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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY(7th Ed)

Chapter 9Memory

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

Memory

Memorypersistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information

Flashbulb Memorya clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

MemoryMemory as Information Processing

similar to a computerwrite to filesave to diskread from disk

Encodingthe processing of information into the memory systemi.e., extracting meaning

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Memory

Storagethe retention of encoded information over time

Retrievalprocess of getting information out of memory

Memory

Sensory Memorythe immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

Working Memoryfocuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

MemoryShort-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items brieflylook up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten

Long-Term Memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

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A Simplified Memory Model

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieving

Encoding: Getting Information In

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

EncodingAutomatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

spacetimefrequency

well-learned informationword meanings

we can learn automatic processingreading backwards

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Encoding

Effortful Processingrequires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsalconscious repetition of information

to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllablesTUV ZOF GEK WAVthe more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

Spacing Effectdistributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice

Encoding

20

15

10

5

08 16 24 32 42 53 64

Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2

Number of repetitions of list on day 1

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Encoding: Serial Position Effect

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Percentage of words

recalled

0

908070605040302010

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list

What Do We Encode?Semantic Encoding

encoding of meaningincluding meaning of words

Acoustic Encodingencoding of soundespecially sound of words

Visual Encodingencoding of picture images

Encoding

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EncodingImagery

mental picturesa powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonicsmemory aidsespecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Encoding

Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units

like horizontal organization--1776149218121941

often occurs automaticallyuse of acronyms

HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding: ChunkingOrganized information is more easily recalled

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EncodingHierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Storage:Retaining Information

Iconic Memorya momentary sensory memory of visual stimulia photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memorymomentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage:Short-Term Memory

Short-Term Memory

limited in duration and capacity“magical” number 7+/-2

0102030405060708090

3 6 9 12 15 18

Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request

(no rehearsal allowed)

Percentagewho recalledconsonants

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Storage:Long-Term Memory

How does storage work?Karl Lashley (1950)

rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory

Synaptic changesLong-term Potentiation

increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Strong emotions make for stronger memoriessome stress hormones boost learning and retention

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Amnesia--the loss of memoryExplicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declarealso called declarative memoryhippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Implicit Memoryretention independent of conscious recollectionalso called procedural memory

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

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Storage:Long-Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Retrieval: Getting Information Out

Recallmeasure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test

RecognitionMeasure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval

Relearningmemory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

Primingactivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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Retrieval Cues

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10

20

30

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Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Retrieval CuesDeja Vu (French)--already seen

cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience"I've experienced this before."

Mood-congruent Memorytendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cuesState-dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval Cues

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

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Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failureInformation never enters the long-term memory

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

ForgettingForgetting as encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?

Forgetting

Ebbinghausforgetting curve over 30 days--initially rapid, then levels off with time

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

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Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

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ForgettingThe forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retentiondrops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage oforiginal

vocabularyretained

RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information

Proactive (forward acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

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Forgetting as Interference

ForgettingRetroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetterAfter sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%8070605040302010

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Percentageof syllables

recalled

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stageAs we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

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Forgetting-Interference

Motivated Forgettingpeople unknowingly revise memories

Repressiondefense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Memory Construction

We filter information and fill in missing piecesMisinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesiaattributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

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Memory Construction

Memories of AbuseRepressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndromecondition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experiencesometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory Construction

Most people can agree on the following:Injustice happensIncest happensForgetting happensRecovered memories are commonplaceMemories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliableMemories of things happening before age 3 are unreliableMemories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory

Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the materialMake material personally meaningfulUse mnemonic devices

associate with peg words--something already storedmake up storychunk--acronyms

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Improve Your Memory

Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and moodRecall events while they are fresh--before you encounter misinformationMinimize interference Test your own knowledge

rehearsedetermine what you do not yet know