Post on 24-Sep-2020
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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY(7th Ed)
Chapter 9Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
Memory
Memorypersistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memorya clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
MemoryMemory as Information Processing
similar to a computerwrite to filesave to diskread from disk
Encodingthe processing of information into the memory systemi.e., extracting meaning
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Memory
Storagethe retention of encoded information over time
Retrievalprocess of getting information out of memory
Memory
Sensory Memorythe immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Working Memoryfocuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
MemoryShort-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items brieflylook up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Long-Term Memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
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A Simplified Memory Model
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieving
Encoding: Getting Information In
Encoding
Effortful Automatic
EncodingAutomatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information
spacetimefrequency
well-learned informationword meanings
we can learn automatic processingreading backwards
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Encoding
Effortful Processingrequires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsalconscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllablesTUV ZOF GEK WAVthe more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effectdistributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice
Encoding
20
15
10
5
08 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
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Encoding: Serial Position Effect
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Percentage of words
recalled
0
908070605040302010
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list
What Do We Encode?Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaningincluding meaning of words
Acoustic Encodingencoding of soundespecially sound of words
Visual Encodingencoding of picture images
Encoding
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EncodingImagery
mental picturesa powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonicsmemory aidsespecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automaticallyuse of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding: ChunkingOrganized information is more easily recalled
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EncodingHierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding(automatic or effortful)
Imagery(visualEncoding)
Meaning(semanticEncoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
Storage:Retaining Information
Iconic Memorya momentary sensory memory of visual stimulia photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memorymomentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage:Short-Term Memory
Short-Term Memory
limited in duration and capacity“magical” number 7+/-2
0102030405060708090
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentagewho recalledconsonants
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Storage:Long-Term Memory
How does storage work?Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory
Synaptic changesLong-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memoriessome stress hormones boost learning and retention
Storage:Long-Term Memory
Amnesia--the loss of memoryExplicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declarealso called declarative memoryhippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memoryretention independent of conscious recollectionalso called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
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Storage:Long-Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Recallmeasure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test
RecognitionMeasure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval
Relearningmemory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time
Primingactivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Retrieval Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Water/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Retrieval CuesDeja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience"I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memorytendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cuesState-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
Retrieval Cues
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
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Forgetting
Forgetting as encoding failureInformation never enters the long-term memory
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting
ForgettingForgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?
Forgetting
Ebbinghausforgetting curve over 30 days--initially rapid, then levels off with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
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ForgettingThe forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retentiondrops,
then levels off
1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage oforiginal
vocabularyretained
RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
Proactive (forward acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
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Forgetting as Interference
ForgettingRetroactive Interference
Without interferingevents, recall isbetterAfter sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%8070605040302010
0
Percentageof syllables
recalled
Forgetting
Forgetting can occur at any memory stageAs we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
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Forgetting-Interference
Motivated Forgettingpeople unknowingly revise memories
Repressiondefense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Memory Construction
We filter information and fill in missing piecesMisinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesiaattributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”
Memoryconstruction
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Memory Construction
Memories of AbuseRepressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndromecondition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experiencesometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction
Most people can agree on the following:Injustice happensIncest happensForgetting happensRecovered memories are commonplaceMemories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliableMemories of things happening before age 3 are unreliableMemories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the materialMake material personally meaningfulUse mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something already storedmake up storychunk--acronyms
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Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and moodRecall events while they are fresh--before you encounter misinformationMinimize interference Test your own knowledge
rehearsedetermine what you do not yet know