Abbas Edition

8/16/2019 Abbas Edition

1/76

GENERAL AVITON DOUBLE ENGINE

PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

Aircraft design lab i

Submitted by

ABBAS!S

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Ban( )ri*a ! )

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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

0ARPAGA1 INSTITUTE OF TEC2NOLOG34COI1BATORE!


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CONTENTS

List of symbols 3

Introduction 4

Literature survey 10

Weight estimation 24

Engine selection 32

Airfoil selection 33

Wing design 35


6/76

Wetted area calculation 40

rag estimation 4!

Lift estimation 54

"a#eoff and landing distance calculation $4

"hree vie%s of aircraft &0

'eference !0

LISTOF SYMBOLS

' ('ange

) ()elocity

* (s+ecific fuel consum+tion

E (Loitering time

L, (lift to drag ratio

V alt ()elocity at altitude

ρalt (ensity at altitude

- ( %ing surface area


7/76

b ( %ing s+an

µ❑alt (coefficient of viscosity at altitude

C HT (.ori/ontal tail volume coefficient

L HT ( .ori/ontal tail arm moment

S HT ( .ori/ontal tail area

SW (Wing area

C W (Wing mean chord

LVT ()ertical tail arm moment

SVT )ertical tail area

C VT ()ertical tail volume coefficient

bW (Wing s+an

SW (Wing area

)" ( )ertical ta#e(off distance-" ( "a#e(off distance

" ( "a#e(off thrust

)A ( A++roach )elocity


8/76


9/76

An air+lane design is both an art and a science8 Air+lane design is an intellectual

engineering +rocess of creating on +a+er a flying machine to

9eet s+ecifications established by users 6ioneer innovative: ne% ideas and technology8

"he design +rocess is an intellectual activity develo+ed via e;+erience: by attention +aid to

successful air+lane designs that have been used in the +ast and by design +rocedures and

databases that are a +art of every air+lane manufacturer8

6.A-E- AI'6LAE E-I7(

rom the time %hen an air+lane materiali/es as a ne% thought to the time the finished +roduct is

ready: the com+lete design undergoes three distinct +hases in +erfect se


10/76

"he end of the +hase is the decision if the air+lane is to be manufactured or not8 It is no longer a

critical condition %here Byou bet your com+anyC on full scale develo+ment of a ne% air+lane8

E"AIL E-I7(

"his +hase is literally the Dnuts and bolts +hase of air+lane design8 "he aerodynamic: +ro+ulsion:structures: +erformance: flight control analysis are over in the +reliminary +hase8 "he air+lane is

to be fabricated and machined8 "he si/e: number and location of rivets: fasteners are determined

no%8 light simulators are develo+ed8 At the end of this +hase: the aircraft is ready to be

fabricated8

".E -E)E I"ELLE*"=AL 6I)" 6I"- ' **E6"=AL E-I7(

"he overall conce+tual design is anchored b seven intellectual B+ivot +ointsC seven factors that

anchor the conce+tual design thought +rocess8 "hey allo% different: detailed thin#ing to reach

out in all directions from each +oint8

'EF=I'E9E"-7(

"he re


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9a;imum lift coefficient Lift to drag ratio @L, "hrust to %eight ratio @",W

"herefore the ne;t ste+ is to ma#e first estimates of W,- and ",W to achieve the +erformance as

sti+ulated by reudged if it can meet all original s+ecifications8 An

interactive +rocess is initiated %here the configuration is modified8 "he critical +erformance

+arameters are ad>usted for im+roving +erformance8 In this stage: some mature decisions should

be made as the s+ecifications or cost or unavailable technology8

.ence some s+ecifications might be rela;ed so that others might get higher +riority8

6"I9IGA"I7(

When iterative +rocess is over: it has +roduced a viable air+lane8 "his leads to o+timi/ation8 "he

o+timi/ation analysis is carried out may be carried out by a systematic variation of different

+arameters ",W: W,- and +lotting the +erformance o gra+hs %hich can be found using a si/ing

matri; or a car+et +lot from %hich o+timum design can be found8

WEI." AI'6LA*E I'-" E-"I9A"E7(

o air+lane can ta#e off the ground unless it +roduces a lift greater than its %eight8 "here

should be a first estimate of gross ta#eoff %eight8 "he %eight estimate is the ne;t +ivot +ointafter the re


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*-"'AI" IA'A97(

A constraint diagram is constructed %hich identifies allo%able solution s+ace for air+lane design8

A constraint diagram consists of +lots o the sea level thrust to ta#e off %eight ratio versus %ing

loading atta#eoff %eight ratio",W versus%ing loading at ta#eoff W ,- determined by

intellectual +ivot +oint8

T!E &ESIN W!EEL

SI'IN AN&

TRA&E

STU&IES

RE*UIRE%ENT &ESIN

ANALYSIS

&ESIN

"ON"EPT


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LITERATURE SUR$EY

LITERATURE SUR$EY


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It is very easy to design an aircraft if %e have datas about already e;isting aircrafts of similar

ty+e8 It +rovides more satisfaction and avoids confusion %hile choosing some design +arameters

for our aircraft8 In this detailed survey some many im+ortant design drivers li#e as+ect ratio:

%ing loading: overall dimensions and engine s+ecifications are determined for our reference8 It

assists in +ro+osing a ne% design and modification in our design %hich %ill im+rove the

+erformance of the +ro+osed aircraft8 "his assures the +erformance of the aircraft as +er the

design calculations and easy %ay of designing an aircraft %ithin +articular +eriod of time8 -o in

this literature survey %e have collected some ten already e;isting 20 seated >et trans+ort aircraft

for our reference of design +arameters8 9ostly these aircrafts have similar characteristics in

many designs as+ects %hich are sho%n in the table8

GEOMETRIC SPECIFICATION

S%NO AIRCRAFTNAM

E

ASPECTRATIO &INGSPAN'm( &INGAREA'm)*

(

IAI A+,, !%!6 *!%.6 4/%60


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* CASA C **

A+i12,

!%!/ *!%*0 4

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-

Seie5 !%!" .%0 /.

4 #e H,+i33,d 4!!-

Seie5

!%!" .%0 /.

" PL M*0 *%*" **%!6 /.%7*

6 At11+, A-/0 %40 **%!6 4*%4

7 At11+, A-*0 *%. ** /.%7

0 #1ie /*0 *!%.0 4!. #1ie **0 . 6%.7 /*

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i, ! .%70 /.%4

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i, 0%!7 "%// *.%!

* Bee282,9t .!! .%"* 7%64 /*%67

/ H,bi y-* .%"* 7%*4 /4%67

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, %" .%7. /"%*

" S81t-//! *%/ **%76 4*%

6 C-*/A *%/ **%70 4*%

7 C-*/B;C *%*6 **%0 4*%4

0


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IAI A+,, *%6. "%*

* CASA C ** A+i12, 6%*! 6%/

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-

Seie5 "%77 "%./

4

#e H,+i33,d 4!!-

Seie5 "%77 4%.

" PL M*0 /%6 "%!6

6 At11+, A-/0 "%67 4%6

7 At11+, A-*0 *%.0 7%*4

0 #1ie /*0 *% 4%06

.

#1ie **0

6%"6 6%/"

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i, *! 4%.*

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i, "%! 4%7*

* Bee282,9t .!! 7%6* "%60

/ H,bi y-* 0%06 4%6

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, *%* 4%."

" S81t-//! 7%6. 4%."

6

C-*/A

7%6. "

7

C-*/B;C

7%7 "%74

0


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S%NO

AIRCRAFTNAME EMPTY

&EIGHT':=(

MA>% TAKE OFF

&EIGHT':=(

IAI A+,, /... 60!4

* CASA C ** A+i12, /70! 77!!

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-

Seie5 /4!! "67!

4

#e H,+i33,d 4!!-

Seie5 /6*0 "67!

" PL M*0 4!! 7"!!

6 At11+, A-/0 "/!! ."!!

7 At11+, A-*0 /.!! 6!!

0 #1ie /*0 0.*! /..!

.

#1ie **0

/7/. 66!!

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i, 7!7! "!!

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i, //./ ".!!

* Bee282,9t .!! 47/* 7764

/ H,bi y-* *04! "/!!

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /// "67!

" S81t-//! 660! !/07

6

C-*/A

644! !/07

7C-*/B;C

7*76 6!

0


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*! PL M*0 /6*0 7"!!

6WE'6LA" -6E*II*A"I

S%NO AIRCRAFTNAME PO&ER PLANT'8?( THRUSTPO&ER':@(

IAI A+,, 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "".

* CASA C ** A+i12, arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 67

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-Seie5

6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "".

4

#e H,+i33,d 4!!-Seie5

6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "!7

" PL M*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0*!

6 At11+, A-/0 .oney%ell "6E331 0

7 At11+, A-*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 7*!

0 #1ie /*0 arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331

.

#1ie **0

arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 "70

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i,

6ratt JWhitney *anada 6W11!

/4!

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i,

6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A

"".

* Bee282,9t .!! 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A .""

/ H,bi y-* 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 46*

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A "//

" S81t-//! arrett Ai'esearch "6E(331 0./

6 C-*/A 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0.4

7

C-*/B;C

6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A !6*

0


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*! PL M*0 6ratt JWhitney *anada 6"$A 0*!

S%NO

AIRCRAFTNAME &ING

LOA#ING':=;m)*(

CRE&

IAI A+,, ""%77

*

* CASA C ** A+i12, 07%0 *

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-

Seie5 4"%/0 *

4

#e H,+i33,d 4!!-

Seie5 4"%/0 *

" PL M*0 00%0 *

6 At11+, A-/0 **4 *

7 At11+, A-*0 46 *

0 #1ie /*0 /4.%7" *

.

#1ie **0 *!6%*"

*

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i, *.%07 *

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i, *!*%7" *

* Bee282,9t .!! */7%6" *

/ H,bi y-* "*%07 *

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /6%6 *

" S81t-//! *47 *

6

C-*/A

*47 *

7

C-*/B;C

*74 *


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0

IMUM

SPEE#':m;8(

SER$ICE

SEILING':m;8(

IAI A+,, /*6 76*!

*

CASA C ** A+i12,

/7! 7.*"

/

#e H,+i33,d /!!-

Seie5 /4 76*!

4

#e H,+i33,d 4!!-

Seie5 /4 76*!

" PL M*0 /"" 76*!

6 At11+, A-/0 4!"

7 At11+, A-*0 /"" 6!!!

0 #1ie /*0 6*! .4""

.

#1ie **0

4// 0"/"

!

Emb,e EMB *!

b,5i3i, 6!0 .!0"

Emb,e EMB !

b,5i3i, /0* 6""!

* Bee282,9t .!! "46 76*!

/ H,bi y-* /*0 7!!!

4 S81t 52%7 5:y+, /*4 60"0

" S81t-//! /"* 64!!

C-*/A


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6 /"* /"!!

7

C-*/B;C

4!! 4*"*

0


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" S81t-//! 6."

6

C-*/A

*/.

7

C-*/B;C

.!7

0


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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--

+

/

0

1

2-

2+

S3eed #s Ser4ice cei5in6

SER#I"E "EILIN7m8

S3eed

Ser4ice "ei5in6

+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--

+

/

0

1

2-

2+

S3eed #s b95

Rate of c5imb

S3eed

b95


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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,-

-

,-

2--

2,-

+--

+,-

.--

.,-

/--

S3eed #s Win6 5oadin67:69m+8

;in6 5oadin67:69m+8

S3eed

Win6 Loadin6

+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--

,--

2---

2,--

+---

+,--

S3eed #s Ran6e7m8

RANE 7:m8

S3eed

Ran6e


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+,- .-- .,- /-- /,- ,-- ,,- 0-- 0,--

+

/

0

1

2-

2+

S3eed #s Rate of c5imb

Rate of c5imb

S3eed

Rate of c5imb

RESULT

rom the above literature survey gra+hs and calculation:

18 )elocity )s 'ange

)elocityK3&0#m,h

'angeK300#m

28 )elocity )s -ervice ceiling

)elocityK3&0#m,h

-ervice ceilingK&25m

38 )elocity)s Wing loading

)elocityK3&0#m,h

Wing loading K1!&8#g,m2

48 )elocity )sb,l


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)elocityK3&0#m,h

b,lK1825$

58 )elocity)s As+ect ratio

)elocityK3&0#m,h

As+ect ratioK10803

$8 )elocity)s 'ate of climb

)elocityK3&0#m,h

'ate of climbK!83m,s


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&EIGHT ESTIMATION

PRIMARY &EIGHT ESTIMATION

"he ma>or factor that determines the %hole design of aircraft es+ecially the selection of overall

%eight: airfoil and +o%er +lant of the aircraft8

"otal %eight of an air+lane is given by:

W" KW*MW6LMWMWE

Where:

W" K verall %eight of the aircraft

W* K cre% %eight

W6L K %eight of the +ayload

W K %eight of the fuel

WE K em+ty %eight

"o sim+lify the calculation: both fuel and em+ty %eights can be e;+ressed as fractions of the

total ta#eoff %eight: i8e8: Wf ,W8 E


30/76

W K W*MW6M@

2

"1

W

W

W"M@

E

"1

W

W

W"

"his can be solved for W" as follo%s7

W" N @

2

"1

W

W

W" N @

E

"1

W

W

W" K W*MW6L

W" K @ ( ) ( )

* 6L

2 " E "

W W

1 W , W W , W

+

− =

o% W" can be determined if @W,W" and @WE,W" can be estimated8

"hese are described belo%8

According to our design: aircrafts ca+acity is 10 to 20 +assengers8 -o:

W6LKW6A--EE'-MWAAE

Assuming that each +assenger %eight is !0 #g %ith 15 #g baggage: then the +ayload %eight is:

W6ay LoadK 5O2K 10 #g8

Assuming that each cre% %eight is !0 #g %ith 15 #g baggage: then:

W*re%K @2 O!0 M @2 O15

K 10 #g

-o:

W"K 3!0

1(@W f,W" @WE , W"

9I--I 6'ILE7(


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rom the figure the various stages of aircraft during mission is as follo%s:1 start J%arm u+

2 "a;iing in the run%ay

3 "a#eoff

4 *limb

5 *ruising

$ Loiter

& escent and

! Landing8

or subsonic >et trans+ort aircraft %eight fuel fraction is:

@W!,W0 K@ W1,W0O@ W2,W1 O @ W3,W2 O @ W4,W3 O @ W5,W4 O @ W$,W5 O @ W&,W$

O @W!,W&

APPRO>IMATE &EIGHT ESTIMATION

Weight fraction for each +rofile in mission segment:

or Warm u+:

@W1,W0 K0858

or "a;y:

@W2,W1 K08&8


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or "a#eoff:

@W3,W2 K08!8

or *limb:

@W4,W3 K0828

or *ruising:

@W5,W4 Ke;+@ ( ),

RC

V L D

−

Where:

-?9L

-

E-I 6A'A9E"E'- E-I )AL=E-

' range 1!11#m) velocity 1028&!m,s

L, lift to drag ratio 10

* s+ecific fuel consum+tion 085

-o: @W5,W4 Ke;+P (1!11 O085 Q 1028&!O10

K 08414

or loiter:

Assume 10 minutes for loitering:

@W$,W5 Ke;+@( ),

EC

L D

−

Where:

-?9L

-

E-I 6A'A9E"E'- E-I )AL=E-

E Loitering time 12s

L, lift to drag ratio 12


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* s+ecific fuel consum+tion 084

-o: @W$,W5 Ke;+P (12O084 Q 12

K08$&0

or descent:

@W&,W$ K083

or landing:

@W!,W& K083

"hen:

@W,W" K @180$O @1(W!,W0

K08&&5

Assume Em+ty Weight fraction:

@WE,W" K 085$

-o: overall %eight:

W "K 2$00

1(@W f,W" @WE , W"

A++ro;imate verall %eightK &&$182 #g


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RESULT

"hus the final "a#eoff %eight of the +ro+osed aircraft %as estimated using =EL 'A*"I

9E". %ere as follo%s:

&APPRO>IMATE 776%* :=%


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"he Walter )ega has the follo%ing characteristics:

"hrust +er engine K!482% umber of engine K 2 "y+e of engine Karrett Ai 'esearch "6E

"otal thrust K!482%

RESULT

ame of engine selectedKarrett Ai 'esearch "6E umber of engine K 2 "otal thrust K !482%

AIRFOIL SELECTION


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AIRFOIL SELECTION

"he airfoil is the main as+ect and is the heart of the air+lane8 "he airfoils affects the cruise s+eed

landing distance and ta#e off: stall s+eed and handling


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NACA " #i=it

1st digit @;08157 design lift coefficient8

2nd J 3rd digits @;0857 location of ma;imum camber @as S of chord from LE8

4th J 5th digits7 ma;imum section thic#ness @as S of chord8

NACA 6 #i=it 1st digit7 identifies series ty+e8

2nd digit @;107 location of minimum +ressure @as S of chord from leading edge @LE8

3rd digit7 indicates acce+table range of *L above,belo% design value for satisfactory lo% drag +erformance @as tenths of *L8

4th digit @;0817 design *L8

5th J $th digits7 ma;imum section thic#ness @Sc

"he airfoil that is to be used is no% selected8 As indicated earlier during the calculation of the lift

coefficient value: it becomes necessary to use high s+eed airfoils: i8e8: the $; series: %hich have been

designed to suit high subsonic cruise 9ach numbers8

"he airfoil: in many res+ects: is the heart of the air+lane8 "he airfoil affects the cruise s+eed:

ta#e(off and landing distances: stall s+eed: handling


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µ❑alt

And:from standard air table at altitude 4200 m:

T alt K23$823 #8

ρalt K58315 #g,m2

V alt K9O √ (ΥR T alt )

K083O1.4×287×236.23

√ ¿

K2842 m,s

As+ect ratio of our aircraftK10803

rom the literature survey for that as+ect ratio:

AreaK41 m2

-+anK2082! m

And: c Ks,b K2802m(1

Andµ❑alt K µ❑0 ×(

T alt T 0

) 08&5

K17.5×10

−5×(236.23

288) 08&5

K1850! ×10−4

-o: 'e K92.42×5.3195×2.02

1.508×10−4

K$8$ ×105


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or the 'eynoldss number a++ro;imately 6.6×105

:from the ".E'? WI -E*"I

by A" follo%ing data can be obtained8

St,ti1 Odi,te5

.! *%/"

." %*

!! !

! !

%*" -%70

*%" -*%/6

" -/%*7

7%" -/%07

! -4%4

" -"%*"

*! -"%077

*" -6%//4

/! -6%640

4! -6%0"6

"! -6%/6* 6! -4%//4

7! -*%6!/

0! -%74/

.! -!%*0*

Airfoil ty+e 9a;imum lift coefficient 9inimum drag coefficient

A*A $5@4(420

A*A $5@3(41!

A*A $4@2(415

181$

1825

182

08005

080045

08010


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." -!%44

!! -!

NACA


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RESULT

rom the above analysis A*A $5(41! series ty+e airfoil %as selected for our aircraft design8

&ING #ESIGN


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&ING#ESIGN

"he front of the airfoil is defined by a leading(edge radius that is tangent to the u++er and lo%er

surfaces8 An airfoil designed to o+erate in su+ersonic %ill have a shar+ or nearly( shar+ leadingedge to +revent a drag +roducing bo% shoc#8

"he chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge8 It is very

difficult to build a +erfectly shar+ trailing edge: so most airfoils have a blunt trailing edge %ith

some small finite thic#ness8

B*amberC refers to the curvature characteristic of most airfoils8 "he B9ean camber lineC is the

line e


45/76

similar fashion: an airfoil %hich is having its camber changed is bro#en into its camber line and

thic#ness distribution8 "he camber line is scaled to +roduce desire ma;imum camberU then the

original thic#ness distribution is added to obtain the ne% airfoil8 In this fashion: airfoil can be

resha+ed to change either the +rofile drag or lift characteristics: %ithout greatly affecting the

other8

Fu5e3,=e

nce the ta#eoff gross %eight has been estimated: the fuselage: the %ing8 And tail can be si/ed8

9any methods e;ist to initially estimate the re


46/76

rom the literature survey for that as+ect ratio:

AreaK41 m2

-+anK2082! m8

/%R11t * ti+ chord

* root chord

"he ta+er ratio can be defined as:

D Ktip chordrootchord

And the value for the ta+er ratio in general from design boo# is084

-o: * root chord K2 s

b(1+ λ)

K2×41

20.28 (1+0.5) K28$$ m8


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And: *ti+ chord K D × * root chord

K1834! m8

4% Ae1dy,mi2 me, 281d

C W K2

3×

* root chord× @

1+ λ+ λ2

(1+ λ)

K2

3×

28$$ × 1+0.5 ..+0.52

(1+0.5)

C W K280& m8

And: ? Kb

6

(1+2 λ)(1+ λ)

K20.28

6

(1+1)(1+0.5)

K38&$ m8

"% $eti2,3 ,d 81i1t,3 +13ume 21e99i2iet

*." K

L HT ×S HT C W ×SW

Where:

C HT (.ori/ontal tail volume coefficient

L HT ( .ori/ontal tail arm moment

S HT ( .ori/ontal tail area


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SW (Wing area

C W (Wing mean chord

-ince: L HT is 25S of the fuselage length:

L HT K 0825O L FU

K 0825O108!&

K 28&1&5 m8

or our design:

SW K41 m2

C W K280& m8

rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel868'aymer 3rd Ed:

C HT K08-o:

-."K

C W × SW ×C HT

L HT

-."K2.097×41×0.9

2.7175 K 2!84& m2

And:

C VT K LVT ×SVT bW ×SW

Where :

LVT ()ertical tail arm moment


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SVT )ertical tail area

C VT ()ertical tail volume coefficient

bW (Wing s+an

SW (Wing area

-ince: LVT is 50S of the fuselage length:

LVT K 085O L FU

K 085O108!&

K!81525 m8

or our design:

SW K 41 m28

bW K 2082! m8

rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel868'aymer 3rd Ed:

C VT K080! m8

-o:

SVT KbW × SW ×C VT

LVT

K20.28×41×0.08

8.1525

K !81$ m2


50/76

RESULT

Le=t8 19 9u5e3,=e LFU !%07 m

R11t C ti? 281d %/40 m

Ae1dy,mi2 me, 281d C'& (/%76 m

$eti2,3 ,d 81i1t,3 +13ume 21e99i2iet S '$T ( 0%6 m*


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&ETTE# AREA #ETERMINATION


52/76

&ETTE# AREA #ETERMINATION

Aircraft %etted area @-%et: the total e;+osed surface area: can be visuali/ed as the area of the

e;ternal +arts of the aircraft that %ould get %et if it %ere di++ed into %ater8 "he %etted area must be calculated for drag estimation: as it the ma>or contributor to friction drag8

"he %ing and tail %etted areas can be a++ro;imated from their +latforms8 "he %etted area is

estimated by multi+lying the true vie% e;+osed +lan form area is estimated by multi+lying the

true vie% e;+osed +lanform area @- e;+osed times a factor based u+on the %ing or tail thic#ness

ratio8

If a %ing or tail %ere +a+er thin: the %etted area %ould be e;actly t%ice the true +lan form area8

"he effect of finite thic#ness id to increase the %etted area: as a++ro;imated by the follo%ing

eected area divided by the cosine of the

dihedral angle8

If t,c 0805:˂

- %et K28003 - e;+osed

If t,c 0805:˃

- %etK - e;+osed P18&& M 0852@t,cQ

"he e;+osed area can be measured from the dra%ing in several %ays8 A +rofessional designer

%ill have access to a B+lanimeterC a mechanical device for measuring areas8 =se of the

+lanimeter is a dying art as the com+uter re+laces the drafting board8 Alternatively the area can

be measured by tracing onto gra+h +a+er and Bcounting sected areas of the fuselage are measured from the dra%ing:

and the values are averaged8

or a long: thin body circular in cross section: this average +ro>ected area times V %ill yield the

surface %etted area8 If the body is rectangular in cross section: the %etted area %ill be four times

the average +ro>ected area8 or ty+ical aircraft the follo%ing e


53/76

+lotted )s longitudinal locations: using the same units on the gra+h: then the integrated area

under the resulting curve gives the %etted area8

6erimeters can be measured using a +rofessionals Bma+(measure:C or a++ro;imated using a

+iece of scra+ +a+er8 -im+ly follo% around the +erimeter measurements should not include the

+ortions %here com+onents >oin: such as at the %ing fuselage intersection8 "hese areas are notB%ettedC8

&ETTE# AREA CALCULATION

( F1 9u5e3,=e

sπf Kπ d f

2

4

V denotes its %etted calculation

rom Air+lane esign 6art II by r8Tohnros#am:

l f d f for +assenger t%in Engine Aircraft is &82:

rom %ing design calculation Lf K108!& m:

o%:d f K

10.87

7.2 K1851 m:

sπf Kπ d f

2

4K

π ×1.512

4 K18& m2

*( F1 @i=

sπ w K t w × bw

A #no%n relation:

t w

croot K 081

rom %ing design calculation: croot is 28$$ m:

t w K081O28$$ K 082$$ m8


54/76

sπw K 082$$O2082! K584& m2

/(F1 81i1t,3 t,i3

sπ ht K t ht O bht K82$$O1$8!! K485! m2

t ht K t t K 10 +ercent t w K081O082$$ K0802$$

rom BAircraft design7 A *once+tual a++roachC by aniel 68'aymer:

@A'htK

bht 2

sht 2 K 10803

o%:

bht ❑ K 10803O2!84& K 1$8!! m

4( F1 +eti2,3 t,i3

bt Kbht 2 K!8445 m

sπt K bt O t t K !8445O082$$ K282 m28

"( E=ie ,e,

sπ!"#i"! Kπ d!2

4

Kπ ×0.755

2

4 -inced! K

d f 2 K 1851,2 K08&55 m

K0844& m28

6( ;4 93,? de93e2ti1

$=¿ 15

or -ingle Engine range: @0805 to 081

"he belo% is average of above range:

sπ K 080&5 m2


55/76

7( /;4 93,? de93e2ti1

$=¿ 45

or -ingle Engine range: @0815 to 082

"he belo% is average of above range:sπ K 081&5 m2

0( Ude2,i,=e

sπ % K181O sπ !"#i"!

K181O0844&

K0841& m2

RESULT

-8o *om+onent cd π sπ @m2 cd π × sπ

1 uselage 0803 18& 080522

2 Wing 080! 584& 08334!

3 .ori/ontal tail 0800! 4855$ 18!32O10(3

4 )ertical tail 0800! 282&! 8!4O10(4

5 Engine 0801 0844& 483$O10(3

$ 1,4 fla+ 0804 080&5 3O10(3

& 3,4 fla+ 08035 081&5 $8125O10(3

! =ndercarriage 080504 0841& 080241O10(3


56/76

#RAG ESTIMATION


57/76

#RAG ESTIMATION

DRAG6&ra6 is the reso54ed com3onent of the com35ete aerod>namic force ;hich is

para""e" to the #ight direction 7or re5ati4e oncomin6 air?o;8<

It a5;a>s acts to oppose the direction of motion<

It is the undesirab"e com3onent of the aerod>namic force ;hi5e 5ift is thedesirab5e com3onent<

Drag C5e=cient "CD'Amount of dra6 6enerated de3ends on@

oP5anform area 7S8 air densit> 7B8 f5i6ht s3eed 7#8 dra6 coefficient 7"&8

" & is a measure of aerod>namic eCcienc> and main5> de3ends u3on@

o Section sha3e 35anform 6eometr> an65e of attac: 7D8 com3ressibi5it> effects7%ach number8 4iscous eects 7Re>no5dsF number8<

Drag C5.)5nentsS>in Fricti5n6

o &ue to shear stresses 3roduced in boundary "ayer <

o Si6niGcant5> more for turbu"ent than "a$inar t>3es of boundar> 5a>ers


58/76

F5r. "Press(re' Drago &ue to static pressure distribution around bod> H com3onent reso54ed indirection of motion<

o Sometimes considered se3arate5> as orebody and rear 7base8 dra6com3onents<

?a;e Drago &ue to the 3resence of shock waves at transonic and su3ersonic s3eeds<

o Resu5t of both direct shoc: 5osses and the in?uence of shoc: ;a4es on theboundar> 5a>er<

o Often decom3osed into 3ortions re5ated to@Lift


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T*)ical strea.lining e@ect


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Lift ind(ced "5r' trailing ;5rte9 drag

The 5ift induced dra6 is the com3onent ;hich has to be inc5uded to account forthe .H& nature of the ?o; 7Gnite s3an8 and 6eneration of ;in6 5ift<

CALCULATION6

enera55> for et aircrafts it is 6i4en that

"&-J -


61/76

J

(16× 3

16.898)2

1+(16× 3

16.898)2 J -


62/76

Drag at landing -#-

RESULT

#,= ,t 2ui5e 6.4"!%/ N

#,= ,t t,:e-199 /46*%7.* N

#,= ,t 3,di= 4!46%!. N


63/76

LIFT ESTIMATION

LIFT ESTIMATION

LIFT

*om+onent of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft +er+endicular to flight direction8


64/76

Lift C5e=cient "CL' Amount of 5ift 6enerated de3ends on@

P5anform area 7S8 air densit> 7B8 f5i6ht s3eed 7#8 5ift coefficient 7"L8

Lift "1

2 ρ 2¿ S C L=*S C L

"L is a measure of 5iftin6 eecti4eness and main5> de3ends u3on@ Section sha3e 35anform 6eometr> an65e of attac: 7D8 com3ressibi5it> effects7%ach number8 4iscous eects 7Re>no5dsF number8<

Generati5n 5f Lift

Aerod>namic force arises from t;o natura5 sources@ #ariab5e 3ressure distribution<

Shear stress distribution< Shear stress 3rimari5> contributes to o4era55 drag force on aircraft<

Lift main5> due to pressure distribution es3ecia55> on main 5iftin6 surfaces i8 5o; 3ressure on u33er surface and hi6her 3ressure on5o;er surface<

An> sha3e can be made to 3roduce 5ift if either ca$bered or inc"ined to ?o;

direction< "5assica5 aerooi"section is o3timum for hi6h subsonic 5ift9dra6 ratio


65/76

6ressure variations %ith angle of attac#

egative @nose(do%n +itching moment at /ero(lift @negative X8

6ositive lift at X K 0o

8

.ighest +ressure at LE stagnation +oint: lo%est +ressure at crest on u++er surface8

6ea# suction +ressure on u++er surface strengthens and moves for%ards %ith increasing X8

9ost lift from near LE on u++er surface due to suction8


66/76

Li9t Cu+e5 19 C,mbeed ,d Symmeti2,3 ,i91i35

CALCULATION6eneral Lift e


67/76

L7ta:eHo8 J 29+2


68/76

TAKEOFF AN# LAN#ING #ISTANCE

CALCULATION


69/76

TAKEOFF AN# LAN#ING #ISTANCE CALCULATION

"a#e(off is initiated %hen the aircraft first starts to move for%ards on the ground and

regarded as com+leted %hen aircraft has reach some +rescribed altitude8 "he first stage of aircraft

consists of the )1 %hen the aircraft is still on the ground8 "his is #no%n as ground run8 uring

this run s+eed varies and so the lift and hence also the reaction of the aircraft %heels %ith the

ground8

T,:e 199 di5t,2e

)2

)1


70/76

round run "ransition *limbing

)1 ( )elocity to reach the transition from ground run8

)2 )elocity to reach the climbing level8

"a#e(off is initiated %hen the aircraft first starts to move for%ards on the ground and regarded as

com+leted %hen aircraft has reach some +rescribed altitude8 "he first stage of aircraft consists of

the )1 %hen the aircraft is still on the ground8 "his is #no%n as ground run8 uring this run s+eed

varies and so the lift and hence also the reaction of the aircraft %heels %ith the ground8

Z @ W(L K 'eaction orce @'8

Where Z ( friction co( efficient:

W Weight8

T,:e 199 di5t,2e 2,32u3,ti1

ormula for ta#e(off distance calculation is:

-" K @)"2

W2g " av (Z @W(Lav

Where:

)" ( )ertical ta#e(off distance

-" ( "a#e(off distance

" ( "a#e(off thrust

)" K 182O)s

)s K √ @2@W,- , [*L ma;

K@2R4&!2R8!1,18225R5582R1825Y085

K24&853m,s

)" K 182O24&853


71/76

K 2&803 m,s

)av K&0S )"

K08& O2&803

K20&80 m,s

*L ma; K 3,4@ *L ma; av M \ @]*L ma;fla+

K3,4 P1825M082Q

K180!

L av K *L av O1,2 [ @)av 2 O -

or 45 of angle of attac#: @from the gra+h

*L av K 081&5

Lav K081&5O1,2 O18225O @20&802 O41

K 1!8^

* av K * @ta#e off M ^ @*L av 2 @from drag +olar calculation

K 08034$2 M08055@081&52

K 0803$30

av K * avO [ )2av O -

K 0803$3O 085 O 18225 O@20&82 O41

K38 ^

rom thrust re


72/76

LAN#ING #ISTANCE CALCULATIONS

"he analysis of the landing +erformance of an air+lane is some%hat analogous to that

for ta#e(off: only reverse8 *onsider an air+lane on a landing a++roach8 "he landing distance: as

s#etched begins %hen the air+lanes cleared an obstacle: %hich is ta#en to be50 ft in height8

"he landing calculated as +er A'(25 instructions as follo%s:

@"he notation used here is as sho%n above figure

)A K 183 )-L

)A ( A++roach )elocity8

)-L K√ @2W , [ - *L ma;


73/76

*L ma; K @*L ma; av M ]*L ma;

K183 M 08& K 2

)s K√ @2@W,- , [*L ma;

K@2R4444804R8!1,18225R5582R183Y085

K24&853m,s

K!181#nots

)A K 183O!181

K115!84 #nots8

o%: -L K082$5 O)-L2

K082$5 O!1812

K 2104258$ feet8

And -L K 183! -L

K183! O2104258$

K40&!04 feet


74/76


75/76

SIDE

TOP

FRONT

VIE?6

1+

2-


76/76

REFERENCE

TE>TS

18 "heory of %ing section8

y I'A .8A" and ALE'" E8) E.8

28 Aircraft +erformance and design

y T. 8AE'- T'

38 Aircraft design7 A conce+tual A++roach

y AIEL 68'A?9E'

&EBSITES

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