 209, 359, 361

Slenes, Robert, 219smallpox, 145. See also disease (in Americas)

in Brazil, 164–165in Caribbean, 162

in Central/West Africa, 58endemic parameters for, 168in Mexico, 169vaccinations for, 183

Smith, Adam, 9, 17, 26, 423, 433Smith, Clifford, 167Society of Jesus. See JesuitsSouth Atlantic colonies (in Americas), 122–125

African labor usage in, 122agro-pastoralism in, 122indigenous slaves in, 123

South Sea Company, 407Spain, 11, 12–14, 15–16. See also Iberia

abolition of slavery by, in Americas, 251Asiento de Negros in, formation of, 419Cadiz, 401colonial defense forces for, 247colonial exploitation by, 14colonial trade companies, 408–409Companıa Guipuzcoana de Caracas and, 408Consulado de Comerciantes in, 400, 417Counter Reformation and, 13, 16exogenous factors for, 12fiscal remittances to, from Mexico, 435fleet convoys from, 403, 406France and, conflicts with, 16governmental construction in, 12–13Hapsburg family in, 246immigration from, 152–155imperial development of, 12–13interest rates adjustments in, 248mercantilism in, goals of, 397–398metropolitan exactions to, from Mexico,

439Mexico and, geographic proximity of, 171national government creation in, 242obrajes in, 378population estimates for (1492), 146Portugal unification with, 247Roman Catholic Church and, 255Royal Decree of 1765 and, 411Seville, 400–401Spanish Caribbean (c.1700), 246tax structures in, 450

Spalding, Karen, 201Spanish Caribbean, 163. See also Caribbean;

Spanish colonial regime(s)cannibalism in, 162defense of, 246Denmark in, 246English territories in, 246, 247–248Eurasian species in, 117labor systems in, 188–193Lesser Antilles, foreign seizure of, 246,

366–367






Index 603

The Netherlands in, 246Spain in (c.1700), 246

Spanish colonial regime(s), 126–134, 167–168, 184Africans under, 261Araucanian tribe under, 178Bourbons and, 139castas under, 134, 261–262caste systems under, 261cochineal and, control of, 131–132collapse of, 423contraband as part of, 419Creole settler elites under, 261dual economy model for, 126–127fiscal administration history for, 434fiscal remittances for, 480historiography of, 133hybrid societies as result of, 133–134imperial systems for, Andean, 112indigenous culture’s influence on, 134–138legal systems under, 258, 268livestock management for, 113in Mesoamerica, 112–113mestizos under, 261monetary systems in, 426–431oceanic commerce and, 137–138“portmanteau biota” in, 129–130, 132, 525Portuguese colonial regimes v., 137production systems for, 128property rights under, 258–259republica de indios under, 261republica de los espanoles under, 261slavery abolition within, 184, 258taxation in, 431–438textile production and, as trade, 130–132treasury systems under, 482–483viceregal centers and, 133

Spanish monarchyCharles (Carlos) I, 242Charles (Carlos) II, 267Charles III, 255, 371, 433Charles IV, 371Charles V, 305, 401colonial agricultural systems and, 304–305Creole settler elites and, 250Ferdinand, 242, 400Isabella (Isabel), 242, 400licensed ships from, 421Native American populations under, 250Philip II, 204, 276, 308, 309Philip III, 383trade reforms of, 420

Spondylus (Thorny Pacific Oyster), 90in Incan empire, as trade, 95

St. John d’El Rey Mining Company, 211Stein, Barbara, 465, 466, 474

Stein, Stanley, 465, 466Stern, Steve, 186, 202Steward, H., 284Steward, Julian, 147Sudan, 45. See also savanna (African)

Central, 45Eastern, 45geographic regions of, 45Western, 45

sugar industrybeet v. cane, 373–374in Belgium, 369–370in Brazil, 137, 141, 207, 209, 360, 364Caribbean, 361“claying” in, 369, 374in Cuba, 360, 362decrees against, 363Dutch West India Company and, 366early development of (1493–1590), 360–364in England, 370, 374“French train” technology in, 369in Hispaniola, 361–362ingenios for, 363in Jamaica, 362“Jamaica train” technology in, 369labor division within, by gender, 215–216labor systems used in, 216–217lavradores in, 215The Netherlands and, 366in New Spain, 360–361, 363–364in Paraguay, 361in Peru, 361premodern manufacturing and, 375production index (1600–1900), 368provision ground cultivation from, 217in Puerto Rico, 360, 362reorganization of (1780–1850), 370–375repartimiento indians in, 363rum production as part of, 371in Sao Tome, 361slave trade (1650–1820) and, 59, 209, 359, 361,

362tarefa in, 216, 217task labor system in, 216taxes on, 361, 371technologies for, 361, 365–366, 370, 374, 375three-roller mills in, 374transformation of (1590–1780), 365–370transport costs for, 375Viceregal licenses for, 363Wars of Independence’s influence on, 372

sugar industry, Brazil, 137, 141, 207, 209, 364,367, 404. See also sugar industry

African slave labor in, 364The Brazilian Company and, 366






604 Index

sugar industry, Brazil (cont.)British Navigation Acts’ influence on, 367engenhos use in, 365expansion of (1759–1808), 372plantations and, 364Portuguese monarchy and, 371production areas for, 364

sugar industry, Caribbean. See also sugar industryHaitian revolution’s influence on, 371price increases for, 371–372production processes for, 370

sugar industry, Cuba, 360, 362. See also sugarindustry

expansion of (1780–1800), 372technologies for, 375

sugar industry, New Spain, 360–361, 363–364.See also sugar industry

annual growth rates for, 367expansion of (1750–1790), 372Native American slave labor in, 367tax exemptions for, 371technologies for, 369Wars of Independence’s influence on, 372

Sultepec (silver mine), 316Super, John, 174Sweet, David, 182swidden (farming system), 79, 80, 147

camellones as part of, 79in highland agriculture, 81milpas as part of, 79monotones as part of, 79

Tacuba (city-state), 149Tandeter, Enrique, 206tarefa (task quota), 216, 228task labor system, 216, 217

in sugar industry, 216Tawantinsuyu. See Incan empire“tax farming,” 432taxation

alcabala as, 302, 436, 446, 484almojarifazgo as, 415in Chile, 451in Colombia, 437, 452–453creole settler elites and, 249diezmo minero, 435, 437economic growth from, 394for fleet convoys, 416for Iberian colonial regimes, 431–438intra-American transfers for, 431metropolitan exactions as, 439for Mexico, 446, 447, 453for Mexico mining industry, 319, 435–436“national” taxes as form of, 438for Peru mining industry, 333

population estimates from, 145in Portuguese colonial regimes, 431–438reforms, 445–446, 449, 450, 481of religious institutions, 437sales, 432in Spain, 450in Spanish colonial regimes, 431–438sugar industry and, 361, 371“tax farming” as, 432during Thirty Years War, 432on trade, 436tribute systems and, role in, 99, 106, 435

Taxco (silver mine), 316, 320compulsory wage labor in, 316–317encomenderos and, 316

Te Paske, John, 433tea, 34Temple, Edmond, 352Tenochtitlan (city-state), 147, 149Teotihuacan society, 104, 105tequıo (mining quota), 319terraced agriculture, 282

ecological verticality and, 282in highlands (Latin America), 81

terrazgueros (service tenants), 286, 288, 296Texcoco (city-state), 149textile industry, 391, 398. See also obrajes

cotton manufacturing in, 387–391English, 380mechanized mills for, 391Mesta monopoly of, 398

textile productionin Andean region, 375in Central/West Africa, 52cochineal in, 131–132conditions for, 172–173cotton, 35–36encomenderos and, 376mechanization of, 35in Mesoamerica, 375in New Spain, 377obrajes as part of, 131as prestige crafts, 86Spanish colonial regimes and, as trade, 130–132transport costs for, 380tribute systems and, 376

Thirty Years’ War, 416colonial taxation during, 432

Thornton, John, 52tierra caliente (hot land), 278

Classic Maya civilization in, 93land cultivation in, 278–284population estimates for, 93Vega de Metztitlan as part of, 278–279

tierra frıa (cold land), 92






Index 605

tierra templada (temperate land), 92timbre (Mexican internal tax), 453Titicaca Basin

direct colonization in, 92Huaracane sites in, 92migration patterns within, 92Omo sites in, 92Tiwanaku sites, 92

Tiwanaku sites, in Titicaca Basin, 92, 104, 105tlaco (nonmetallic currency), 430tlamemes (Aztec porters), 96Tlatelolco market, 102, 127tobacco, 436–437Toledo, Francisco de, 173, 204, 297, 307, 309,

324, 330, 332Tomich, Dale, 213Tortella, Gabriel, 469trade balances (European), with Asia, 38–39trade, colonial

comercio libre and, 411, 422Companıa Guipuzcoana de Caracas and, 408,

412Denmark and, 411merchant guilds for, 410Pombaline reforms and, 413, 414Proyecto de Flotas y Galeones and, 408reforms in (1700s), 405–414, 420–421Spanish companies for, 408–409taxation on, 436

trade, monopolies (1500–1700), 414–420,421–422

almojarifazgo as part of, 415contraband as result of, 419, 420, 422tobacco, 436–437

trade, reformsBourbons, 183, 241, 268, 337, 420, 422, 433colonial (1700s), 405–414, 420–421Pombaline, 241, 413, 414, 420, 422, 433Spanish monarchy and, 420

trade systems (pre-Columbian Latin America),88–96

“administered,” 291for Aztec empire, 94–95, 127–128Buritica, 90–91Early Horizon style, 90exotic goods in, 89in Mesoamerica, 93–94Neoclassical trade theory and, 486, 496Olmec, 89–90transport costs’ influence within, 89utilitarian goods in, 89

transpacific commerce, 403. See also oceaniccommerce

Nao de China and, 404shipping routes for, 404

transport costseconomic growth and, 394Latin American economic growth and, 394,

489for sugar industry, 375for textile production, 380

transport systemscamelids as, 97Incan roads, 97in pre-Columbian Latin America, 96–97trade systems and, influence on, 89water as, 97

treasury systems, under Spanish colonialregimes, 482–483

Treaty of Methuen, 413Treaty of Tordesillas, 113, 397, 419Treaty of Utrecht, 12

War of the Spanish Succession and, 407Tribunal of Mining (Peru), 342tribute system(s)

for Aztec empire, 100–101, 130colonial agricultural systems and, 296–297cotton textiles and, 101under encomiendas, 194, 199, 296for Incan empire, 100, 149mita and, 297Peru mining industry and, 324in pre-Columbian Latin America, 88,

99–102rates for, in Mexico, 297, 311taxes’ role in, 99, 106, 435textile production as part of, 376for yanaconas, 203

Triple Alliancecolonization and, 193, 196pre-colonial land use and, 286, 287, 290

Tryer, Robson, 381tubers, 283. See also potatoes

corn v., 283native varieties of, 284

Tupinamba, 163intertribal warfare among, 164under Portuguese colonial regimes, 164

Turgot, 17typhus, 145. See also disease (in Americas)

in Mexico, 169

U.N. (United Nations), 22United Nations. See U.N.United-Mexican Mining Company,

349–350Anglo-Mexican Mining Association v.,

349Urdaneta, Andres de, 403Urquiloa, Vıctor, 382






606 Index

U.S. (United States)Latin American economic performance v.,

499, 501Mexican invasion by, 449as tax model (1820–1850), 445, 450, 481

Valera, Blas de, 290Van Young, Eric, 230Vandera, Damian de la, 289Vansina, Jan, 49Vega, Garcilaso de la, 289Velasco, Cuauhtemoc, 227Velasco, Luis de, 361Venables, Anthony, 487Venezuela

African slave labor in, 208, 373castas in, 155immigration to, 155Ministerio de Fomento in, 455

verticalityecological, 282economic limits of, 91freeze drying as result of, 91in highland agriculture, 91–92models for, 91–92as political exchange, 91

Vicente Canete, Pedro, 345viceregal centers

livestock management and, 119Spanish colonial regimes and, 133

Viceroyaltiesin Mexico, arrival of, 245New Spain, 320, 383Peru, 245, 363, 380, 383, 434River Plate, 481silver output by, 320

Viceroyalty of New Spain, 320, 383. See also NewSpain

Viceroyalty of Peru, 245, 363, 380, 383, 434. Seealso Peru

Viceroyalty of the River Platedivision of, 481national independence in, 484–485

ViceroysCruillas, 410Palata, 175Toledo, Francisco de, 173, 204, 297, 307, 309,

324, 330, 332Zuniga y Acevedo, Gaspar de, 363

Vicuna Mackenna, Benjamin, 300Vidal Luna, Francisco, 219Villava, Victorian de, 346Voyages of Discovery, 41

wage labor, 187, 223–232. See also labor system(s)alternatives to, 229in Andean mining industry, 224–226

asientos for, 224Catholic Monarchs and, 189colonial/post-colonial studies of, 223–224compulsory, 189, 231debt servitude and, 231depopulation as factor for, 228hybrid systems for, 188mobility restrictions on, 224population growth as factor for, 230–231recruitment for, 224, 228, 230seasonal, 230, 264vagrancy laws’ effect on, 224

Wagley, Charles, 182Wallerstein, Immanuel, 9, 31

“privileged actors” for, 32War of Jenkins’ Ear, 409

Treaty of Utrecht and, 407War of the Chichimecas, 317War of the Mixton, 317War of the Spanish Succession, 246,

406–407Wars of Independence (various), 139, 270, 345

in Andean colonies, 270in Brazil, 270Casa de Moneda de Mexico during, 442cotton textiles production and, influence on,

390–391in Cuba, 373European economic development from, 347in Mexico, 270, 372, 449mining industry and, effects on, 346–347,

441–442sugar industry and, influence on, 372

The Wealth of Nations (Smith), 423, 433Weber, Max, 17, 18, 20–21

on accumulation of capital, 21“research programme” of, 18, 41

Weberian scholarship, 508, 509Western Sudan, 45wheat cultivation, 295

in Mexico, 312Wightman, Ann, 177, 202Williamson, Jeffrey, 503Wolf, Eric, 140, 284women

age of marriage for, 170early immigration of, Spanish, 153in Mexican labor force, 231–232mixed races and, 159in slave trade (1650–1820), 62–63, 64in sugar industry, 215–216

woolen textiles production, 391. See also obrajesde pano (wool textile shops)

world system theory. See World Systems Schoolof historical sociology

World Systems School of historical sociology, 19,26, 40, 41, 509






Index 607

market extensions in, 19transition to capitalism in, 19–20

Wright, Gavin, 216

Xaltepec (gold mine), 317Xocotlan (silver mine), 317

yana (Incan labor), 98, 99, 202yanaconas (labor workers), 202, 223,

225categories of, 203in commercial agriculture, 229in mining industry, 203, 330

in Potosı mines, 321–322, 323, 325tribute payments for, 203

yellow fever, 169. See also disease (in Americas)

Zacatecas mine, 317–318, 326, 335, 338production at, 326, 442War of the Chichimecas and, 317

Zacharıas, Anton, 352Zavala, Silvio, 306zonal complementarity. See verticalityZulawski, Ann, 225Zumpango del Rıo (silver mine), 316Zuniga y Acevedo, Gaspar de, 363






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