Tribal Level of Tribal Level of IntegrationIntegration

HorticulturalistsHorticulturalists

Tribal Level of Integration: Tribal Level of Integration: FeaturesFeatures

Food producers: horticulture or Food producers: horticulture or pastoralism (herding)pastoralism (herding)

Larger populationsLarger populations Two or more extended kin groupsTwo or more extended kin groups Cross-cutting sodalitiesCross-cutting sodalities Balanced reciprocityBalanced reciprocity Headmen without power or officeHeadmen without power or office

Food-Producing SocietiesFood-Producing Societies First indications: Neolithic ca 10 kya First indications: Neolithic ca 10 kya In the Fertile Crescent (upper left), In the Fertile Crescent (upper left),

Near EastNear East Characteristics:Characteristics: Domestication of plants (emmer Domestication of plants (emmer

wheat, lower), animals, or bothwheat, lower), animals, or both Human control over food productionHuman control over food production Quantities of food greater than Quantities of food greater than

foragersforagers Settled communities (except Settled communities (except

herders)herders) Increases in populationIncreases in population Complex social structures.Complex social structures.

HorticultureHorticulture

Definition:Definition: Cultivation of crops Cultivation of crops Carried out with hand toolsCarried out with hand tools Such as digging sticks or hoesSuch as digging sticks or hoes Neither plows or irrigation systems are Neither plows or irrigation systems are

usedused Best known type of cultivation involves Best known type of cultivation involves

use of use of slash-and-burn slash-and-burn or or swiddenswidden cultivationcultivation

Basics of Slash-and-Burn Basics of Slash-and-Burn CultivationCultivation

A site is cleared of brush and A site is cleared of brush and treestrees

Trees are felled, brush stackedTrees are felled, brush stacked Once dried, the brush and Once dried, the brush and

trees are set afire (top photo).trees are set afire (top photo). Planting beginsPlanting begins Usually, crops are interplantedUsually, crops are interplanted Once soil is exhausted, site is Once soil is exhausted, site is

abandoned (bottom photo)abandoned (bottom photo) Cultivators clear a new site Cultivators clear a new site

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Adaptive SignificanceAdaptive Significance

Most slash-and-burn cultivation is Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the tropicspracticed in the tropics

Tropical climate is extremely hard on Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils soils

Intense heatIntense heat Heavy rainfallHeavy rainfall Chemical reaction from heat and rainChemical reaction from heat and rain Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this

climate--which the following will showclimate--which the following will show

Constants of Tropical Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Intense HeatRainforest: Intense Heat

Plant and animal matter decompose to Plant and animal matter decompose to form form humus humus or or topsoiltopsoil

Humus formation virtually stops if soil Humus formation virtually stops if soil reaches 77 degrees Fahrenheitreaches 77 degrees Fahrenheit

Decomposition of humus exceed Decomposition of humus exceed formationformation

Humic materials break down to gases: Humic materials break down to gases: ammonia, nitrogen, carbon dioxideammonia, nitrogen, carbon dioxide

Gases escape into the atmosphereGases escape into the atmosphere

Constants of Tropical Constants of Tropical Rainforest: RainfallRainforest: Rainfall

Rainfall acts on the soil in two Rainfall acts on the soil in two waysways

Erosion: Erosion: Rainfall carries away soil Rainfall carries away soil

particlesparticles Particles themselves scour Particles themselves scour

surfacesurface Abrasion carries off even Abrasion carries off even

more soilmore soil LeachingLeaching Warm water dissolves water-Warm water dissolves water-

soluble nutrientssoluble nutrients Nutrients seep into subsoilNutrients seep into subsoil

Constants of Tropical Constants of Tropical Rainforest: LaterizationRainforest: Laterization

Laterite: the oxides of Laterite: the oxides of minerals minerals

Such as iron oxide at top Such as iron oxide at top layer (photo) layer (photo)

Combined heat and Combined heat and moisture creates oxidesmoisture creates oxides

Process is irreversibleProcess is irreversible Removes phosphorus, an Removes phosphorus, an

essential nutrientessential nutrient Cannot absorb other Cannot absorb other

nutrientsnutrients

A Long-Term Constant: Age A Long-Term Constant: Age of Soilof Soil

This process has been going for This process has been going for centuriescenturies

Soil is mostly clay and sandSoil is mostly clay and sand Plant and animal life is limited in proteinPlant and animal life is limited in protein Most plants reproduce by vegetative Most plants reproduce by vegetative

meansmeans Seeds involve large amounts of proteinSeeds involve large amounts of protein Animals are smallAnimals are small Gregarious (herding) animals are rareGregarious (herding) animals are rare

Adaptation of Tropical Adaptation of Tropical Rainforests: OverviewRainforests: Overview

Protective canopy of leaves and Protective canopy of leaves and epiphytic plantsepiphytic plants

Rate of growthRate of growth Juxtaposition of different types of Juxtaposition of different types of

treestrees

Protective CanopyProtective Canopy Mature forests contain trees with Mature forests contain trees with

thick foliage at their tops (left) thick foliage at their tops (left) The canopy comprises: The canopy comprises: Thick network of leafy branches, and Thick network of leafy branches, and Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients

from rain and airfrom rain and air Protective functions of the canopy:Protective functions of the canopy: Provide protective shade from sun, Provide protective shade from sun,

allowing humus to accumulateallowing humus to accumulate Lessen action and amount of rainfall Lessen action and amount of rainfall

Rate of GrowthRate of Growth

Rate of growth is spectacularRate of growth is spectacular Enables rapid use of nutrients before they Enables rapid use of nutrients before they

disappear through erosion or leachingdisappear through erosion or leaching Litter fall of animal remains and dead Litter fall of animal remains and dead

vegetationvegetation Is four times of woodland in New York stateIs four times of woodland in New York state Rainfall also captures nutrients from airRainfall also captures nutrients from air 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of

magnesium, and 25% of phosphorus come magnesium, and 25% of phosphorus come from rainwaterfrom rainwater

Species JuxtapositionSpecies Juxtaposition

Different tree species have different Different tree species have different nutrient requirementsnutrient requirements

Some require more phosphorus than Some require more phosphorus than othersothers

Other require more potassiumOther require more potassium Nutrient left by one tree is taken by Nutrient left by one tree is taken by

othersothers Dispersal of same species is protection Dispersal of same species is protection

against pests and diseasesagainst pests and diseases

Clean Clearing of Tropical Clean Clearing of Tropical RainforestRainforest Clean clearing (left) would:Clean clearing (left) would: Compact the soil due to heavy Compact the soil due to heavy

rainfallrainfall Erosion via runoff would Erosion via runoff would

increaseincrease Minimize or eliminate formation Minimize or eliminate formation

of humusof humus Leach the soilLeach the soil Convert the soil into lateriteConvert the soil into laterite Overall: reduce its fertilityOverall: reduce its fertility

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation TechniqueTechnique

Review of distinctive featuresReview of distinctive features Cutting and burning vegetation prior to Cutting and burning vegetation prior to

plantingplanting Shifting to new site after 2 or 3 cropsShifting to new site after 2 or 3 crops Mundurucú practicesMundurucú practices Site selection: sloping, well-drained areaSite selection: sloping, well-drained area ClearingClearing Removal of shrubs and small treesRemoval of shrubs and small trees Felling of trees by keystone methodFelling of trees by keystone method

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Technique: Burning Technique: Burning

Mundurucú practices (con’t)Mundurucú practices (con’t) BurningBurning Vegetation allowed to dry: 2 monthsVegetation allowed to dry: 2 months Fire set on day of slight breeze to fan Fire set on day of slight breeze to fan

flamesflames

Slash and Burn TechniquesSlash and Burn Techniques

PlantingPlanting Begins at first rains: no cultivationBegins at first rains: no cultivation Hole made with digging stickHole made with digging stick Cuttings or seeds inserted and Cuttings or seeds inserted and

coveredcovered Manioc (a tuber) and sweet potatoes Manioc (a tuber) and sweet potatoes

are planted in the centerare planted in the center Other crops planted at edgesOther crops planted at edges

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Weeding and HarvestWeeding and Harvest

WeedingWeeding Done twice during growing seasonDone twice during growing season HarvestHarvest Planting is staggered; so is harvestingPlanting is staggered; so is harvesting Harvesting done as need arisesHarvesting done as need arises Entire crop is not removed at one timeEntire crop is not removed at one time Manioc replanted immediately after Manioc replanted immediately after

harvest to ensure permanent supplyharvest to ensure permanent supply

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Imitation of Rainforestas Imitation of Rainforest

Crops are intermixed, each with Crops are intermixed, each with different nutrient requirementsdifferent nutrient requirements

Reduces competition for same nutrientReduces competition for same nutrient Dispersal of same plants retard Dispersal of same plants retard

disease, pestsdisease, pests Staggering planting and harvest Staggering planting and harvest

minimizes soil exposureminimizes soil exposure Burning slash returns nutrients to soilBurning slash returns nutrients to soil

Slash and Burn Cultivation as Slash and Burn Cultivation as ImperfectImperfect Imitation of Imitation of

RainforestRainforest Decomposition of stumps and branchesDecomposition of stumps and branches Attract pests away from cropsAttract pests away from crops Supply added nutrientsSupply added nutrients Weeding of mixed valueWeeding of mixed value Minimizes competition for nutrientsMinimizes competition for nutrients Reduces shade and protection from Reduces shade and protection from

erosionerosion Imitation not the real thingImitation not the real thing Yield declines by 3rd year—time to moveYield declines by 3rd year—time to move

Tribal Societies: Economic Tribal Societies: Economic SystemsSystems

The economic systems of tribal societies The economic systems of tribal societies include:include:

Property, which includes corporate kin groupsProperty, which includes corporate kin groups Exchange relations, involving reciprocityExchange relations, involving reciprocity Political organizations, again usually kin basedPolitical organizations, again usually kin based The economic and political system of a tribe The economic and political system of a tribe

are usually integrated into one system.are usually integrated into one system. Carl Polanyi called a tribal economy an Carl Polanyi called a tribal economy an

“instituted process”—the economy is “instituted process”—the economy is embedded in the society in which it occursembedded in the society in which it occurs

Property: Communalism and Property: Communalism and JointJoint

Communalism: ownership by Communalism: ownership by communitycommunity

Property is freely accessible to allProperty is freely accessible to all Or it involves a sharing Or it involves a sharing

arrangement--meat among !Kung or arrangement--meat among !Kung or InuitInuit

Mesoamerica: communal ownership, Mesoamerica: communal ownership, private use rights (usufruct)private use rights (usufruct)

Joint propertyJoint property

All share in rights and obligations All share in rights and obligations Property held by members of a Property held by members of a

corporate lineage or clancorporate lineage or clan Example: cattle ownership among Example: cattle ownership among

some East Africanssome East Africans Analysis: Corporate Lineages and Analysis: Corporate Lineages and

Clans—Some background is Clans—Some background is necessarynecessary

Lineages and ClansLineages and Clans Most groups are organized into patrilineal or Most groups are organized into patrilineal or

matrilineal groupsmatrilineal groups Patrilineal groups:Patrilineal groups: A continuous line of A continuous line of

males related by bloodmales related by blood Matrilineal groups:Matrilineal groups: A continuous line of A continuous line of

females related by bloodfemales related by blood Lineages:Lineages: A group of kin related by A group of kin related by

patrilineal or matrilineal ties who can trace patrilineal or matrilineal ties who can trace their ancestrytheir ancestry

Clan:Clan: A group of kin who assume their ties A group of kin who assume their ties patrilineally or matrilineally to an ancestor, patrilineally or matrilineally to an ancestor, but to whom they cannot trace their descent. but to whom they cannot trace their descent.

Descent Groups (Corporate Descent Groups (Corporate Groups)Groups)

Are organized with the following Are organized with the following characteristicscharacteristics

Their members control an Their members control an estateestate: : land, cattle, fishing areas, hunting land, cattle, fishing areas, hunting territoryterritory

The estate may be owned by group orThe estate may be owned by group or It may be owned by the families that It may be owned by the families that

make up the lineage or clanmake up the lineage or clan

Descent Groups: Rights and Descent Groups: Rights and ObligationsObligations

The estate entails rights and obligationsThe estate entails rights and obligations Examples:Examples: Rights to cattle for bridewealthRights to cattle for bridewealth Obligation to provide cattle for bridewealthObligation to provide cattle for bridewealth Obligation to defend herds (or add to them)Obligation to defend herds (or add to them) Fulani:Fulani: If one group loses its herd due to diseaseIf one group loses its herd due to disease Others contribute to replenishment of that Others contribute to replenishment of that

herdherd

Descent Groups: PerpetuityDescent Groups: Perpetuity

The lineage or clan is The lineage or clan is sociocentricsociocentric It outlasts the life span of individualsIt outlasts the life span of individuals They are not unlike modern They are not unlike modern

corporationscorporations These corporations also outlive their These corporations also outlive their

directors, managers, and directors, managers, and employeesemployees

Legal PersonsLegal Persons Under commercial law, corporations are defined as Under commercial law, corporations are defined as

legal persons, with all privileges and liabilities legal persons, with all privileges and liabilities thereto. thereto.

These are similar to descent groupsThese are similar to descent groups Kwakiutl: Say that a noble one clan has been Kwakiutl: Say that a noble one clan has been

murdered by commoner of anothermurdered by commoner of another Rules of revenge demands te death of the noble of Rules of revenge demands te death of the noble of

commoner’s clan—not just anybody, least all the commoner’s clan—not just anybody, least all the commoner who committed the murdercommoner who committed the murder

Responsibility for the murder is thereby collectiveResponsibility for the murder is thereby collective In New Guinea, a murder likewise requires In New Guinea, a murder likewise requires

retaliation—that is enforced by the spiritsretaliation—that is enforced by the spirits

DistributionDistribution

Once a product has been made, it Once a product has been made, it has to be distributed somehowhas to be distributed somehow

In tribal societies, the primary means In tribal societies, the primary means of doing so is by reciprocityof doing so is by reciprocity

This is gift exchange, which involves This is gift exchange, which involves repayment of a gift later in timerepayment of a gift later in time

Marcel Mauss provided a framework Marcel Mauss provided a framework for understanding the exchange. for understanding the exchange.

Imperatives of Exchange: Imperatives of Exchange: Background Background

Marcel Mauss: Presented his theory in Marcel Mauss: Presented his theory in The GiftThe Gift This work compared gift giving in several cultures.This work compared gift giving in several cultures. In his preface, he writes, “When two groups of men In his preface, he writes, “When two groups of men

meet, they may meet, they may (1) move away (and never see each other again) or(1) move away (and never see each other again) or (2) in case of mistrust they may resort to arms (fight) or(2) in case of mistrust they may resort to arms (fight) or (3) else they may come to terms”(3) else they may come to terms” Coming to terms, he called “total prestations” orComing to terms, he called “total prestations” or Incurring an obligation thatIncurring an obligation that has the force of lawhas the force of law in the absence of (codified ) lawin the absence of (codified ) law

Obligations of the GiftObligations of the Gift

Obligation to give, receive, and repay.Obligation to give, receive, and repay. First, the obligation to give serves:First, the obligation to give serves: to extend social ties to another person or groupsto extend social ties to another person or groups Obligation to receive entails Obligation to receive entails Acceptance of the relationshipAcceptance of the relationship Refusal is to reject the offered relationshipRefusal is to reject the offered relationship Such a refusal often lead to warSuch a refusal often lead to war Obligation to repay complete the relationshipObligation to repay complete the relationship Failure to repay renders one a beggar to the Failure to repay renders one a beggar to the

person or group who made the giftperson or group who made the gift

Types of Reciprocity: Types of Reciprocity: GeneralizedGeneralized

The obligations underlie the The obligations underlie the principles of reciprocityprinciples of reciprocity

Reciprocity: Direct exchange of goods Reciprocity: Direct exchange of goods and servicesand services

Generalized reciprocity: altruistic Generalized reciprocity: altruistic transactions in whichtransactions in which

gifts are freely given without gifts are freely given without calculating value or repayment duecalculating value or repayment due

Example: meat distribution among !Example: meat distribution among !Kung (upper left)Kung (upper left)

Example: family pooling of resources, Example: family pooling of resources, even birthday presents (lower left)even birthday presents (lower left)

This usually occurs among close kinThis usually occurs among close kin

Types of Reciprocity: Types of Reciprocity: BalancedBalanced

Balanced reciprocity: Direct Balanced reciprocity: Direct exchangeexchange

Value of gift is calculatedValue of gift is calculated Time of repayment is specifiedTime of repayment is specified Selling surplus food (upper left)Selling surplus food (upper left) Kula ring, Trobriand IslandsKula ring, Trobriand Islands One trader gives partner a white One trader gives partner a white

armband (see map, lower left)armband (see map, lower left) He thereby expects a red necklace of He thereby expects a red necklace of

equal value in returnequal value in return Promissory gifts are made until the return Promissory gifts are made until the return

gift is madegift is made Balanced reciprocity usually occurs Balanced reciprocity usually occurs

among distant kinamong distant kin

Types of Reciprocity: Types of Reciprocity: NegativeNegative

Negative reciprocity: An exchange Negative reciprocity: An exchange wherewhere

One party tries to get the better of One party tries to get the better of the exchangethe exchange

from the other party.from the other party. Example: hard bargaining or Example: hard bargaining or

deceptiondeception Example: horse raids (upper left)Example: horse raids (upper left) Example: selling prepared food to a Example: selling prepared food to a

captive market (lower left)captive market (lower left) Usually occurs among unrelated Usually occurs among unrelated

personspersons Variation: silent tradeVariation: silent trade

Concepts of the Supernatural: Concepts of the Supernatural: Forces Versus BeingsForces Versus Beings

Supernatural Forces: Supernatural Forces: manamana No personality or other such attributesNo personality or other such attributes Forces somewhat akin to electricityForces somewhat akin to electricity Tabus: caution against touching object too Tabus: caution against touching object too

dangerous for commonersdangerous for commoners Supernatural BeingsSupernatural Beings Supernatural persons or forces with Supernatural persons or forces with

attributes of personality or personageattributes of personality or personage Human image of gods or spirits apply hereHuman image of gods or spirits apply here

Supernatural Beings: A TypologySupernatural Beings: A Typology

Gods:Gods: generically of nonhuman origin generically of nonhuman origin Monotheism: single, often all-powerful godMonotheism: single, often all-powerful god Polytheism: numerous, specialized godsPolytheism: numerous, specialized gods Demons: negative beingsDemons: negative beings Spirits or Ghosts: of human originSpirits or Ghosts: of human origin Ancestral spirits: departed souls of the Ancestral spirits: departed souls of the

dead to whom living pay homagedead to whom living pay homage Ghosts: Spirits who often bring harm to Ghosts: Spirits who often bring harm to

living, often as revenge for some neglectliving, often as revenge for some neglect

Practitioners: Shamans, WitchesPractitioners: Shamans, Witches

Shamans:Shamans: persons with supernatural persons with supernatural power acquired by individual initiativepower acquired by individual initiative

Many are diagnosticians or healersMany are diagnosticians or healers Quasalid: Kwakiutl shamanQuasalid: Kwakiutl shaman DivinersDiviners: those who forecast the future: those who forecast the future Sorcerers:Sorcerers: Practitioners who bring ham Practitioners who bring ham Through supernatural power/often with Through supernatural power/often with

ritualritual WitchcraftWitchcraft: Innate psychic power capable : Innate psychic power capable

of harmof harm Case study: Azande poison oracleCase study: Azande poison oracle

Conclusion: Tribal SocietiesConclusion: Tribal Societies

Defining features: absence of institutional Defining features: absence of institutional chief or monarchchief or monarch

Two or more segments, such as lineagesTwo or more segments, such as lineages Cross-cutting institutions, such as age Cross-cutting institutions, such as age

grades, cross-cousin marriagegrades, cross-cousin marriage Or even larger lineages or clansOr even larger lineages or clans Some are horticulturalists, such as Some are horticulturalists, such as

Yanomamo, Kayapo, and KawelkaYanomamo, Kayapo, and Kawelka Others are pastoralists, such as the MasaiOthers are pastoralists, such as the Masai