Post on 05-Jul-2018
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GENERAL AVITON DOUBLE ENGINE
PASSENGER AIRCRAFT
Aircraft design lab i
Submitted by
ABBAS!S
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
0ARPAGA1 INSTITUTE OF TEC2NOLOG34COI1BATORE!
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0ar)aga. instit(te 5f tec,n5l5g*
C5i.bat5re%#/
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CONTENTS
List of symbols 3
Introduction 4
Literature survey 10
Weight estimation 24
Engine selection 32
Airfoil selection 33
Wing design 35
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Wetted area calculation 40
rag estimation 4!
Lift estimation 54
"a#eoff and landing distance calculation $4
"hree vie%s of aircraft &0
'eference !0
LISTOF SYMBOLS
' ('ange
) ()elocity
* (s+ecific fuel consum+tion
E (Loitering time
L, (lift to drag ratio
V alt ()elocity at altitude
ρalt (ensity at altitude
- ( %ing surface area
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b ( %ing s+an
µ❑alt (coefficient of viscosity at altitude
C HT (.ori/ontal tail volume coefficient
L HT ( .ori/ontal tail arm moment
S HT ( .ori/ontal tail area
SW (Wing area
C W (Wing mean chord
LVT ()ertical tail arm moment
SVT )ertical tail area
C VT ()ertical tail volume coefficient
bW (Wing s+an
SW (Wing area
)" ( )ertical ta#e(off distance-" ( "a#e(off distance
" ( "a#e(off thrust
)A ( A++roach )elocity
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An air+lane design is both an art and a science8 Air+lane design is an intellectual
engineering +rocess of creating on +a+er a flying machine to
9eet s+ecifications established by users 6ioneer innovative: ne% ideas and technology8
"he design +rocess is an intellectual activity develo+ed via e;+erience: by attention +aid to
successful air+lane designs that have been used in the +ast and by design +rocedures and
databases that are a +art of every air+lane manufacturer8
6.A-E- AI'6LAE E-I7(
rom the time %hen an air+lane materiali/es as a ne% thought to the time the finished +roduct is
ready: the com+lete design undergoes three distinct +hases in +erfect se
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"he end of the +hase is the decision if the air+lane is to be manufactured or not8 It is no longer a
critical condition %here Byou bet your com+anyC on full scale develo+ment of a ne% air+lane8
E"AIL E-I7(
"his +hase is literally the Dnuts and bolts +hase of air+lane design8 "he aerodynamic: +ro+ulsion:structures: +erformance: flight control analysis are over in the +reliminary +hase8 "he air+lane is
to be fabricated and machined8 "he si/e: number and location of rivets: fasteners are determined
no%8 light simulators are develo+ed8 At the end of this +hase: the aircraft is ready to be
fabricated8
".E -E)E I"ELLE*"=AL 6I)" 6I"- ' **E6"=AL E-I7(
"he overall conce+tual design is anchored b seven intellectual B+ivot +ointsC seven factors that
anchor the conce+tual design thought +rocess8 "hey allo% different: detailed thin#ing to reach
out in all directions from each +oint8
'EF=I'E9E"-7(
"he re
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9a;imum lift coefficient Lift to drag ratio @L, "hrust to %eight ratio @",W
"herefore the ne;t ste+ is to ma#e first estimates of W,- and ",W to achieve the +erformance as
sti+ulated by reudged if it can meet all original s+ecifications8 An
interactive +rocess is initiated %here the configuration is modified8 "he critical +erformance
+arameters are ad>usted for im+roving +erformance8 In this stage: some mature decisions should
be made as the s+ecifications or cost or unavailable technology8
.ence some s+ecifications might be rela;ed so that others might get higher +riority8
6"I9IGA"I7(
When iterative +rocess is over: it has +roduced a viable air+lane8 "his leads to o+timi/ation8 "he
o+timi/ation analysis is carried out may be carried out by a systematic variation of different
+arameters ",W: W,- and +lotting the +erformance o gra+hs %hich can be found using a si/ing
matri; or a car+et +lot from %hich o+timum design can be found8
WEI." AI'6LA*E I'-" E-"I9A"E7(
o air+lane can ta#e off the ground unless it +roduces a lift greater than its %eight8 "here
should be a first estimate of gross ta#eoff %eight8 "he %eight estimate is the ne;t +ivot +ointafter the re
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*-"'AI" IA'A97(
A constraint diagram is constructed %hich identifies allo%able solution s+ace for air+lane design8
A constraint diagram consists of +lots o the sea level thrust to ta#e off %eight ratio versus %ing
loading atta#eoff %eight ratio",W versus%ing loading at ta#eoff W ,- determined by
intellectual +ivot +oint8
T!E &ESIN W!EEL
SI'IN AN&
TRA&E
STU&IES
RE*UIRE%ENT &ESIN
ANALYSIS
&ESIN
"ON"EPT
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LITERATURE SUR$EY
LITERATURE SUR$EY
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It is very easy to design an aircraft if %e have datas about already e;isting aircrafts of similar
ty+e8 It +rovides more satisfaction and avoids confusion %hile choosing some design +arameters
for our aircraft8 In this detailed survey some many im+ortant design drivers li#e as+ect ratio:
%ing loading: overall dimensions and engine s+ecifications are determined for our reference8 It
assists in +ro+osing a ne% design and modification in our design %hich %ill im+rove the
+erformance of the +ro+osed aircraft8 "his assures the +erformance of the aircraft as +er the
design calculations and easy %ay of designing an aircraft %ithin +articular +eriod of time8 -o in
this literature survey %e have collected some ten already e;isting 20 seated >et trans+ort aircraft
for our reference of design +arameters8 9ostly these aircrafts have similar characteristics in
many designs as+ects %hich are sho%n in the table8
GEOMETRIC SPECIFICATION
S%NO AIRCRAFTNAM
E
ASPECTRATIO &INGSPAN'm( &INGAREA'm)*
(
IAI A+,, !%!6 *!%.6 4/%60
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* CASA C **
A+i12,
!%!/ *!%*0 4
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-
Seie5 !%!" .%0 /.
4 #e H,+i33,d 4!!-
Seie5
!%!" .%0 /.
" PL M*0 *%*" **%!6 /.%7*
6 At11+, A-/0 %40 **%!6 4*%4
7 At11+, A-*0 *%. ** /.%7
0 #1ie /*0 *!%.0 4!. #1ie **0 . 6%.7 /*
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i, ! .%70 /.%4
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i, 0%!7 "%// *.%!
* Bee282,9t .!! .%"* 7%64 /*%67
/ H,bi y-* .%"* 7%*4 /4%67
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, %" .%7. /"%*
" S81t-//! *%/ **%76 4*%
6 C-*/A *%/ **%70 4*%
7 C-*/B;C *%*6 **%0 4*%4
0
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IAI A+,, *%6. "%*
* CASA C ** A+i12, 6%*! 6%/
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-
Seie5 "%77 "%./
4
#e H,+i33,d 4!!-
Seie5 "%77 4%.
" PL M*0 /%6 "%!6
6 At11+, A-/0 "%67 4%6
7 At11+, A-*0 *%.0 7%*4
0 #1ie /*0 *% 4%06
.
#1ie **0
6%"6 6%/"
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i, *! 4%.*
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i, "%! 4%7*
* Bee282,9t .!! 7%6* "%60
/ H,bi y-* 0%06 4%6
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, *%* 4%."
" S81t-//! 7%6. 4%."
6
C-*/A
7%6. "
7
C-*/B;C
7%7 "%74
0
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S%NO
AIRCRAFTNAME EMPTY
&EIGHT':=(
MA>% TAKE OFF
&EIGHT':=(
IAI A+,, /... 60!4
* CASA C ** A+i12, /70! 77!!
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-
Seie5 /4!! "67!
4
#e H,+i33,d 4!!-
Seie5 /6*0 "67!
" PL M*0 4!! 7"!!
6 At11+, A-/0 "/!! ."!!
7 At11+, A-*0 /.!! 6!!
0 #1ie /*0 0.*! /..!
.
#1ie **0
/7/. 66!!
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i, 7!7! "!!
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i, //./ ".!!
* Bee282,9t .!! 47/* 7764
/ H,bi y-* *04! "/!!
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /// "67!
" S81t-//! 660! !/07
6
C-*/A
644! !/07
7C-*/B;C
7*76 6!
0
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*! PL M*0 /6*0 7"!!
6WE'6LA" -6E*II*A"I
S%NO AIRCRAFTNAME PO&ER PLANT'8?( THRUSTPO&ER':@(
IAI A+,, 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "".
* CASA C ** A+i12, arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 67
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-Seie5
6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "".
4
#e H,+i33,d 4!!-Seie5
6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "!7
" PL M*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0*!
6 At11+, A-/0 .oney%ell "6E331 0
7 At11+, A-*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 7*!
0 #1ie /*0 arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331
.
#1ie **0
arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 "70
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i,
6ratt JWhitney *anada 6W11!
/4!
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i,
6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A
"".
* Bee282,9t .!! 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A .""
/ H,bi y-* 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 46*
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "//
" S81t-//! arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 0./
6 C-*/A 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0.4
7
C-*/B;C
6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A !6*
0
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*! PL M*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0*!
S%NO
AIRCRAFTNAME &ING
LOA#ING':=;m)*(
CRE&
IAI A+,, ""%77
*
* CASA C ** A+i12, 07%0 *
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-
Seie5 4"%/0 *
4
#e H,+i33,d 4!!-
Seie5 4"%/0 *
" PL M*0 00%0 *
6 At11+, A-/0 **4 *
7 At11+, A-*0 46 *
0 #1ie /*0 /4.%7" *
.
#1ie **0 *!6%*"
*
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i, *.%07 *
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i, *!*%7" *
* Bee282,9t .!! */7%6" *
/ H,bi y-* "*%07 *
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /6%6 *
" S81t-//! *47 *
6
C-*/A
*47 *
7
C-*/B;C
*74 *
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0
IMUM
SPEE#':m;8(
SER$ICE
SEILING':m;8(
IAI A+,, /*6 76*!
*
CASA C ** A+i12,
/7! 7.*"
/
#e H,+i33,d /!!-
Seie5 /4 76*!
4
#e H,+i33,d 4!!-
Seie5 /4 76*!
" PL M*0 /"" 76*!
6 At11+, A-/0 4!"
7 At11+, A-*0 /"" 6!!!
0 #1ie /*0 6*! .4""
.
#1ie **0
4// 0"/"
!
Emb,e EMB *!
b,5i3i, 6!0 .!0"
Emb,e EMB !
b,5i3i, /0* 6""!
* Bee282,9t .!! "46 76*!
/ H,bi y-* /*0 7!!!
4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /*4 60"0
" S81t-//! /"* 64!!
C-*/A
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6 /"* /"!!
7
C-*/B;C
4!! 4*"*
0
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" S81t-//! 6."
6
C-*/A
*/.
7
C-*/B;C
.!7
0
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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--
+
/
0
1
2-
2+
S3eed #s Ser4ice cei5in6
SER#I"E "EILIN7m8
S3eed
Ser4ice "ei5in6
+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--
+
/
0
1
2-
2+
S3eed #s b95
Rate of c5imb
S3eed
b95
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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,-
-
,-
2--
2,-
+--
+,-
.--
.,-
/--
S3eed #s Win6 5oadin67:69m+8
;in6 5oadin67:69m+8
S3eed
Win6 Loadin6
+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--
,--
2---
2,--
+---
+,--
S3eed #s Ran6e7m8
RANE 7:m8
S3eed
Ran6e
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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--
+
/
0
1
2-
2+
S3eed #s Rate of c5imb
Rate of c5imb
S3eed
Rate of c5imb
RESULT
rom the above literature survey gra+hs and calculation:
18 )elocity )s 'ange
)elocityK3&0#m,h
'angeK300#m
28 )elocity )s -ervice ceiling
)elocityK3&0#m,h
-ervice ceilingK&25m
38 )elocity)s Wing loading
)elocityK3&0#m,h
Wing loading K1!&8#g,m2
48 )elocity )sb,l
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)elocityK3&0#m,h
b,lK1825$
58 )elocity)s As+ect ratio
)elocityK3&0#m,h
As+ect ratioK10803
$8 )elocity)s 'ate of climb
)elocityK3&0#m,h
'ate of climbK!83m,s
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&EIGHT ESTIMATION
PRIMARY &EIGHT ESTIMATION
"he ma>or factor that determines the %hole design of aircraft es+ecially the selection of overall
%eight: airfoil and +o%er +lant of the aircraft8
"otal %eight of an air+lane is given by:
W" KW*MW6LMWMWE
Where:
W" K verall %eight of the aircraft
W* K cre% %eight
W6L K %eight of the +ayload
W K %eight of the fuel
WE K em+ty %eight
"o sim+lify the calculation: both fuel and em+ty %eights can be e;+ressed as fractions of the
total ta#eoff %eight: i8e8: Wf ,W8 E
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W K W*MW6M@
2
"1
W
W
W"M@
E
"1
W
W
W"
"his can be solved for W" as follo%s7
W" N @
2
"1
W
W
W" N @
E
"1
W
W
W" K W*MW6L
W" K @ ( ) ( )
* 6L
2 " E "
W W
1 W , W W , W
+
− =
o% W" can be determined if @W,W" and @WE,W" can be estimated8
"hese are described belo%8
According to our design: aircrafts ca+acity is 10 to 20 +assengers8 -o:
W6LKW6A--EE'-MWAAE
Assuming that each +assenger %eight is !0 #g %ith 15 #g baggage: then the +ayload %eight is:
W6ay LoadK 5O2K 10 #g8
Assuming that each cre% %eight is !0 #g %ith 15 #g baggage: then:
W*re%K @2 O!0 M @2 O15
K 10 #g
-o:
W"K 3!0
1(@W f,W" @WE , W"
9I--I 6'ILE7(
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rom the figure the various stages of aircraft during mission is as follo%s:1 start J%arm u+
2 "a;iing in the run%ay
3 "a#eoff
4 *limb
5 *ruising
$ Loiter
& escent and
! Landing8
or subsonic >et trans+ort aircraft %eight fuel fraction is:
@W!,W0 K@ W1,W0O@ W2,W1 O @ W3,W2 O @ W4,W3 O @ W5,W4 O @ W$,W5 O @ W&,W$
O @W!,W&
APPRO>IMATE &EIGHT ESTIMATION
Weight fraction for each +rofile in mission segment:
or Warm u+:
@W1,W0 K0858
or "a;y:
@W2,W1 K08&8
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or "a#eoff:
@W3,W2 K08!8
or *limb:
@W4,W3 K0828
or *ruising:
@W5,W4 Ke;+@ ( ),
RC
V L D
−
Where:
-?9L
-
E-I 6A'A9E"E'- E-I )AL=E-
' range 1!11#m) velocity 1028&!m,s
L, lift to drag ratio 10
* s+ecific fuel consum+tion 085
-o: @W5,W4 Ke;+P (1!11 O085 Q 1028&!O10
K 08414
or loiter:
Assume 10 minutes for loitering:
@W$,W5 Ke;+@( ),
EC
L D
−
Where:
-?9L
-
E-I 6A'A9E"E'- E-I )AL=E-
E Loitering time 12s
L, lift to drag ratio 12
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* s+ecific fuel consum+tion 084
-o: @W$,W5 Ke;+P (12O084 Q 12
K08$&0
or descent:
@W&,W$ K083
or landing:
@W!,W& K083
"hen:
@W,W" K @180$O @1(W!,W0
K08&&5
Assume Em+ty Weight fraction:
@WE,W" K 085$
-o: overall %eight:
W "K 2$00
1(@W f,W" @WE , W"
A++ro;imate verall %eightK &&$182 #g
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RESULT
"hus the final "a#eoff %eight of the +ro+osed aircraft %as estimated using =EL 'A*"I
9E". %ere as follo%s:
&APPRO>IMATE 776%* :=%
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"he Walter )ega has the follo%ing characteristics:
"hrust +er engine K!482% umber of engine K 2 "y+e of engine Karrett Ai 'esearch "6E
"otal thrust K!482%
RESULT
ame of engine selectedKarrett Ai 'esearch "6E umber of engine K 2 "otal thrust K !482%
AIRFOIL SELECTION
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AIRFOIL SELECTION
"he airfoil is the main as+ect and is the heart of the air+lane8 "he airfoils affects the cruise s+eed
landing distance and ta#e off: stall s+eed and handling
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NACA " #i=it
1st digit @;08157 design lift coefficient8
2nd J 3rd digits @;0857 location of ma;imum camber @as S of chord from LE8
4th J 5th digits7 ma;imum section thic#ness @as S of chord8
NACA 6 #i=it 1st digit7 identifies series ty+e8
2nd digit @;107 location of minimum +ressure @as S of chord from leading edge @LE8
3rd digit7 indicates acce+table range of *L above,belo% design value for satisfactory lo% drag +erformance @as tenths of *L8
4th digit @;0817 design *L8
5th J $th digits7 ma;imum section thic#ness @Sc
"he airfoil that is to be used is no% selected8 As indicated earlier during the calculation of the lift
coefficient value: it becomes necessary to use high s+eed airfoils: i8e8: the $; series: %hich have been
designed to suit high subsonic cruise 9ach numbers8
"he airfoil: in many res+ects: is the heart of the air+lane8 "he airfoil affects the cruise s+eed:
ta#e(off and landing distances: stall s+eed: handling
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µ❑alt
And:from standard air table at altitude 4200 m:
T alt K23$823 #8
ρalt K58315 #g,m2
V alt K9O √ (ΥR T alt )
K083O1.4×287×236.23
√ ¿
K2842 m,s
As+ect ratio of our aircraftK10803
rom the literature survey for that as+ect ratio:
AreaK41 m2
-+anK2082! m
And: c Ks,b K2802m(1
Andµ❑alt K µ❑0 ×(
T alt T 0
) 08&5
K17.5×10
−5×(236.23
288) 08&5
K1850! ×10−4
-o: 'e K92.42×5.3195×2.02
1.508×10−4
K$8$ ×105
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or the 'eynoldss number a++ro;imately 6.6×105
:from the ".E'? WI -E*"I
by A" follo%ing data can be obtained8
St,ti1 Odi,te5
.! *%/"
." %*
!! !
! !
%*" -%70
*%" -*%/6
" -/%*7
7%" -/%07
! -4%4
" -"%*"
*! -"%077
*" -6%//4
/! -6%640
4! -6%0"6
"! -6%/6* 6! -4%//4
7! -*%6!/
0! -%74/
.! -!%*0*
Airfoil ty+e 9a;imum lift coefficient 9inimum drag coefficient
A*A $5@4(420
A*A $5@3(41!
A*A $4@2(415
181$
1825
182
08005
080045
08010
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." -!%44
!! -!
NACA
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RESULT
rom the above analysis A*A $5(41! series ty+e airfoil %as selected for our aircraft design8
&ING #ESIGN
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&ING#ESIGN
"he front of the airfoil is defined by a leading(edge radius that is tangent to the u++er and lo%er
surfaces8 An airfoil designed to o+erate in su+ersonic %ill have a shar+ or nearly( shar+ leadingedge to +revent a drag +roducing bo% shoc#8
"he chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge8 It is very
difficult to build a +erfectly shar+ trailing edge: so most airfoils have a blunt trailing edge %ith
some small finite thic#ness8
B*amberC refers to the curvature characteristic of most airfoils8 "he B9ean camber lineC is the
line e
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similar fashion: an airfoil %hich is having its camber changed is bro#en into its camber line and
thic#ness distribution8 "he camber line is scaled to +roduce desire ma;imum camberU then the
original thic#ness distribution is added to obtain the ne% airfoil8 In this fashion: airfoil can be
resha+ed to change either the +rofile drag or lift characteristics: %ithout greatly affecting the
other8
Fu5e3,=e
nce the ta#eoff gross %eight has been estimated: the fuselage: the %ing8 And tail can be si/ed8
9any methods e;ist to initially estimate the re
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rom the literature survey for that as+ect ratio:
AreaK41 m2
-+anK2082! m8
/%R11t * ti+ chord
* root chord
"he ta+er ratio can be defined as:
D Ktip chordrootchord
And the value for the ta+er ratio in general from design boo# is084
-o: * root chord K2 s
b(1+ λ)
K2×41
20.28 (1+0.5) K28$$ m8
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And: *ti+ chord K D × * root chord
K1834! m8
4% Ae1dy,mi2 me, 281d
C W K2
3×
* root chord× @
1+ λ+ λ2
(1+ λ)
K2
3×
28$$ × 1+0.5 ..+0.52
(1+0.5)
C W K280& m8
And: ? Kb
6
(1+2 λ)(1+ λ)
K20.28
6
(1+1)(1+0.5)
K38&$ m8
"% $eti2,3 ,d 81i1t,3 +13ume 21e99i2iet
*." K
L HT ×S HT C W ×SW
Where:
C HT (.ori/ontal tail volume coefficient
L HT ( .ori/ontal tail arm moment
S HT ( .ori/ontal tail area
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SW (Wing area
C W (Wing mean chord
-ince: L HT is 25S of the fuselage length:
L HT K 0825O L FU
K 0825O108!&
K 28&1&5 m8
or our design:
SW K41 m2
C W K280& m8
rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel868'aymer 3rd Ed:
C HT K08-o:
-."K
C W × SW ×C HT
L HT
-."K2.097×41×0.9
2.7175 K 2!84& m2
And:
C VT K LVT ×SVT bW ×SW
Where :
LVT ()ertical tail arm moment
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SVT )ertical tail area
C VT ()ertical tail volume coefficient
bW (Wing s+an
SW (Wing area
-ince: LVT is 50S of the fuselage length:
LVT K 085O L FU
K 085O108!&
K!81525 m8
or our design:
SW K 41 m28
bW K 2082! m8
rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel868'aymer 3rd Ed:
C VT K080! m8
-o:
SVT KbW × SW ×C VT
LVT
K20.28×41×0.08
8.1525
K !81$ m2
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RESULT
Le=t8 19 9u5e3,=e LFU !%07 m
R11t C ti? 281d %/40 m
Ae1dy,mi2 me, 281d C'& (/%76 m
$eti2,3 ,d 81i1t,3 +13ume 21e99i2iet S '$T ( 0%6 m*
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&ETTE# AREA #ETERMINATION
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&ETTE# AREA #ETERMINATION
Aircraft %etted area @-%et: the total e;+osed surface area: can be visuali/ed as the area of the
e;ternal +arts of the aircraft that %ould get %et if it %ere di++ed into %ater8 "he %etted area must be calculated for drag estimation: as it the ma>or contributor to friction drag8
"he %ing and tail %etted areas can be a++ro;imated from their +latforms8 "he %etted area is
estimated by multi+lying the true vie% e;+osed +lan form area is estimated by multi+lying the
true vie% e;+osed +lanform area @- e;+osed times a factor based u+on the %ing or tail thic#ness
ratio8
If a %ing or tail %ere +a+er thin: the %etted area %ould be e;actly t%ice the true +lan form area8
"he effect of finite thic#ness id to increase the %etted area: as a++ro;imated by the follo%ing
eected area divided by the cosine of the
dihedral angle8
If t,c 0805:˂
- %et K28003 - e;+osed
If t,c 0805:˃
- %etK - e;+osed P18&& M 0852@t,cQ
"he e;+osed area can be measured from the dra%ing in several %ays8 A +rofessional designer
%ill have access to a B+lanimeterC a mechanical device for measuring areas8 =se of the
+lanimeter is a dying art as the com+uter re+laces the drafting board8 Alternatively the area can
be measured by tracing onto gra+h +a+er and Bcounting sected areas of the fuselage are measured from the dra%ing:
and the values are averaged8
or a long: thin body circular in cross section: this average +ro>ected area times V %ill yield the
surface %etted area8 If the body is rectangular in cross section: the %etted area %ill be four times
the average +ro>ected area8 or ty+ical aircraft the follo%ing e
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+lotted )s longitudinal locations: using the same units on the gra+h: then the integrated area
under the resulting curve gives the %etted area8
6erimeters can be measured using a +rofessionals Bma+(measure:C or a++ro;imated using a
+iece of scra+ +a+er8 -im+ly follo% around the +erimeter measurements should not include the
+ortions %here com+onents >oin: such as at the %ing fuselage intersection8 "hese areas are notB%ettedC8
&ETTE# AREA CALCULATION
( F1 9u5e3,=e
sπf Kπ d f
2
4
V denotes its %etted calculation
rom Air+lane esign 6art II by r8Tohnros#am:
l f d f for +assenger t%in Engine Aircraft is &82:
rom %ing design calculation Lf K108!& m:
o%:d f K
10.87
7.2 K1851 m:
sπf Kπ d f
2
4K
π ×1.512
4 K18& m2
*( F1 @i=
sπ w K t w × bw
A #no%n relation:
t w
croot K 081
rom %ing design calculation: croot is 28$$ m:
t w K081O28$$ K 082$$ m8
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sπw K 082$$O2082! K584& m2
/(F1 81i1t,3 t,i3
sπ ht K t ht O bht K82$$O1$8!! K485! m2
t ht K t t K 10 +ercent t w K081O082$$ K0802$$
rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel 68'aymer:
@A'htK
bht 2
sht 2 K 10803
o%:
bht ❑ K 10803O2!84& K 1$8!! m
4( F1 +eti2,3 t,i3
bt Kbht 2 K!8445 m
sπt K bt O t t K !8445O082$$ K282 m28
"( E=ie ,e,
sπ!"#i"! Kπ d!2
4
Kπ ×0.755
2
4 -inced! K
d f 2 K 1851,2 K08&55 m
K0844& m28
6( ;4 93,? de93e2ti1
$=¿ 15
or -ingle Engine range: @0805 to 081
"he belo% is average of above range:
sπ K 080&5 m2
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7( /;4 93,? de93e2ti1
$=¿ 45
or -ingle Engine range: @0815 to 082
"he belo% is average of above range:sπ K 081&5 m2
0( Ude2,i,=e
sπ % K181O sπ !"#i"!
K181O0844&
K0841& m2
RESULT
-8o *om+onent cd π sπ @m2 cd π × sπ
1 uselage 0803 18& 080522
2 Wing 080! 584& 08334!
3 .ori/ontal tail 0800! 4855$ 18!32O10(3
4 )ertical tail 0800! 282&! 8!4O10(4
5 Engine 0801 0844& 483$O10(3
$ 1,4 fla+ 0804 080&5 3O10(3
& 3,4 fla+ 08035 081&5 $8125O10(3
! =ndercarriage 080504 0841& 080241O10(3
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#RAG ESTIMATION
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#RAG ESTIMATION
DRAG6&ra6 is the reso54ed com3onent of the com35ete aerod>namic force ;hich is
para""e" to the #ight direction 7or re5ati4e oncomin6 air?o;8<
It a5;a>s acts to oppose the direction of motion<
It is the undesirab"e com3onent of the aerod>namic force ;hi5e 5ift is thedesirab5e com3onent<
Drag C5e=cient "CD'Amount of dra6 6enerated de3ends on@
oP5anform area 7S8 air densit> 7B8 f5i6ht s3eed 7#8 dra6 coefficient 7"&8
" & is a measure of aerod>namic eCcienc> and main5> de3ends u3on@
o Section sha3e 35anform 6eometr> an65e of attac: 7D8 com3ressibi5it> effects7%ach number8 4iscous eects 7Re>no5dsF number8<
Drag C5.)5nentsS>in Fricti5n6
o &ue to shear stresses 3roduced in boundary "ayer <
o Si6niGcant5> more for turbu"ent than "a$inar t>3es of boundar> 5a>ers
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F5r. "Press(re' Drago &ue to static pressure distribution around bod> H com3onent reso54ed indirection of motion<
o Sometimes considered se3arate5> as orebody and rear 7base8 dra6com3onents<
?a;e Drago &ue to the 3resence of shock waves at transonic and su3ersonic s3eeds<
o Resu5t of both direct shoc: 5osses and the in?uence of shoc: ;a4es on theboundar> 5a>er<
o Often decom3osed into 3ortions re5ated to@Lift
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T*)ical strea.lining e@ect
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Lift ind(ced "5r' trailing ;5rte9 drag
The 5ift induced dra6 is the com3onent ;hich has to be inc5uded to account forthe .H& nature of the ?o; 7Gnite s3an8 and 6eneration of ;in6 5ift<
CALCULATION6
enera55> for et aircrafts it is 6i4en that
"&-J -
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J
(16× 3
16.898)2
1+(16× 3
16.898)2 J -
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Drag at landing -#-
RESULT
#,= ,t 2ui5e 6.4"!%/ N
#,= ,t t,:e-199 /46*%7.* N
#,= ,t 3,di= 4!46%!. N
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LIFT ESTIMATION
LIFT ESTIMATION
LIFT
*om+onent of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft +er+endicular to flight direction8
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Lift C5e=cient "CL' Amount of 5ift 6enerated de3ends on@
P5anform area 7S8 air densit> 7B8 f5i6ht s3eed 7#8 5ift coefficient 7"L8
Lift "1
2 ρ 2¿ S C L=*S C L
"L is a measure of 5iftin6 eecti4eness and main5> de3ends u3on@ Section sha3e 35anform 6eometr> an65e of attac: 7D8 com3ressibi5it> effects7%ach number8 4iscous eects 7Re>no5dsF number8<
Generati5n 5f Lift
Aerod>namic force arises from t;o natura5 sources@ #ariab5e 3ressure distribution<
Shear stress distribution< Shear stress 3rimari5> contributes to o4era55 drag force on aircraft<
Lift main5> due to pressure distribution es3ecia55> on main 5iftin6 surfaces i8 5o; 3ressure on u33er surface and hi6her 3ressure on5o;er surface<
An> sha3e can be made to 3roduce 5ift if either ca$bered or inc"ined to ?o;
direction< "5assica5 aerooi"section is o3timum for hi6h subsonic 5ift9dra6 ratio
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6ressure variations %ith angle of attac#
egative @nose(do%n +itching moment at /ero(lift @negative X8
6ositive lift at X K 0o
8
.ighest +ressure at LE stagnation +oint: lo%est +ressure at crest on u++er surface8
6ea# suction +ressure on u++er surface strengthens and moves for%ards %ith increasing X8
9ost lift from near LE on u++er surface due to suction8
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Li9t Cu+e5 19 C,mbeed ,d Symmeti2,3 ,i91i35
CALCULATION6eneral Lift e
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L7ta:eHo8 J 29+2
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TAKEOFF AN# LAN#ING #ISTANCE
CALCULATION
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TAKEOFF AN# LAN#ING #ISTANCE CALCULATION
"a#e(off is initiated %hen the aircraft first starts to move for%ards on the ground and
regarded as com+leted %hen aircraft has reach some +rescribed altitude8 "he first stage of aircraft
consists of the )1 %hen the aircraft is still on the ground8 "his is #no%n as ground run8 uring
this run s+eed varies and so the lift and hence also the reaction of the aircraft %heels %ith the
ground8
T,:e 199 di5t,2e
)2
)1
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round run "ransition *limbing
)1 ( )elocity to reach the transition from ground run8
)2 )elocity to reach the climbing level8
"a#e(off is initiated %hen the aircraft first starts to move for%ards on the ground and regarded as
com+leted %hen aircraft has reach some +rescribed altitude8 "he first stage of aircraft consists of
the )1 %hen the aircraft is still on the ground8 "his is #no%n as ground run8 uring this run s+eed
varies and so the lift and hence also the reaction of the aircraft %heels %ith the ground8
Z @ W(L K 'eaction orce @'8
Where Z ( friction co( efficient:
W Weight8
T,:e 199 di5t,2e 2,32u3,ti1
ormula for ta#e(off distance calculation is:
-" K @)"2
W2g " av (Z @W(Lav
Where:
)" ( )ertical ta#e(off distance
-" ( "a#e(off distance
" ( "a#e(off thrust
)" K 182O)s
)s K √ @2@W,- , [*L ma;
K@2R4&!2R8!1,18225R5582R1825Y085
K24&853m,s
)" K 182O24&853
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K 2&803 m,s
)av K&0S )"
K08& O2&803
K20&80 m,s
*L ma; K 3,4@ *L ma; av M \ @]*L ma;fla+
K3,4 P1825M082Q
K180!
L av K *L av O1,2 [ @)av 2 O -
or 45 of angle of attac#: @from the gra+h
*L av K 081&5
Lav K081&5O1,2 O18225O @20&802 O41
K 1!8^
* av K * @ta#e off M ^ @*L av 2 @from drag +olar calculation
K 08034$2 M08055@081&52
K 0803$30
av K * avO [ )2av O -
K 0803$3O 085 O 18225 O@20&82 O41
K38 ^
rom thrust re
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LAN#ING #ISTANCE CALCULATIONS
"he analysis of the landing +erformance of an air+lane is some%hat analogous to that
for ta#e(off: only reverse8 *onsider an air+lane on a landing a++roach8 "he landing distance: as
s#etched begins %hen the air+lanes cleared an obstacle: %hich is ta#en to be50 ft in height8
"he landing calculated as +er A'(25 instructions as follo%s:
@"he notation used here is as sho%n above figure
)A K 183 )-L
)A ( A++roach )elocity8
)-L K√ @2W , [ - *L ma;
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*L ma; K @*L ma; av M ]*L ma;
K183 M 08& K 2
)s K√ @2@W,- , [*L ma;
K@2R4444804R8!1,18225R5582R183Y085
K24&853m,s
K!181#nots
)A K 183O!181
K115!84 #nots8
o%: -L K082$5 O)-L2
K082$5 O!1812
K 2104258$ feet8
And -L K 183! -L
K183! O2104258$
K40&!04 feet
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SIDE
TOP
FRONT
VIE?6
1+
2-
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REFERENCE
TE>TS
18 "heory of %ing section8
y I'A .8A" and ALE'" E8) E.8
28 Aircraft +erformance and design
y T. 8AE'- T'
38 Aircraft design7 A conce+tual A++roach
y AIEL 68'A?9E'
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