2. ~ Introduction ~Student Resistance: The Fourth R
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- Student resistance is a continually occurring, vital, and
global social phenomenon. p. 3
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- At crisis moments, students are at the center of extremely
powerful sociological, political, and physical forces for which
they are generally unprepared. p. 4
- In school, students are traditionally taught the three Rs
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- R eading, W r iting and A r ithmetic
- The author maintains that a fourth R is also taught, this
beingR esistance
3. Riotus Interruptus?: Early Defiance and Medieval Violence
- European Universities were begun for higher education, but also
so that the universities could have legal and economic power over
the towns in which they resided.
- Universities benefited the towns economies as well, because the
students needed goods and services that the town provided.
- If unsatisfied their treatment in the town, the students would
threaten to move the university out of town. Faced with this threat
to their economy, the town would comply with the university's
wishes, and the university would receive more legal and economic
power over the town.
- Often, town-and-gown struggles would occur, where students and
townies attacked each other violently, often over something as
small as an insult to a taverns wine. The king almost always
reacted in favor of the universities, giving them more power, and
punishing the townies.
4. The Student Body Inflamed
- During the Renaissance universities blossomed.
- Most student activism centered around political and religious
debates such as the Protestant-Catholic struggle and the
Reformation, as well as the Calvinist movement of discipline
reform. There was not yet student radicalism present.
- During the Enlightenment, public schools were opened, so that
by 1714 everyone from the poor to the elite could receive an
education.
- Students in Germany were the first to demonstrate
radicalism.Burschenshaftendeveloped all over the separate German
states, with a goal to unify Germany. Assassinations and riots were
used in an attempt to reach their goals. Most of these rebellions
failed, but it demonstrated that students had political power.
- In Poland, the students joined in a failed attempt to overthrow
Russia.
- In France, students rebelled against the monarchy.
- In America, students protested slavery.
5. The Modernization of Student Power and Rise of the Student
Leader
- Students throughout continued to rebel both violently and
through the spread of ideas, though many conflicts of this time
were small, weak, and of little political importance.
- In Germany, students failed in achieving a Grossdeutschland, or
unified Germany, but they learned that if they could mobilize small
groups effectively, they could muster massive blocks of organized
power that could unite with groups of workers to topple
governments.
- In Vienna, Students managed to overthrow the government, but
could not manage to successfully run the government for an extended
period of time.
- Smaller student groups with specific interests formed, which
then became part of larger associations, and eventually large
networks of student groups.
- Student resistance had been active in China for centuries, with
moderate success. Student activism now spread Turkey, India, and
the United States.
- In Russia, student resistance was new, but developed quickly.
Strict regulations outlawed resistance groups, but the oppression
only encouraged students to rebel. Student groups were responsible
for many assassinations and violent rebellions, but on the whole
accomplished little.
6. Success, Sabers, and Sacrifice, 1900-1919
- All over the world, but especially in Europe, organization was
the theme. As a weapon of resistance, terrorism was becoming more
common, but for the most part, student resistance of this time was
not political or overly violent.
- In Russia, the same patterns of suppression and revolt
continued to occur. In 1905, after a violent struggle, new freedoms
were given to the students. However, just when things were looking
up, their new rights were taken away.
- In Bosnia, students were angry at the annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, and formed terrorist groups
such as the Black Hand. Gavrilo Princip, a member of this group,
was responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
an act blamed on Serbia, which resulted in WWI.
- In China, Japan now controlled the government and trade.
Students anger at this new situation inspired the May Fourth
Movement, a series of protests on and after May 4 th . As a result,
China agreed to defy Japan.
- In Latin America, most student activism involved educational
reform within the universities. This was very successful in
Argentina, where all student demands were met. As a result, most of
Latin America adopted Argentinas reforms.
7. Reform and Terrorism in the 1920s and 1930s
- Inspired by Argentina's success, students in Venezuela
demonstrated against the Venezuelan President, Juan Vincente Gmez.
They had no success at the time, but his successor gave them what
they wanted.
- In China, the two main political parties, the Chinese Communist
Party, led by Mao Zedong, and the Guomindang both recruited
students, though students tended to support the Guomindang. Using
the students backfired, however, when they could no longer be
controlled, and defied the Guomindang.
- Anti-Imperialism was at the heart of many struggles worldwide.
China and Korea tried to defy Japan, Indonesia wanted to get rid of
the Dutch, andIndia and Burma hoped to sent the British
packing.
- In Germany, student groups became branches of the Nazi party,
where student power could be rallied in support of Nazi agenda.
Some groups attempted to stop this fascism but there was not enough
support in this are to have significant effect.
- England experienced an alarming new student movement:
pacifism.
- The United States had its fair share of student activism,
though most was non-violent and unlike many parts of the world,
there was no call for revolution.
8. Student Militancy and Warfare, 1940-1959
- During WWII many universities closed, and most usual activism
halted.
- German activism was shut down during the war, and was slow to
rebuild after.
- Many French students left school to join the Resistance. During
the war protest was prohibited. After the war, French students had
a new cause: free Algeria.
- In Hungary, students started a revolution that laborers,
merchants, and the army supported. It was at first successful, but
was shut down by the Soviets.
- Japanese students, many members of the student group
Zengakuren, demonstrated against the unconstitutional U.S.-Japan
Security Treaty.
- In China, students protested the struggle between the Maos
Communist Party and the Guomindang. They favored Mao, who took
control with their help.
- India experienced non-violent resistance under Gandhi's
influence, but after independence was achieved, there was no cause
and little resistance.
- Most American activism centered around anti-socialism and
anti-communism.
- Latin American activism was plentiful and violent, and often
lead to reform or revolution.
9. Student Resistance in the 1960s
- South Korea student protests against Syngman Rhees rigged
reelection, lead to a revolution supported by both the public and
the military. The subsequent new republic, however, was taken over
by the military.
- In Japan, students opposed U.S. imperialism in Southeast Asia
and protested violently when Prime Minister Sato Eisaku appeared to
be supporting the U.S.
- In China, Mao created the Red Guard, a military group of
students whose a sole purpose was to purge the country of anyone
who opposed Mao or Communism.
- In Indonesia, an anti-communist group called the Action Command
of Indonesia formed. President Sukarno opposed this group, which
sparked a revolution that lead to the takeover of the country by
Suharto, a student-backed military leader.
- In India, there was violent action for making Hindi the
national language, and for university reform. Both causes were
successful.
- In Germany student resistance was extremely violent, but police
response was just as bad. Students wanted Germany to go to
Vietnam.
10. Student Resistance in the 1960s (Cont)
- In the Netherlands most protests were entertaining and
good-humored, but were very suppressed, much to the publics
disappointment.
- Czech students marched against suppression, but were shut down
by the police. They did manage to gain some support, but were
crushed by the Soviet military.
- Turkeys Prime Minister Adnan Menderes attempted to purge all
opposition to his repressive regime, and student protest led to
military takeover of the county.
- Mostly minor resistance occurred in South Africa, the Congo,
and in Algeria. In Sudan university protests became so large that
Ibrahim Abboud stepped down.
- In the United Stated non-violent protests for civil rights were
held all over the south. A Berkley in California,students protested
for free speech, which they succeeded in getting. The largest
protests, however, were anti-draft and anti-Vietnam, the latter of
which occurred in Washington D.C. where thousands of students
marched on the Pentagon. These demonstrations were mostly peaceful,
at least on the part of the students.
- In Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Peru, and Venezuela, Latin American students increasingly turned to
violence in their resistance, but were mostly unsuccessful.
11. 1968 and 1969: Student Power, Part 1
- Students in France protested for educational reforms, but the
protests turned violent, and the public joined the oppressed
students in a series of riots. Charles de Gaulle's government was
pushed to the brink, but managed to pull together and stop the
rioting.
- In Ireland Catholics held demonstrations against the Protestant
domination, but these originally peaceful demonstrations turned
violent when Protestants showed up and attacked the Catholics. The
struggle eventually died out after months of rioting.
- British students marched against Vietnam, and staged other
small-scale university protests.
- In Germany student resistance was dying, but extreme terrorists
acted.
- In Italy students joined workers in protests against the
laborers exploitation. They aided the workers successfully for a
while, but eventually the workers took over on their own.
- African students demonstrated for university reform.
- In Pakistan students protests forced the president to step
abandon his office.
12. 1968 and 1969: Student Power, Part 2
- Japanese students protested and took over the universities for
educational reform, but what reform they got gave the university
government more power to stop student protests.
- Overly violent police in Mexico city inspired many protests
leading up to a protest at the Plaza of Three Cultures, a peaceful
demonstration that was fired upon by police and government troops.
Despite the massive protests, very few of the students demands were
met.
- In the United States, activism thrived. Much activism was
anti-Vietnam, or pro-civil rights. At Columbia University in NYC,
students protested the building of a new gymnasium which encroached
on a public park. Their goals were eventually met after some
negotiation. Other such protests occurred at Berkley
- Students met to demonstrate in Chicago during the Democratic
Convention, and relatively peaceful demonstrations were brutally
shut down by police. The protests only succeeded in weakening
support for the Democrats, and Richard Nixon subsequently
elected.
- An extremely large anti-Vietnam protest took place in
Washington D.C., with over a million students attending.
13. The 1970s: Campus Killings and Student Fury
- In Germany, most student resistance fell apart, but terrorism
reigned. What student resistance remained focused on university and
social reform.
- American students were still protesting Vietnam, as well as
voting rights. Woman and Native Americans also advocated for their
rights.
- In Mexico protests for social and political reforms continued,
though with less violence.
- Students in Japan turned increasingly to hijacking and
kidnapping, but these acts were extremely unpopular and gained
little support.
- A protest swelled at Tiananmen Square, which was attacked by
police forces. Deng Xiaoping came into power after Maos death, and
the protest quieted.
- South Korean students protested Park Chung Hees reelection with
chaotic violent demonstrations.
- Student efforts in Rhodesia lead to independence in 1980 when
it became the Republic of Zimbabwe.
- Iranian students protested the U.S. presence in Iran
14. Revolution in a Postmodern World, 1980-1989
- Chilean students protested for the usual: university reform,
and were relatively successful.
- Mexicos education system had gotten very lax, but attempts to
reform the schools by government officials were widely protested by
students, and the universities were left alone.
- Much U.S. activism centered around rectifying the apartheid
system in Africa by asking universities to divest any money related
to South Africa, and were successful.
- In Pakistan violent resistance between students led to the
suppression of all resistance.
- In Palestine, Israelis fought Palestinians, attempting to
suppress them, but eventually turned to democracy in the
1990s.
- In South Korea student protesting for democracy were attacked
by police, and refused to back down when the military came. Many
were killed.
- In 1989 in China a large student protest took place Tiananmen
Square. The public supported the students, but the protest was
violently shut down and hundreds were killed. Most of the dead were
not students but rather workers who blocked the troops way.
15. Student Unrest on the Eve of a New Millennium
- In Brazil students were outraged when reports of the presidents
corruption emerged. They protested for his impeachment, and were
successful without violence. Other parts of Latin America
experienced more violent activism.
- After years of protest Mexico finally managed to instate reform
in its university.
- There was a rebirth of activism in the United States,
protesting such things as the Gulf War, racism, sweatshops, and
defending their right to drink alcohol.
- Europe experienced overcrowding in its universities, and
students protested the subsequent reforms that were attempting to
solve the problem.
- Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland westernized their
universities and their culture. In Yugoslavia, students wanted
reform, and protested against the president. He did not give in,
but violence caused public support to go to the students and a new
president was elected the next year.
- Student resistance continued the former Soviet Union, the
Middle East, Africa, India, South Korea, and Indonesia.
- After the Tiananman Square violence, Chinas resistance was
shattered.
16. ~ Epilogue ~ Whither Student Resistance
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- acts of student resistance throw social, economic, and
political powers into relief.
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- resistance performs an important function in all societies