title: FiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers
author: DeVeau,RussellL.publisher: TheFairmontPress
isbn10|asin: 0881733253printisbn13: 9780881733259ebookisbn13: 9780585317663
language: English
subject Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.
publicationdate: 2000lcc: TH7725.D482000ebddc: 621.32
subject: Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.
Pageiii
FiberOpticLightingAGuideforSpecifiers
SecondEdition
ByRussellL.DeVeau
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
DeVeau,RussellL.Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau.2nd.ed.
p.cmIncludesbibliographicalreferences.ISBN0-88173-325-31.Lighting.2.Fiberoptics.3.Lighting,architecturalanddecorative.I.Title.
TH7725.D482000621.32dc2100-033854
Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau2nded.©2001byTheFairmontPress.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
PublishedbyTheFairmontPress,Inc.700IndianTrailLilburn,GA30047
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
ISBN0-88173-325-3FP
ISBN0-13-032121-4PH
Whileeveryeffortismadetoprovidedependableinformation,thepublisher,authors,andeditorscannotbeheldresponsibleforanyerrorsoromissions.
DistributedbyPrenticeHallPTRPrentice-Hall,Inc.ASimon&SchusterCompanyUpperSaddleRiver,NJ07458
Prentice-HallInternational(UK)Limited,LondonPrentice-HallofAustraliaPty.Limited,Sydney
Prentice-HallofAustraliaPty.Limited,SydneyPrentice-HallCanadaInc.,TorontoPrentice-HallHispanoamericana,S.A,MexicoPrentice-HallofIndiaPrivateLimited,NewDelhiPrentice-HallofJapan,Inc.,TokyoSimon&SchusterAsiaPte.Ltd.,SingaporeEditoraPrentice-HalldoBrasil,Ltda,RiodeJaneiro
Pagev
Thisbookisdedicatedtothelightingprofessionalwhowantstoexpandhisorherbaseoftechnicalknowledgeinordertocreateboldandcreativenewlightingdesigns.
Pagevii
Contents
Preface xi
Introduction xiii
Chapter1.FundamentalsOfFiberOpticLighting 1
IntroductionandHistory 1
TheoryofOperation 3
DesignandConstruction 7
Components 7
ApplicationsandCharacteristics 9
Chapter2.TheIlluminatorAndFibers 17
TheIlluminator 17
TheLightSource 21
Low-VoltageHalogenLamps 24
Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps 24
MetalHalideLamps 24
XenonMetalHalideLamps 26
SelectingtheRightLamp 26
TheLampOperatingintheSystem 26
TheFiber 29
GlassorPlastic? 29
CoreandCladding 29
DiameterandLightOutput 30
MeasurementofFibersinABundle(Glass) 30
TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic) 32
LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting) 34
PhotometricDataandLightLevels 43
Chapter3.PrinciplesOfOperation 47
PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem
47
Pageviii
Chapter4.LightLoss 59
Introduction 59
LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents 60
LightLossatRelatedComponents 61
LightLossesattheFiber 61
LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds 61
LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea 64
LossesDuetoDirtandDust 66
TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance 66
LossesDuetoFiltration 68
LossesDuetoFiberImperfections 69
LossesDuetoSevereBending 69
Chapter5.GlassorPlastic? 73
GlassVersusPlastic 73
ColorShift 73
AbilitytoWithstandHeatFromtheLamp 75
UltravioletLight 77
Harnesses 78
CuttingtheFibers 84
VariationsInLightColorandIntensity 84
BendingtheFiber 86
Price 88
HowLongWillItLast? 88
MixingGlassandPlastic 88
Chapter6.Accessories 89
AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem 89
Fixtures 92
FixturesForDownlighting 92
DecorativeFixturesForDownlighting 94
EyeballFixtures 94
LandscapeLightingFixtures 94
ExteriorLightingFixtures 95
ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures 95
Pageix
SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures 96
DecorativeLightingElements 97
CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication 97
SpecialEffectsAccessories 98
ColorWheels 98
Gobos 100
Synchronization 100
DimmingAccessories 101
AdditionalAccessories 101
Cost 101
MountingtheFiberOpticSystem 102
Illuminators 102
Fibers 102
Fixtures 103
Chapter7.ApplicationPresentations 105
Chapter8.TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItAllTogether 131
ApplicationDetails 131
TheStar-likeDisplay 131
TheStar-likeDisplay,SelectingFiberType 132
OptimumIlluminatorPlacement 137
TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorsto 137
Consider
TheSizeoftheDisplay 137
TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator
139
TheNumberofPorts 139
LayingOuttheApplication 139
CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula 142
HowManyFibersWilltheStar-likeDisplayRequire?
142
Pagex
HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?
142
WhatistheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?
143
InstallingtheStar-likeDisplay 144
TheIlluminator 144
Ventilation 144
Chapter9.PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination
151
WheretofromHere? 151
MoreApplications 151
IndustryGrowth 151
AttenuationImprovements 152
OpticalControl 152
LightSourceDevelopment 153
TheNeedForMoreEducation 153
LookingattheBenefitsObjectively 154
"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy" 155
"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"
155
PhotometricData 156
Fiberspeak 156
TheRoleOfTheSalesRep 157
GettingtheBestResults 158
Mock-ups 158
GettingInformationFromtheInternet 159
HowDidItWork? 159
MoreInformationIsNeeded 160
AppendixI.BibliographyofSources 161
AppendixII.ASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentatives
169
AppendixIII.HowtheResearchWasDone 173
Pagexi
PrefaceFiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers,SecondEdition,iswrittenforprofessionalsandstudentsinterestedintheartandscienceoflightingdesignspecificationand/ormanagement.Theseprofessionalincludelightingdesigners,architects,engineers,interiordesignersandfacilitiesmanagers.
FiberOpticLightning'sintentistointroducethereadertofiberopticilluminationsystems.Thecontentsofthebookaredesignedtomakeselectionandspecificationoffiberopticlightingsystemsmoreunderstandable.Itfocusesonperformancecharacteristics,drawingonbothphysicsandpracticalissuesrelatedtodesign.Asfiberopticlightingcontinuestoemergeasa\dynamictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign,itisessentialtounderstandthefullspectrumofissuesfromanon-biasedsource,thenrelatetheseissuestomanufacturer'sandsupplier'sliterature,forbestresults.
Sincethefirsteditionwasprintedinearly1998,theindustryhasgonethroughmanychanges,mainlyintheformofcorporatemergersandpartnerships.Theserelationshipshavebeenformed,forthemostpart,toallowcorporationstosharetechnologiesandresearch.Specifiershavebenefitedfromthesepartnershipsbybeingabletotakeadvantageofmorediverseandcompleteproductofferingsfromsinglesources.
Includedinthissecondeditionisachapterthatintroducesthedesignertothestar-likedisplayapplicationdevelopmentprocess.Thestar-likeapplicationisoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications,butisoftenextremelydifficultforthedesignertospecify.Thischapterwalksthedesignerthroughsomeofthemajorstepsinvolvedindevelopingtheapplicationandoffersinsightintothe
installationprocesssothatprojectlayoutandspecificationismoreunderstandable
AfterreadingFiberOpticLighting,youshouldbeabletounderstandthetechnologytotheextentthatyoucanappreciateitscapabilitiesandlimitations,createbetterspecifications,viewmanufacturer'ssalesclaimswithamoreeducatedeye,andasktherightquestions.
Pagexiii
IntroductionResearchforthisprojectincludednumerousconversationsaboutfiberopticlightingwithstudentsandprofessionalsworkinginthefieldofinteriorandlightingdesign.Someoftheseconversationswereformalinterviews,otherswereinformaldiscussions.Theoverallresultoftheseconversationshasunequivocallyproventhatthereisaconcretemysterywithinthedesigncommunitysurroundingfiberoptictechnology.Fromtheclassroomtoprofessionalseminars,remarkssuchas"Idon'tunderstandit"or"It'stootechnicalforme"havenotbeenuncommon.Therearetwomainreasonsfortheconfusionsurroundingthistechnology.
First,thecommunicationsindustryhasdoneaspectacularjobatmaking"fiberoptics"intohouseholdwords.Often,thedesignerwhoisunfamiliarwithfiberopticilluminationsystemsassociatesthelightingtechnologywiththewidelypublicizedinternationalcommunicationssystems.Becausethetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticcommunicationsisnotgenerallyunderstoodbythedesigner(asmostdesignershavehadnoneedoropportunitytobecomeexposedtothetopic),itfollowsthatperceptionsrelatedtofiberopticilluminationsystemsarecenteredaroundacommunicationstechnologythatisgenerallyperceivedasbeinghighlytechnicalanddifficulttounderstand.
Second,thepublicationsrelatedtofiberopticlightingdonotoftenreduceoreliminatetheperceptionscreatedbythecommunicationsindustry.Agreatdealofthepublishedinformationrelatedtofiberopticlightinginevitablyincludesastatementabouthowthetechnologygrewfromthecommunicationsindustry.Thesestatementsonlyservetoreinforcetheperceptionsthatfiberopticilluminationistechnology-orientedandnoteasytounderstand.Promotionalliterature
producedbythefiberopticindustryoftendoesnothelptoreducetheseperceptions.
Pagexiv
Mostcompaniesinvolvedinthemanufacturingoffiberopticproductshaveapromotionalcatalogavailablethatincludesproductdescriptionsandacertainamountoftechnicalinformation.Often,thistechnicalinformationwillincludetermsthatareborrowedfromthecommunicationsindustrywithoutprovidinganadequateexplanationastowhatthosetermsmeanandhowtheyrelatetolighting.Andbecausethefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth,themajorityofthepromotionalliteraturesurroundingthistechnologyisconstantlychanging.Readinginformationaboutnewandupdatedproductsisoftenoflittlevalueifthebasicconceptsrelatedtothetechnologyarenotunderstood.
Somecompaniesofferphotographsanddescriptivetextrelatedtocurrentandpotentiallightingdesignpossibilitiesintheirmarketingliterature.Photographsarehelpfulinactuallyseeinghowacompletedinstallationlooksandtextassistsinintroducingtheapplication,butthistypeofmarketinginformationtendstolackspecificclarityastohowthesystemworksandwhyafiberopticsystemshouldbeconsideredforaparticularapplication.
Booksdevotedtolightingarealsonotalwayshelpfulineducatingthereaderonthissubject.Manybookstendtoofferlittleonthetopicoffiberopticsanddonotofferthereaderconcreteassistanceinrelatingwhatinformationispresentedtocurrentlightingdesignpossibilities.Somebookswillalsointroducetechnicaltermsrelatedtofiberopticswithoutdefiningtheminthecontextoflightingdesign.Themostupdatedlightinghandbooksoftenprovideanexplanationrelatedtototalinternalreflection(thetermusedtodescribehowlightistransmittedalongthelengthofafiber),butlittleelseonthesubjectoffiberoptics.
Variousmagazineswillfrequentlypublisharticlesrelatedtolightingdesignprojectswherefiberopticilluminationsystemshavebeen
utilized.Manyofthesearticlesalsofeaturephotographsofalightingprojectandoffertextexplainingwherefiberopticlightingwasusedintheapplication.Similar
Pagexv
tothepromotionalliteraturementionedabove,thesearticlesaresatisfactoryinintroducingfiberopticsasatoolforillumination,butoftentheydonotassistineducatingthereaderastohowthislightingtechnologyworks,whereitmayworkbest,whyitwasselectedfortheproject(asopposedtoamoretraditionallightingsystem)and,perhapsmostimportantly,howtheparticularinstallationmayberelatedtootherlightingdesignprojects.
Thisbookwaswrittentoassistineliminatingtheconfusionandmysteryassociatedwithfiberopticilluminationsystems.Itwillexplainhowthetechnologyworksandtherefore,whyitmaybetheappropriatechoiceforaparticularlightingapplication.Inaddition,becausetherearecurrentlynumerousfiberopticcomponentsandsystemsavailable,thisbookwillalsoprovideinformationthatmayassistthedesignerinaskingmanufacturersandrepresentativestheappropriatequestionsabouttheirproductsandhowtheycanrelatetocurrentorpotentiallightingdesignapplications.
InMarchof1996,IreceivedaletterfromMs.PamelaVandeVeldeofPinpointFiberOpticsLtd.inBeverlyHills,CA.ThisletterarrivedatatimewhenIwasreceivinginformationfromnumerousfiberopticcompaniesandrepresentativesfromaroundtheworld.Sortingthroughthesematerialsbecamedifficultbecauseofthemanystatementsdevelopedspecificallyformarketingpurposesratherthaneducationalandcomparisonpurposes.Ms.VandeVeldeclosedherletterwithaparagraphthatIhavereferredtonumeroustimesthroughoutmyresearchforthisproject.Irecommenditasapointofdepartureforanyoneinterestedinlearningmoreaboutfiberopticsbeforemoreformal(asopposedtopromotional)informationisavailable:
Beverycarefulinyourassessmentofmaterialsandexpertise.Theburgeoningfiberopticsindustryisfilledwithpartisanopinion.And
thereare''independentvoices"whichinreality,haveacommercialaffiliation.Thetruthisthatthereareadvantagesanddisadvantagestoeverytypeoflamp,toevery
Pagexvi
typeoffiberandtoeverytypeofsystem...
Althoughthisbookdoesnotprovidethereaderwithanenormousamountofdetailrelatedtothephysicsoffiberoptictechnology(whichinmostcasesisnotrelevanttolightingdesignneeds)anddoesnotrecommendparticularcompaniesorsystems,itdoesseektoprovideabridgebetweenthenumerouspublishedarticlesonfiberopticlightingandthetechnicalandpromotionalinformationproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Thespecificgoalofthisbookistoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticlightingtechnologyworkssothatthisknowledgecanberelatedtocurrentorfuturelightingdesignprojects.
InChapter1,thereaderisintroducedtobasicfiberopticsystemstoimpartageneralunderstandingofhowfiberopticswork;itisintendedforthereadertorelatethisunderstandingtothefiberopticilluminationsystemsinusetoday.Abriefhistoryofexperimentsinvolvingtheconceptsoffiberopticlightingispresentedaswellaswhyfiberopticsarebecomingapopularchoiceinnumerouslightingapplications.
InChapter2,anintroductiontotheilluminatorandlightsourcesispresented.Thetwotypesoffiberthatareusedinfiberopticilluminationsystemsarediscussedaswellaspossibleconfigurationsforutilizingside-emittingfiberinlightingdesign.Anexampleoffoot-candlelevelsisalsopresented.
InChapter3,theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionandhowthisphenomenonrelatestofiberopticsisdiscussed.
InChapter4,welearnthatallfiberopticlightingsystemsexperiencelightloss.Thischapterintroducesexamplesofhowlightcanbelostbeforeitreachestheilluminatedenvironment.
InChapter5,somevaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtoglassandplastic
fiberarepresented.Informationincludedinthischapterprovidesthedesignerwithcertainissuesthatmayneedtobeaddressedwhenconsideringaparticularfiberopticsystem.
InChapter6,someoftheaccessoriesavailableforfiberopticlightingsystemsarepresented.Equipmentaddressedin
Pagexvii
thissectionshouldbeviewedasarepresentationofthenumerousaccessoriesandfixturesthatarecurrentlyavailabletothedesigner.Thischapterisincludedtoassistthelightingdesignerinunderstandinghowacompletefiberopticlightingsystemcanwork.
InChapter7,aselectionoffiberopticlightingprojectsispresentedsothatthereadercanrelatetheinformationdiscussedinpreviouschapterstoactuallightingdesignapplications.
InChapter8,wereviewadditionalissuestoconsiderifthedesigneristomoreeasilyrelatetheinformationpresentedinpreviouschapterstoactuallyworkingwithfiberoptics.Industrygrowthandissuesrelatedtocompanypromotionalliteraturearediscussed.Someadditionaleducationalresourcesareincluded.
InAppendixI,abibliographyofsourcesusedtogeneratethistextispresented.
InAppendixII,aselectionoffiberopticmanufacturersandsuppliersispresented.
InAppendixIII,thereaderisprovidedwiththemethodologyusedtoproducethisbook.
Pagexix
AcknowledgmentsIamgratefultotheindividualswhohavereadvariousdraftsofthemanuscriptandofferedsuggestionsandcritique.Althoughtheseindividualsarenotresponsibleforthecontentsofthisguide,theirassistancewasinvaluable.
TheseindividualsareRobertM.Hughes,ProductManager,SchottCMLFiberopticsLLC;ScottR.Mangum,DirectorofApplicationEngineering&Development,RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.;MichaelMuehlemann,President,IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.;andPamelaVandeVelde,PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.AdditionalthankstoRobertProuse,Director,MFALightingDesignProgram,ParsonsSchoolofDesign;andZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.AveryspecialthankstoAlisonDerrick,whoseeditingskillshelpedtokeepmeontrack,andtoMaryEllenBurns,whoeveryoneshouldbesoluckytoknow.
Page1
Chapter1FundamentalsofFiberOpticLightingMostdesignersdonotneedtoknowthedetailedtechnologyassociatedwiththeworkingsofafiberopticcommunicationsorimagetransfersystem.However,allfiberopticsystemssharebasicconcepts.Whenthebasicconceptsandhistoryoffiberopticsareunderstood,thetechnologybecomeslessmysteriousandthereforemoreusefultothedesigner.
IntroductionandHistory
TheWebster'sDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagedefines"fiberoptics"asthestudyandtechniqueoflightandimagetransmissionviaflexibletransparentfibers(glass,plastic,etc.).Althoughthetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticsisrelativelynew,theconceptoftransmittinglightthroughatransparentmaterialhasbeenrecognizedthroughouthistory.Oneoftheearliestapplicationsinvolvingthisphenomenoncanbefoundintheuseofprisms.Variousformsofprismshavebeenusedforcenturiestodirectlightbymeansofatransparentmedium.
Experimentsthatdirectlycontributedtothedevelopmentoffiberoptictechnologywereperformedinthelate19thcenturybytheBritishphysicistJohnTyndall.Tyndallwasknownforhisworkrelatedtotheconductivityofheatbygases,ontheaudibilityofsoundandonthequalitiesofatmosphericlight.In
Page2
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Bundle-Individualfibersthataregroupedtogethercalledbundles.
CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthatarepositionedwithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberwithinthebundle.Coherentfibersareusedtotransmitimages.
Light-EmittingDiode-Allfiberopticsystemsrequireasourceoflighttomakethemworkwithintheguidelinesofaparticularapplication.Thelight-emittingdiodeisasemiconductorlightsourceusedinmanyfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystems.
Non-CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthathaverandomlocationswithinabundle.Non-coherentfibersareusedinthefieldoflightingdesign.
1870,TyndalldemonstratedtotheRoyalSociety(anindependentBritishbodyofscientificscholarsfoundedin1660)anexperimentutilizinganilluminatedcontainerofwater.WhenTyndallreleasedthewaterbymeansofasmallopening,heillustratedhowthewaterconductedlightasitflowedfromthecontainer.
Tenyearslater,in1880,AlexanderGrahamBelldevelopedthe
"Photophone,"whichutilizedlighttotransmitspeech,andWilliamWheelertookoutapatentonaninventionthatquiteliterally"piped"lightfromonesourcetoseveralindependentlocations.
Thefirstformalapplicationutilizingfiberopticswasdevelopedinthe1920s.Multipleglassrodspositionedsidebysideinacircularformationwereusedtocarrypicturesforuseintelevision.Althoughpatentswereissued,furtherdevelopmentsweregenerallynotexploredformanyyears.
Duringthe1950s,significantdevelopmentsrelatedtotheconstructionofglassfibersallowedforadditionalapplications
Page3
tobeimplementedinthemilitaryandmedicalfields.
Inthe1970s,fiberopticswereutilizedinnumerouscommunicationsystemsandsincethattime,applicationsmakinguseofthetechnologyhaveincreasedatanastoundingrate.
TheoryofOperation
Abasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticsystemsworkcanbeachievedbystudyingasimpleconduitsystem.Aconduitsystemcanbedescribedasaseriesofcomponentsthat,whenincorporated,willhavetheoverallgoaloftransportingaparticularmediumfromonelocationtoanother.Whenthemediumthatisbeingtransportedarrivesatthedesireddestination,itwillbeutilizedpertherequirementsoftheapplication.
Perhapsthemostfamiliarconduitsystemsarethosethatareusedintransportingwaterorelectricity.Abasicplumbingsysteminvolvestransportingwaterfromaparticularlocationbymeansofpipestoanotherlocation,whereitwillbeutilizedasnecessary.Abasicelectricalsystemconsistsofagenerator,whereelectricityisproduced,andaninsulatedwirethatcarriestheelectricitytovariousdevicesthatwillmakeuseofit.Theterm"conduit"canbedefinedasthecomponentwithinthesystemwherethemediumthatisbeingtransportedactuallytravels.Theconduitinaplumbingsystemisthepipeandtheconduitinanelectricalsystemisthewire.Figure1-1and1-2demonstratetheconceptofaconduitsystem.
Afiberopticsystemcanbecomparedtoanyotherconduitsystem.Themediumbeingtransportedinafiberopticsystemislightandtheconduitusedtotransmitthelightisafiber.Thefibersusedinthesystemtransportlightfromaparticularlightsourcetoafinaldestination,whereitcanbeutilizedforavarietyofspecificapplications.
Figure1-3demonstratesthebasicconceptofafiberopticsystemasrelatedtoaconduitsystem.
Inthefieldoflightingdesign,thelightcomingfromafiber
Page4
Figure1-1.Aconduitsystemtransportingwaterfromacentral
sourcetoareaswhereitwillbeutilized.
Figure1-2.Aconduitsystemtransportingelectricityfromacentralsourcetovariousequipment.
isusedtoilluminateanareaorobject,ortosimplycallattentiontoitself.Inthefieldofdentistry,thelightmaybeusedtoperformaparticulartask,suchashardeningnewdentalwork.Inthemedicalandindustrialfields,thelightoftencarriesanimage.Thecommunicationsindustryutilizesthelighttocarryasignal.
Aconventionalwire-basedcommunicationssystemreliesonelectricalsignals.Thesesystemsgenerallyconsistofatleastthreecomponentsatransmitter,metalwireandareceiver.Thetransmitterinabasic
telephonesystemisusedtoconvert
Page5
Figure1-3.Thebasicfiberopticlightingsystemaconduitsystem
utilizingfiberstotransportlightfromacentrallightsource.
soundintoelectricalsignals.Theseelectricalsignalsthentravelthelengthofaconductingwiretothereceiver.Inthereceiver,theelectricalsignalsareconvertedbackintosound.
Abasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemalsopossessesatransmitterandareceiver.Electricalsignalsarenottransmitted,however.Wiresarenotrequired.Fiberstransmitsignalsbymeansoflight.
Thepurposeofthetransmitterinabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemistocreatelight.Inmanyapplications,alight-emittingdiodeisutilized.Electricalsignalspowerthelight-emittingdiodeandlightneartheinfraredportionofthelightspectrumisproduced.Theseinvisiblelightsignalsenterandtravelthelengthofthefibersuntiltheyreachthereceiver.Thereceiverinafiberopticsystemcontainsalightdetectorandiswherethelightsignalsarechangedbackintoelectricalsignals.Thesenewlycreatedelectricalsignalsthentravelbywiretofamiliarequipment.Figure1-4ontheprecedingpagesillustratesthecomponentsandoperationofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.
Fiberopticshavebecomeinvaluabletothecommunicationsindustry
becauseoftheirabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterferencefromexternalelements.Fibersareconstructedtotransmitlight,notelectricity.Conventionalelectricalsystemsareofteninterrupted,by,amongotherthings,electricalsurgesandelectromagneticradiation.Lightbeingtransmitted
Page6
Figure1-4.Thecomponentsofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.
withinafiberisnotaffectedbytheseadversities.Fiberopticsystems,therefore,canbeinstalledinareaswhereconventionalelectricalsystemscouldprovetobetoodangerousorunreliabletooperate.
Giventheabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterruption,itisnotsurprisingthatitwasthecommunicationsindustrythatwasresponsibleforthemajorityofsignificantadvancementsrelatedtofiberoptictechnology.Inthe1970s,afiberonekilometerinlengthtransmittedonlyonepercentoftheoriginallightthatenteredit.Inthe1990s,fibersthatpossesslengthsexceedingfiftykilometerstransmit10percentoftheoriginallightthatentersthem.
Butbecausefiberopticsignaltransmissionsutilizefibersthatareconstructedtotransmitlightatinvisibleportionsofthelightspectrum(i.e.,infrared),thedistancesandamountsoflighttransmittedareoflittlevaluetothelightingdesigner.Itwas,however,becauseoftheimprovementsinglassfibersrealizedbythetelecommunicationsindustry,thatfiberoticsystemscouldbecomearealistictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign.
Page7
DesignandConstruction
Afiberisanindividualunit,buttheyarefrequentlygroupedwithotherfiberstoformabundle.Bundledfibersfallintotwocategories,coherentandnon-coherent.
Coherentbundlesoffibersareproducedbypositioningseveralfiberswithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberinthebundle.Coherentbundlesareusedtotransmitimages.Whenapictureisprojectedontooneendofthebundle,itistransmittedbymeansoflighttotheoppositeendofthebundle,whereitisre-formedasthesamepicture.Coherentfibersarefrequentlyfoundintoolsutilizedinthemedicalfield.Thesetoolsincludetheendoscope,aninstrumentusedtoexaminetheinsideofthebody,andthegastroscope,aninstrumentusedspecificallytoexaminethestomach.Coherentfibersarealsousedinnumerousapplicationstoseetheinsideofanobjectwithoutactuallyhavingtoopenortaketheobjectapart.Figure1-5,onthenextpage,illustratestheconceptofcoherentfibers.
Unlikecoherentbundlesoffibers,non-coherentbundleshaverandomfiberlocationswithinabundleandareonlyusedfortransmittinglight.Therefore,whenbundledfibersareutilizedinthefieldoflightingdesign,theyarenon-coherent.
Components
Similartoathree-partfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem,atypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemalsoconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsource,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.
Fiberopticlightingsystemsalsosharesomeofthebenefitsthatfiber
opticcommunicationssystemsenjoyabsolutelynoelectricityinthefibersandthereforenoelectromagneticinterferencefromexternalenvironments.
Figure1-6onafollowingpageillustratesabasicfiberopticilluminationsystem.Thelight-carryingfibersextendfromthe
Figure1-5.Coherentfibersareindividualfibersthataregroupedtogethertoformabundle.Eachfiberis
inexactrelationshiptotheotherfibersinthebundlefromthebeginningofthebundletotheend.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics.
Page9
lightsourceandaredirectedtovariousareaswherelightisdesired.NoticehowthisdrawingcomparestothethreepartfiberopticcommunicationsystemillustratedinFigure1-4.
Smalldiameterplasticfiberswereintroducedinthe1970sandplasticfiberswithlargerdiameterswereintroducedin1986.Today'sfiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizeeitherglassorplasticfiberstotransmitvisiblelight.
ApplicationsandCharacteristics
Originaldesignsmakinguseofglassfiberswerefoundininteriordecorativeenvironments.Manypointsoflightwereobtainedfromonelampbyilluminatingtheendsofnumerousfiberstocreatedesignsthatproducedastar-likeeffect.Earlyapplicationsutilizingplasticfiberswerefoundprimarilyintheilluminationofswimmingpools.Today,inadditiontodecorativeandswimmingpoolapplications,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareusedextensivelyinenvironmentsthatincludearchitectural,residentialandcommercialinteriorandexteriorspaces.
Ingeneral,fibercanbeconsidereddurableandflexible.Certainfiberscanwithstandsubstantialextremesintemperature.Theseattributes,combinedwiththefactthatthereisnoelectricityassociatedwiththelightbeingtransmittedinafiber,allowforsomefiberstobemountedalmostanywhere.Typicalapplicationsmakeuseoffibersbypositioningtheminarchitecturalcovesorbuildingfacades.Moreuniqueapplicationsplacefibersincement,grout,brick,glass,waterandavarietyofotherlocationswheretraditionallightingislimitedbecauseofelectricalandmaintenancerequirements,thesizeandweightofcomponents,andheat.
Alllightingsystemsgenerateacertainamountofheatcausedbytheoperationofelectricalcomponents.However,asdemonstratedin
Figure1-6onthepreviouspage,afiberopticsystemhastheuniqueabilitytolocatethesecomponentsina
Page10
Figure1-6.Thebasiccomponentsandoperationofafiberopticilluminationsystem.
Page11
Figure1-7.Fiberopticsystemusedtoilluminatesensitiveworksofart.
PhotographcourtesyofSchottFiberOptics.
locationawayfromtheilluminatedarea.Thismeansthatthedesignedenvironmentwillnotexperienceanyheatbuild-upassociatedwiththeoperationoftheelectricalsystem.
Thelampsthatarecurrentlyusedasthesourceoflightinmanyfiberopticilluminationsystemsareoftenthesameasthosethatareusedintraditionallightingapplications.Theselamps,likeeveryothersourceoflight,produceheat.Allfibersusedforilluminationpurposesareconstructedtotransmitwavelengthswithinthevisiblespectrumoflight,butcertainfibersarebetterthanothersattransmittinginfrared.Thisheatcanalsobepreventedfromreachingtheilluminatedenvironment.Bypositioningtheappropriatefilterbetweenthelightsourceandthefibers,infraredwavelengthscanbestoppedbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission.
Ultravioletwavelengthscanalsobepreventedfromenteringthefibersbyutilizingtheappropriatefilter.Becausefiltra-
Page12
tioncanremovethedamagingraysemittedbythelamp,onlythevisiblewavelengthsareallowedtoenterthefibers.Lightthatisfreeofultravioletandinfraredwavelengthshasofferedthedesignerincreasedflexibilityinilluminatingworksofart,chocolate,flowersandnumerousothersensitivematerials.
Inmanyapplications,afiberopticsystemeliminatestheneedtoutilizemultiplelampsbecauseindividualfibersorfiberbundlesextendfromonelamptoprovidelighttomanyindependentlocations.Thismaybebeneficialforthreereasons,allofwhicharerelatedtoeconomics.
First,dependingonthespecificapplication,itispossiblethatenergycostscanbereducedbecauseonlyonelampisutilized.
Second,theprocessofreplacingonelampthatislocatedinaneasilyaccessiblearearequireslesstimethanchangingmultiplelampslocatedinplacesthatmaybedifficulttoreach.Thetimerequiredtochangeindividuallampsisreduced.
Third,becauseonlyonelampisrequiredtodothejobofmany,fewerlampsneedtobepurchased.
Lighttransmittingdirectlyfromfiberscanbeusedwithoutfurthermodificationtoprovidegeneraldownlighting,wallwashingorhighlightingeffects.However,whenusingtheappropriateoutputdevices(whicharepresentedinChapter6),thereisanenormousamountofflexibilityinbeingabletodirectlightofvariousintensitiesandbeamspreadstoprecisepointsinthedesignedenvironment.Figure1-8demonstrateshowfibersextendingfromonelampprovidelighttoseveralindependentlocations.
Utilizingfiberopticstoilluminatedisplaycasesisbecomingincreasinglystandard.Theabilitytofilterpotentiallydamagingwavelengthsandpreventheatfromadverselyaffectingtheexhibitare
twoofthereasonsattributedtothisincrease.However,additionalbenefitsapply.Thelightemittingfibersaremountedwithinthecase,therebyreducingoreliminatingreflectionsthatcanbecausedbyanexternallightsource.Andbecausethelightsourceislocatedatanareaawayfromthe
Figure1-8.Individualfibersorfiberbundlesextendingfromonesourceoflighttoilluminateseveral
independentlocations.
Page14
Figure1-9.Fiberopticilluminationsystemsusedtoilluminatejewelrydisplaycases.
PhotographcourtesyofPinpointFibreOptics,Ltd.PhotographbyNormanMcGrath.
exhibit,thecontentsofthecaseandlightoutputdevicesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobereplaced.Oncebeamspread,focus,andintensityofthelightarecreatedpertherequirementsofthelightingdesign,thereisnoneedtoreopenthecaseduringthelifeoftheexhibit.
Theinstallationofafiberopticsystemtendstobeeasierthaninstallingaconventionallightingsystem.Manyfiberopticlightingapplicationsdonotrequiretheservicesofanelectricalcontractorforsysteminstallationbecausethelightsourcessimplyplugintoastandardelectricaloutlet.Additionalwiringisnotnecessarybecauselighttransmittingfibersattachdirectlytoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Becauselesswiringisneeded,thepossibilityofelectricalshortcircuitsisreduced.
Page15
Theabilitytoreduceshortcircuitshasmadefiberopticilluminationsystemswell-suitedtolightinghazardousareas.Traditionallightingsystemscanbeunsafetooperateinenvironmentswherethepossibilityofsparkscouldleadtofireorexplosion.Fiberopticsystemscanbeutilizedinthesedangerousareaswithoutdirectconcernforissuesrelatedtoelectricalsafety.Becausethesourceoflightandallelectricalrequirementsarelocatedawayfromthehazardousarea,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareprovidinglighttoenvironmentswhereatraditionallightingsystemcouldneverbeinstalled.
Fiberopticilluminationsystemstendtoexcelovertraditionallightingmethodswhencomparingoptionsrelatedtocreativityandflexibility.Becausethebenefitsassociatedwithfiberopticlightingcanbesubstantialincertainenvironments,newandpotentialapplicationsareconstantlybeinginvestigated.Althoughthetechnologycurrentlypossessescertainlimitations,manyapplicationsarelimitedonlybytheimaginationofthedesigner.
Page17
Chapter2TheIlluminatorandFibersAtypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsourcehousedwithinanilluminator,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Inthischapter,wewilldiscussthecharacteristicsoftheilluminator,fibersandtherangeoflightsourcesavailabletoproducelight.
TheIlluminator
Theilluminatorcontainsalamp(orlamps)thatprovideslighttothefibers.Thesizeoftheilluminatorwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheilluminationlevelsdesiredand,therefore,theneedtoutilizeaparticularlamp.Dependingonthelightingdesignspecifications,theilluminatorwillalsocontainreflectors,anyelectricalcomponentsthatthelampmayrequire,coolingdevicesandfilterstheparticularsystemmayutilize,andaccessoriesthatwillbeusedtoobtaintheoveralllightinggoal.
Illuminatorscanbemountedinavarietyoflocationsandhavebeenmanufacturedforbothwetanddryenvironments(thelightsourceandallelectricalcomponentsmustalwaysbekeptdry).Therearenumerousilluminatorsavailabletothelightingdesignerwithvaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtolightoutput.Whatiscommonofallilluminatorsisthattheycontainthelightsourcenecessarytomakethesystemwork.
Page18
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapterClosedLoopThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatstartsandterminatesinthesomeilluminator.
CommonEndThecommonendisacomponentthatistypicallyusedtogrouptheinputendsoffibersorfiberbundlestogether.Thecommonendattachestotheilluminatorsothatthefibersreceivelight.Theexactmethodofattachingfiberstoanilluminatorwillvary.However,the,termcommonendcanbeappliedtomostsystems.Dependingonthemanufacturer,thecommonendmaybereferredtoas''fiberhead,"coupler"or"bushing."Whenglassfibersareutilized,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthe"mainferrule."
DaisyChainingThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatconnectstomultipleilluminators.
End-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightatitsend.
FerruleFerrulesaredeviceslocatedattheoutputendofbundled
fibers.Theyaregenerallyusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.
LightGuideTheterm"lightguide"usuallyreferstothetailsusedinthe,system.
HarnessTheharnessconsistsofacombinationofcomponents,the"commonend,""tails"(sometimesreferredtoas"arms"or"legs"),andthe"tailend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Notallsystemsutilizeaharness.
IlluminatorTheilluminatoristhecomponentofthefiberopticsystemthatcontainsthelightsource.Theilluminatormaybereferredtoasthe"source,""projector"or"lightbox"Theilluminatormayhouseanytransformersorballaststhatarerequiredbythelamp,reflectorsorlensestoassistindirectinglighttothefibers,coolingfans,filters,safetydevices,anddevicesforspecialeffectsandcolorchange.
Page19
InputEndTheendofthefiberorfiberbundlethatwillreceivelightfromthelamp.
MainFerruleThe"mainferrule"isusuallyassociatedwithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers.Itisanothernameforthe"commonend."
OutputEndTheendofanend-emittingfiberwhereligtwillexit.Maybereferredtoas"tailend"or"terminatingend."
PortTheportistheaperture(openingintheilluminatorthatallowsforlighttobereleasedontothefiber'sinputends.Theportiswherethecommonendattachestotheilluminator.Illuminatorsmaycontainmorethanoneport.
Side-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightalongitsentirelength
TailJailsareindividuallight-carryingfibersorfiberbundlesthatextendfromtheilluminatortoareaswherelightisdesired.Alsoreferredtoas"lightguide.''
TailEndorTerminatingEndTheendofafiberorfiberbundle.Thetailendmayincludeaferrule.
AselectionofilluminatorsarepicturedinFigure2-1andFigure2-2.
Theharness,althoughonecomponentwithinafiberopticsystem,isgenerallyreferredtoinsections(seeFigure2-3).Thesesectionsincludethecommonend,thefibers(whichmaysometimesbereferredtoaslightguides)andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmayalsobereferredtoasthetailendsoroutputendsofthefibers),Noteveryfiberopticilluminationsystemwillutilizeaharness,butthetermsrelatedtotheharnessconceptcanbeappliedtomostsystems.
ThecommonendiswhereallofthefibersutilizedinthelightingSystemcometogethertoreceivelightfromtheillumi-
Page20
Figure2-1.Anilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Figure2-2.Illuminators.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Page21
nator.Althoughsomelightingdesignscallforonlyonelargediameterfibertobeattachedtotheilluminator,othersrequirenumerousfiberstoattachtothelightsource.Regardlessofhowmanyfibersareutilizedintheoveralldesign,theywillallreceivelightatthecommonendfromthelampwithintheilluminator.Insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthemainferrule.
Thecommonendoftheharnessfitsintotheapertureoftheilluminator.Thisapertureiscalledtheportanditistheareathatallowsforlighttoleavetheilluminatorandenterthefibers.Illuminatorstypicallycontainoneport,butmanyilluminatorswillhavemorethanone.
Light-carryingfibersthatextendfromthecommonendarecalledtailsandsometimesarmsorlegs.Tailsmakeupthesecondsectionoftheharnessandmaybeindividualfibersormanyfibersgroupedtogethertoformbundles.Thethirdsectionoftheharnessistermedthetailendorterminatingend.Thisisthepartoftheharnesswherethefibersliterallyendand,dependingonthefibersthatareutilized,lightwillexit.Somefibersmaypossessaferruleattheterminatingendofeachfiberorfiberbundle.Ferrulesaregenerallymadefromaluminum,stainlesssteelorbrassandareusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.Theferruleinsertsintoanyoutputdevicesthesystemmayemploytofurtherdirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Figure2-3illustratestheconceptofaharness.
TheLightSource
Thegoalofanylampandopticalaccessoriesusedinafiberopticilluminationsystemistodirectthemaximumamountoflightontothefiber'sinputends.Dependingontheapplication,anylightcomingfromthelampthatdoesnotenterthefibersisconsideredlostinafiberopticsystem(thispointisfurtherdiscussedinChapter4).The
optimumsourceoflight
Figure2-3.Aharnessusedinmanyfiberopticsystems.Theharnessconsistsofthe"commonend"(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"mainferrule"insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers),"tails"(whicharebundledglass,orindividualorbundledplasticfibers),andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"tailend''or"outputend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Theterminatingendmayincludeaferrule.Tailsareoftenreferredtoas"lightguides."Thecommonendoftheharnessattachestotheilluminator
bymeansoftheport.
Page23
isonethatoffersanextremelyhighlumenoutputwhileprovidingoutstandingcontrolofThelight.
Ingeneral,thefiberopticlightingindustryhasreliedonlightsourcesdevelopedforuseinconventionallightingapplicationstomakefiberopticsystemswork.Thesesourcesincludelow-voltagehalogenlampswithbuilt-indichroicreflectors,higher-wattagequartzhalogenlamps,andmetalhalidelampsthatareusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Recently,axenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemwasdevelopedforusespecificallyinfiberopticsystems.Althoughthereisextensiveresearchcurrentlyunderwaytodevelopadditionallampsforusewithfiberoptics,itistheselamptypesthataremostcommonlyfoundinfiberopticilluminationsystemstoday.
Figure2-4.Ahalogenlampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision
International,Inc.
Figure2-5.Ametalhalidelampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision
International,Inc.
Page24
Low-VoltageHalogenLamps
Low-voltagehalogenlampsarecommonlyusedindisplay,accentandstar-likeceilingapplications.Theselampsaredimmable,availableinseveraldifferentwattages,andpossessoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Comparedtootherlamps,theyarerelativelylowincost.Thedesignofthelampmayincludeaprealigneddichroicreflectorthatisattachedtothelamp.Thelampispositionedwithintheilluminatorandthefocalpointofthelightbeamisaimedattheinputendofthefibers.
Figure2-6isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingahalogenlampwithanattachedreflector.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.
Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps
Higher-wattagequartzhalogenlampsaregenerallyutilizedwhenincreasedilluminationlevelsarerequired.Theselampscanalsobedimmedandofferoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Reflectorsareusedtoassistindirectinglighttothefiber'sinputends.Quartzhalogenlampscanbefoundinsystemsthatareusedtoilluminatelandscapes,poolsandfountains.Theyarealsousedextensivelyinsystemsdesignedtoprovidetaskandaccentlighting.
MetalHalideLamps
Metalhalidelampsaretypicallyusedinarchitecturalenvironments.Theselampsareusedinlightingsystemsthataredesignedtodefinebuildingandobjectperimetersaswellastoilluminatecovesandprovidedownlighting.Whenincorporatedintofiberopticsystems,metalhalidelampsaregenerallyavailableinwattagesofeither150or
400.Theselampsalsousereflectorstodirectlighttotheinputendsofthefibers.Aswithmetalhalidelampsusedintraditionallightingapplications,
Figure2-6.Alow-voltagehalogenlampmountedinanilluminatorandfocusinglightontotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.SikkensandJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"
internationalLightingReview,March1993.
Page26
theselamps,whenutilizedinafiberopticsystem,requireaparticularamountoftimebeforetheyreachfulllumenoutput.
Figure2-7isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingametalhalidelampusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.
XenonMetalHalideLamps
GeneralElectricintroducedaxenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemin1994.Becausethislampandballastsystemwasdevelopedspecificallyforusewithfiberoptics,itofferscertaincharacteristicsthatarcbeneficialtotheentiresystem.Accordingtocompanyliterature,this60Wlamp"providestwoto10timestheluminance[photometricbrightness]ofstandardmetalhalidesources,"whileemittingmuchlessultravioletlight.Thelampisprefocussedandscaled.Noadditionalreflectorsarerequiredintheilluminator.Inaddition,thisxenonlampandballastsystemallowsforhalfofthetotallightoutputtobeobtainedinunder20seconds.
SelectingtheRightLamp
Aswithanylightingapplication,theselectionofalampwilllargelydependonthecolorcharacteristicsandilluminationlevelsrequiredinthedesignedenvironment.Whenselectingalampforuseinafiberopticapplication,however,additionalfactorspertainingtotheperformanceoftheentiresystemmayalsoneedtobeconsidered.Manyoftheseconsiderationsarediscussedinthechaptersthatfollow.
TheLampOperatingintheSystem
ArepresentationofanilluminatorisillustratedinFigure2-8.As
mentionedabove,theexactcomponentswillbedeterminedbythelightingdesignrequirements.Dependingonthespecificapplication,theilluminatorwillcontainthelampand
Figure2-7.Ametalhalidelampusedinconjunctionwithreflectorswithintheilluminatortofocuslight
ontotheinputendsofthefibers.Manysystemsutilizingmetalhalidelampsusecustomreflectorstodirectthemaximumamountoflighttotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.Sikkens
andJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"InternationalLightingReview,March1993.
Page28
Figure2-8.Elevationrepresentationofanilluminator.
Page29
anyaccessoriesthelampmayrequiresuchasaballastortransformer,reflectors,devicestoassistincooling,filters,dimmingcontrolsandanycomponentsrequiredtocreatecolororspecialeffects.
TheFiber
AsmentionedinChapter1,fiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizefibersthatcanbemadefromeitherplasticorglass.SmalldiameterplasticfibersareoftenreferredtoasPMMA(indicatingachemicalcompositionofpolymethylmethacrylate)orSmallPlasticFibers.LargediameterplasticfibersaremadeofapolymerandcanbereferredtoasLargeCorePlasticOpticalFibers(LCPOF)orLargePlasticFibers.Glassfibersareavailableinavarietyofdifferentgrades,withthehighestqualitybeingmadeofsilica.
GlassorPlastic?
Thedecisiontoutilizeafibermadefromglassorplasticwillgenerallybebasedupontheoverallgoalofthelightingdesign(includingfactorsrelatedtoeconomics)andtheparticularperformancecharacteristicsofthefiber.BothglassandplasticfiberspossesscertainqualitiesthatarcdiscussedfurtherinChapter5.Regardlessofwhatafiberismadeoforhowitispositionedwithinthesystem,however,allindividualfiberspossessatransparentcoresurroundedbyatransparentcladding.
CoreandCladding
Thecoreisthelighttransmittingsectionofthefiber.ThecladdingisThematerialthatcompletelysurroundsthecore.Whenlightstrikestheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingatacertainangle,itwilltransmitthelengthofthefiberbymeansofmultiplereflections.SeeFigure2-9.
Thisprocess,aswellasadditionaldiscussionrelatedtothecoreand
cladding,canbefoundinChapter3.
Page30
DiameterandLightOutput
Thediameterofindividualglassfiberstypicallyrangesfrom50to150um(um=onemillionofameter).Althoughothersizesareavailable,thesesizesaremostoftenusedinlightingdesignapplications.Individualsmallplasticfiberscanhavediametersfromapproximately100to3000um,whilelargecoreplasticfibersmayrangefromapproximately3to20mmindiameter.Theamountoflightthatistransmittedthroughanindividualfiberpossessingasmalldiameterisoflittlevaluetoalightingdesigner.Glassfibersarethereforealwaysbundledtogethertoformlargerdiametertails.Plasticfibersmayalsobebundledtogethertoformtails,butunlikeglassfibers,itisnotalwaysnecessary.ThenumberoftailsthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatorutilizingglassorplasticfibersisbasedonthediameterofthecommonendandTheoveralldiameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatmaybeutilized.Thediameterofthecommonandisgenerallydeterminedbyhoweffectivelytheopticalaccessoriesemployedinthesystemfocuslight.Figure2-10demonstrateshowlightisfocusedtodeterminethediameterofthecommonend.
MeasurementofFibersinaBundle(Glass)
Manufacturersofglassfibersdevelopabaseunitofmeasurementtoestablishtheamountoffibersinastandardbundle.Onemanufacturerofglassfibersoffersabundlethatcontains400individualfibers.Eachindividualfiberwithinthebundlemeasures50umindiameter.Thisbundleisreferredtoas"Size1"andisthisparticularmanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforobtainingalladditionalbundlesizes.Giventhisexample,theamountoffibersinabundlewillincreaseinmultiplesof400toobtaindifferentbundlesizes(assuminganindividualfiberdiameterof50m).Therefore,"Size12"bundleswouldcontain4,800fibers(12x400)and"Size24''bundleswouldcontain
9,600fibers(24x400).
Thefollowingexamplewillmakeuseofacommonendthatis30mmindiameterinordertodemonstratehowtailsare
Page31
Figure2-9.Twopartsofthefiberthecoreandcladding.
Figure2-10.Determiningtheoptimumsizeofthecommonend.
createdutilizingbundlesofglassfibers.Themaximumnumberofindividual50umdiameterfibersthata30mmcommonendwillaccommodateis160,000.Todeterminethenumberof"Size1"bundlesthatcanextendfromthis30mmcommonend,thedesignerwilldividethe160,000totalfibersavailablebythe400fiberscontainedinthe"Size1"bundle.Bycompletingthemath,thedesignerwillrealizethat400tails,eachcontaining400individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyutilizinga30mmcommonendand"Size1"bundles.Since"Size12"bundlescontain4,800individualfibers,dividing160,000by4,800provides
Page32
aquotientof33.33.Thismeansthat33individualtails,eachcontaining4,800individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyusingthe30mmcommonendand"Size12"bundles.
Somelightingdesignswillrequiredifferentilluminationlevelsatvariousareaswithinthedesignedenvironment.Increasingthesizeofthebundleutilizedwillincreasetheamountoflightattheilluminatedarea.Therefore,creatingdifferentilluminationlevelsfromthesameilluminatorcanbeaccomplishedbyusingdifferentbundlesizesextendingfromthesamecommonend.Bundlesof"Size1,""Size12,""Size24,"andothersizesaswellcouldallextendfromthesameilluminator.
Anycombinationofbundlesizescanbeutilizedinthesamesystemprovidedthatthesizeofthebundleisobtainedbyusingthemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforastandardsizebundle.Theexampleaboveutilizedabaseunitof400fibersperbundle,butthisfigurewillvarydependingonthefibermanufacturer.Thetotalnumberofindividualfibersneededforallbundles,however,cannotexceedthemaximumnumberoffiberswithinthecommonend.Figure2-11demonstrateshowindividualglassfiberswithinthecommonendarebundledtocreatetails.
TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic)
Likeglassfibers,thenumberoftailsthatcanextendfromoneilluminatorutilizingplasticfibersisdeterminedbythediameterofthecommonendandthediameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatareutilized.Verysmalldiameterplasticfibersarebundled.Smallplasticfiberswithlargercoresareusuallybundled,butdonotalwaysneedtobeinordertoprovidepracticalamountsoflight.Typically,theverylargecoreplasticfibersareneverbundled.Aswithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,differentdiametertailscanbeutilizedinthesamesystem.ThedrawingsinFigure2-12demonstratehowtailsconsisting
ofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresentsacross-sectionofacommonend.
Figure2-11.Shownhereisthetotalof50umdiameterglassfibersthatwillfitintoa30mmdiametercommonend.
Theindividualfiberswithinthecommonendaredistributedtoeachtail.Differentsizetailscanextendfromthesamecommonendaslongasthetotalamountofindividualfibersutilizedinallofthetails
doesnotexceedthemaximumamountthatisavailableinthecommonend.Tailsixesaredeterminedbythemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementpertainingtothenumberoffibersinastandard"Size1"
bundle.Fourhundredfibersina"Size1"bundlesacommonnumber,butthisfiguremayvarydependingonthemanufacturer.
Theamountoffibersavailablefordistributiontoindividualtailswillvarydependingonthenumberoffibersthatthecommonendcanaccommodate.Commonenddiametersforglassfibersvary.Typically,
thatrangefrom10to40mm.
Page34
LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting)
Fibersusedforilluminationfallintotwocategories.Thefirstcategoryistermedend-emittingandthesecondiscalledside-emitting.
End-EmittingFibers
End-emittingfiberstransmitlighttodevicesthatprovidethedesignerwiththeabilitytowallwash,downlightorutilizevariousdirectionalsystems.Figure2-13illustratesafiberopticsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.
End-emittingfibersaremadefromglassorplasticandgenerallyneverexceed60feetinlength.Allfiberspossesscharacteristicsthatdiminishandalterlightasittravelsthroughthem.Therefore,theexactlengthofanend-emittingfiberwillbedeterminedbythedesiredilluminationlevelsandqualityoflightthatisrequiredattheilluminatedarea.Figure2-14illustratesalargecoreplasticend-emittingfiber.
Figure2-15illustratesanapplicationutilizingend-emittingfibers.
Side-EmittingFibers
Side-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelengthinamannerthatresemblesneon.Althoughtherearecertainglassfibersthataredesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,themajorityofside-emittingfibersaremadefromplastic.Plasticside-emittingfibersallowlighttoescapealongthefiber'slengthbecausetheyarespecificallydesignedwithimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding.Duringthemanufacturingprocess,thesurfaceofthecladdingsurroundingthecorecanberoughenedbyphysicalorchemicalmethods.Lightrefractsfromside-emittingfiberwheneveritencountersanareaofthecoreandcladdingthathasbeenaltered.Someside-emittingfibersare"braided"or"twisted"toallowlighttoescapealongtheirlength.
Figure2-16illustratesside-emittingfiberthatis"braided."
Side-emittingfibersaretypicallyasolidlargecoreplasticfiberoranumberofindividualsmallplasticfiberssurrounded
Figure2-12.Thesedrawingsdemonstratehowtailsconsistingofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresents
acrosssectionofacommonend.
Page36
Figure2-13.Afiberopticlightingsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.
Figure2-14.Anend-emittingfiber.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Page37
byaPVCjacket.Onemanufacturer'spatentedside-emittingfiberconsistsofmultiplestrandsofbraidedfibersurroundingareflective"centercore,"allofwhicharesurroundedbyaPVCtubing.Thecentercore,althoughnotafiber,providesareflectivesurfacethatassistsinmakingthebundleappearbrighter.
Inmanylightingapplications,side-emittingfiberisbeingspecifiedasanalternativetoneon.Whencomparedtoneon,side-emittingfiberspossessparticularadvantages.Becausetheyareflexible,theycanbebentatthejobsite.Fiberopticsystemsmayuselessenergythanneonand,ifnecessary,maybere-usable.Atypicalneontubeis4feetinlength,whileavisiblerunofside-emittingfibercanvarydependingonthedesignwithoutinterruptingthepathoflight.Noelectricityinthefibersmeanstheycanbemountedinareaswhereneoncouldneverbeused.Becausethefibersaregenerallymadefromplastic,thereisnoglasstobreak.Inmanyapplications,oncethefibersareinstalled,theyrequirenoadditionalmaintenance.
Figure2-15.Anapplicationutilizingend-emitting
fibers.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Perhapsthegreatestadvantageofside-emittingfiberoverneonisitsabilitytoeasilychangecolor.Byusingacolorwheellocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers,thecoloroflightbeingtransmittedcanconstantlychange.Figure2-19illustratesacolorwheellocatedbetweenthesourceoflightandtheinputendsofthefibers.
Side-emittingfiberscanbeusedforaccent,coveandsteplightingaswellasfortheilluminationofsidewalksandbuilding
Page38
Figure2-16.Side-
emittingfiberthatis"braided."CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Figure2-17.Afiberopticsystemutilizingside-emittingfibers.
Page39
Figure2-18.Crosssectionsofside-emittingfibers.DrawingArepresentsalargecorefiberwhiledrawingBrepresentsseveralfiberssurroundingareflective"centercore"allofwhicharesurroundedbyPVCtubing.Thesedrawingsarenottoscale.ReferencestodrawingAcourtesyofLumenyteinternationalCorporation.ReferencestodrawingBcourtesyofSuperVisioninternational,Inc.
Figure2-19.Colorwheelscanbeaddedtothesystemtoproducedramaticcoloreffects.Thisdrawingillustratesthelocationofthecolorwheelwithintheilluminator.
Page40
Figure2-20,2-21.Lightingapplicationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Photoscourtesyof
LumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Page41
perimeters.Underwaterorwetlocationapplicationsincludepools,spas,fountainsandaquariums.Numerouslightinginstallationshavemadeuseofside-emittingfiberstocreatespecialeffects.Theseapplicationsincludelightsculptures,signageandthedelineationofamusementparkrides.
Generally,fiberopticmanufacturersrecommendamaximumlengthof100feetforside-emittingfibers.Theexactlengthwillvarydependingonthemanufacturer.Utilizinglongerrunsdiminishestheintensityofthelight.Extendingtheusablelightruncanberealizedbyconnectingbothendsofthefiberstoanilluminator.Inapplicationsthatutilizerelativelyshortlengthsoffiber,orindesignswherefibersdonotneedtobeattachedtoanotherilluminator,anendcapisappliedattheterminatingendofthefiberorfiberbundle(seeFigure2-16).Theendcapservesasalightterminationdeviceandprovidesprotectiontothefiber.
ThedrawingsinFigure2-22representpossibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.DrawingsAandBillustratefibersystemsthataredaisychained.Whenadaisychainingconfigurationisutilized,fibersstartinoneilluminatorandendinanotherilluminator.Considerablelengthsoffibercanbeutilizedwhilemaintainingconsistentlevelsofbrightnesswhenseveralilluminatorsaredaisychainedtogether.Theseconfigurationsaretypicalinapplicationssuchastheilluminationofbuildingandbridgeperimeters.DrawingCrepresentsaclosedloopconfigurationwherefibersbeginandendinthesameilluminator.Thissystemdesignisgenerallyusedinsmallerareassuchasinsignage,aroundsmallroomsorinpatios.
Thebrightnesslevelsdesiredwilldeterminethetypeoflampandnumberofindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatwillbeutilized.Thenumberofside-emittingfibersthatcanextendfromoneilluminatoris
determinedbythesameproceduresthataredescribedearlierinthischapter.Thedesignershouldnotethatwhenmultipleilluminatorsareutilized,eachindividualilluminatormustbewiredtoreceivepower.
Certaindesignsmaycallforacombinationofside-and
Page42
end-emittingfiberstoattachtothesameilluminator.Utilizingbothfibertypeswillofferthedesignertheabilitytocreatemultiplelightingeffectsfromonelamp.Figure2-23illustratesafiberopticsystemwherebothside-andend-emittingfibersextendfromthesamecommonend.
Figure2-22.Possibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Thedesignerisnotlimitedtotheseconfigurations.Almostanyconfigurationispossible.
Page43
Figure2-23.Asystemdesignedtoutilizebothsideandend-emittingfibers.
PhotometricDataandLightLevels
Currently,thereislittlephotometricdataavailableforside-emittingfibers.Someindividualshavesuggestedthatperceivedbrightnesslevelsofside-emittingfibersaredeterminedbytheamountofambientlightintheenvironmentwheretheyareused.Onemanufacturerstatesthatperceivedbrightnessisbaseduponvariablesthatincludetheintensityofthelightsource,backgroundcolorcontrast,theviewingangleofthefiberandthecoloroflightinthefiberrun.
Makingcomparisonsinfootcandlelevelsobtainedfromend-emittingfiberscanbedifficultbecausemanufacturersofferphotometricdatautilizingdifferentlampsanddifferentsizesoffiberpossessingvaryingopticalcharacteristics.Whenmakingcomparisonsofilluminationlevelsbasedontheinformationprovidedbymanufacturers,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountaccessoriesthatmightbeemployedinthesystemsaswellasdifferencesinlightsourcesandfibers.Illuminancevaluessuppliedbymanufacturersaregenerallytakenatparticulardistancesfromthefiber'soutputendafterthelighthastraveledthrough10feetoffiber.Thedesigner,however,does
Page44
havetheabilitytoinfluencefootcandlelevels.
Theamountoflightthatwilltransmitinafiberisdirectlyrelatedtothesizeofthecross-sectionalareaofthecore.Assumingthatthereisasufficient''spot"oflightfromthelampattheinputendofthefibers,doublingthecoreareaofthefiberwilldoublethelightoutput.Inapplicationsthatneedtocompensateforlightloss(seeChapter4)shorteningthelengthofthefiberfromtheilluminatortoTheterminatingendmayprovidegreaterlightlevelsattheareatobeilluminated.Higherbrightnesscanbeachievedbyutilizingalensontheoutputendofthefiberorfiberbundle,andinsystemsthatemploydirectionaltrackormultispotaccessories,aimingmorethanonebeamatthesameareawillachieveadditionalbrightness(seeChapter6).
Figures2-24and2-25offeranexampleoffootcandlelevelsthatcanbeobtainedutilizingend-emittingfibers.Bothexamplesmakeuseofa150Wmetalhalidelampandtheglassfibersof"Size12"and"Size24"thatwerediscussedearlierinthischapter.ThelengthofThefiberis10feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingends.Figure2-24utilizesafixedunlenseddownlightattheterminatingendofthebundle.Figure2-25makesuseofanAdjustableLensedspotlightatthebundle'sterminatingend.
Footcandlelevelsandbeamspreadscanbeadditionallymodifiedbyutilizingotherfixturesattheoutputendofthefiber.Andasmentionedabove,usingalargerfibersizeorreducingthefiberlengthfromtheilluminatortotheoutputendwillincreaseilluminationlevelsatthemeasuredsurface.Shouldfootcandlelevelsneedtoincreaseadditionally,utilizinganilluminatorwithahigher-wattagelampmaybetheappropriatesolution.
Page45
Figure2-24and2-25.Anexampleoffootcandlelevelsutilizingdifferentoutputdevices.Courtesyof
LightingServicesInc.
Page47
Chapter3PrinciplesofOperationWeknowthatinafiberopticlightingsystem,thelightoutputofthelampintheilluminatoristransmittedthroughthefiberstobedistributedfromeitherthesidesortheendofthefiberInthischapter,wewilldiscusstheprinciplesofhowlightistransmittedanddistributedthroughthefibers.
PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem
Therefractiveindexisatermusedtodescribethespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmedium.Alllight-transmittingmediasuchasglass,ice,airorwaterpossessacertainrefractiveindex.
AsmentionedinChapter2,fibersconsistofatleasttwosections.Thesesectionsarereferredtoasthecoreandcladding.Thecoreisthesectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecladdingcompletelysurroundsthecore.
Becausethecoreandcladdingaretransparent,theyeachpossessaparticularrefractiveindex.
Thefunctionofthecorehasbeencomparedtothefunctionofawireusedinatraditionalelectricalsystem.Wherethewireinanelectricalsystemprovidesthemediumtoconductelectricity,thecoreofthefiberprovidesthemediumtoconductlight.Therefractiveindexofthecorewillalwaysbehigherthantherefractiveindexofthecladding.
Page48
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
AcceptanceAngle-Lightmustenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleifitistotransmitthefiber'slength.Thisiscalledtheacceptanceangle.
Cladding-Thecladdingsurroundsthecoreofthefiber.Thecladdingpossessesalowerrefractiveindexthanthecore.Itisthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingthatallowsfortotalinternalreflectiontooccur.
Core-Thecentralsectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecorepossessesarefractiveindexthatishigherthanthecladding.
CriticalAngle-Theexactanglerequiredforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Lightmuststriketheboundaryoftwolight-transmittingmediathatpossessdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleinorderforittoremainconfinedtotheoriginalmedium.
NumericalAperture-Thetermnumericalapertureisusedtoexpressafiber'sacceptanceangleandisobtainedbasedonamathematicalcalculationinvolvingthecoreandcladdingrefractiveindices.
Refraction-Lighttravelinginaparticularmediumchangesspeedanddirectionwhenitencountersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Thechangeindirectionisknownasrefraction.
RefractiveIndex-Lightwilltravelindifferentmediaatvaryingspeeds.Thespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmediumisexpressedbythemedium'srefractiveindex.
TotalInternalReflection-Lightstrikestheboundaryattwomediapossessingdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleandisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium.Inafiber,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsinorderforittotransmitthefiber'slength.
Sheathing-Thesheathingisthesectionofthefiberthatcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingtypicallysurroundstheentirebundle.Thepurposeofthesheathingistoprotecttheindividualfiberorfiberbundlefromdamage.Thesheathingisoftenreferredtoasthe"jacket."Notallfiberspossessasheathing.
Page49
Figure3-1.Thetransparentcoreandcladdingofafiber.
Thecladdinghasbeencomparedtotheinsulationthatsurroundsametalwireinanelectricalsystem.Thepurposeoftheinsulationinanelectricalsystemistokeeptheelectricitywithinthewire.Thepurposeofthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingistokeepthelightwithinthecore.
Lightwilltravelinastraightlineuntilitencounterssomethingthatwillallowforitsdirectiontobechanged.Lighttravelingataparticularspeedinaparticularmediumwillchangedirectionandbegintravelingatanewspeedwhenitentersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Lightchangesdirectionbecauseitchangesspeed.Thechangeindirectionaslightentersanewmediumisknownasrefraction.
Arayoflightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaisreferredtoastheincidentray.Therayoflightthathasenteredthenewmediumisreferredtoastherefractedray.Howmuchrefractiontakesplacewilldependontheangleoftheincidentrayandtherefractiveindexofeachmedium.Figure3-2demonstratesrefraction.
Whentheangleofanincidentrayallowsforarefractedraytoenterthenewmediumandbegintravelingat90degrees,therefractedraywilltravelattheboundaryofthetwomedia.
Figure3-2.Lightstrikestheboundaryoftwotransparentmediumsandisrefractedawayfromtheangleat
whichitwastraveling.
Theangleatwhichthisoccursestablishesthecriticalangle.Anylightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalanglecannotescapefromtheoriginalmediumbecauseitisreflectedbackinside.Figure3-3demonstrateshowthecriticalangleisestablished.
Whenlightisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium,totalinternalreflectionoccurs.Itistheprocessoftotalinternalreflectionthatallowsfiberopticstowork.
Lighttravelinginthecoreofthefiberstrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingandreflectsbackintothecore.Inthisfashion,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsandtransmitsthelengthofthefiber.Figure3-5illustratestheconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.
Forlighttotravelinafiberbeyondtherequiredcriticalangle,itmustfirstenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleofacceptance.Thisangleisreferredtoastheacceptanceangle.Lightthatentersthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillexperiencetotalinternalreflection.
Acceptanceanglesvarydependingontheexactfiberutilized.Mostfibersusedinlightingdesignpossessacceptanceanglesthatrangefromapproximately60to80degrees.Manyfiberopticcatalogsandpromotionalmaterialssupplyinformationthatisrelatedtothefiber'sacceptancehalf-angle.
Page51
Figure3-3.Lighttravelingatdifferentincidentangleswillhavedifferentanglesofrefraction.Whentherefractedrayhasincreasedsothatittravelsattheboundaryofthetwo
media,thecriticalangleisestablished.
Figure3-4.Lightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediumsatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalangle
willreflectbackintotheoriginalmedium.
Page52
Figure3-5.Theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.
Page53
Figures3-6and3-7demonstrateafiber'sacceptanceangleandacceptancehalf-angle.
CalculatingNumericalAperture
Numericalapertureisthetermthatisusedtoexpresstheacceptanceangleofafiberandisobtainedbycompletingamathematicalcalculationbasedonthecoreandcladding'svaryingrefractiveindices.Fibersthatpossesslargernumericalaperturesarecapableofacceptingmorelightfortransmissionthanfiberswithsmallernumericalapertures.NumericalapertureisoftenabbreviatedasNA.
Theformulausedtocalculateafiber'snumericalapertureis:
where...
n1=refractiveindexofthecore
n2=refractiveindexofthecladding
Therefractiveindicesofthecoreandcladdingareavailablefromthefibermanufacturer.Thefollowingexamplecompletestheformulautilizingacorerefractiveindexof1.492andacladdingrefractiveindexof1.406.
1.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecore(forthisexample,thisequals2.22606)
2.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecladding(forthisexample,thisequals1.97683)
3.Subtractthecladdingindexsquaredfromthecoreindexsquared(forthisexample,thisequals0.24923)
Page54
Figure3-6.Inorderforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection,itmustfirst
enterthefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.
Figure3-7.Fibermanufacturersoftensupplyinformationrelatedtoafiber's
acceptancehalf-angle.
Page55
4.Obtainthesquarerootofthisanswer.Thisnumberequalsthenumericalaperture(forthisexample,thisequals0.499)
Thenumericalapertureofafiberisnotalwaysincludedinthepromotionalliteratureproducedbythefiberopticindustry.Someglassandlargecoreplasticfibersmayhavenumericalaperturesofapproximately0.65.ThenumericalapertureofcertainPMMAfiberscanbeapproximately0.55.
CalculatingtheAcceptanceHalf-Angle
Theacceptancehalf-angleiscalculatedbyobtainingthesine(SIN)ofthenumericalaperture.Fortheexampleabove,theacceptancehalf-angleequals30,forafullacceptanceangleof60.
Lightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillnotexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Becausethislightentersthefiberatanglesthatarelargerthantheacceptanceangle,itentersthecoreandthenrefractsintothecladding.Lightcomingfromthelampatanglesmuchgreaterthantheacceptanceanglewillnotenterthefiber.Thislightbecomestrappedintheilluminatorwhereitwillbeconvertedtoheatandeventuallyradiatefromthesystem.Figure3-8illustrateslightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.Figure3-9illustrateslightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencingmultipleinternalreflections.
Lightthatisacceptedfortransmissioninside-emittingfibersmustalsoenterthroughthefiber'sacceptanceangle.However,lightrefractsoutofthefiberwheneveritencountersadeliberatesurfaceimperfectionattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding(seeChapter2).Itisinthismannerthatside-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelength.Figure3-10representshowlightrefractsfromside-emittingfibers.
Page56
Figure3-8.Whenlightdoesnotenterthefiberwithinthefiber'sacceptanceangle,itwillstriketheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingandeventuallyrefract
outofthefiber.
Figure3-9.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencing
totalinternalreflection.
Page57
Figure3-10.Lightentersaside-emittingfiberthroughtheacceptanceangleandthenrefractsoutofthefiberbecauseofdeliberateimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecore
andcladding.
Figure3-11.Thecore,claddingandsheathingofafiber.
Page58
Everyfiberpossessesacoreandcladding.Manyfibersalsocontainathirdsectioncalledthesheathingorjacket.
Thesheathingmaybetransparentoropaqueandcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingsurroundstheentirebundleofindividualfibers.Thesheathingaddsstrengthtothefiberorfiberbundlewhileprovidingprotectionfromexternalelementssuchasheatorwater.
Somecompanyliteratureandarticlesaddressingfiberopticsmaygivethereadertheimpressionthatthesheathingassistsintransmittinglight.Ashasbeenexplainedabove,totalinternalreflectionoccurswhenlighttravelinginthecorestrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladding.Thelight-transmittingperformanceofafibercannotbeimprovedbyalteringthecompositionofthesheathing.
Page59
Chapter4LightLossFiberopticilluminationsystemsarecommonlyperceivedasbeingaveryefficientlightingtechnologygenerallyspeaking,thisistrue,particularlywhenefficiencyisviewedastheabilitytoputlightexactlywhereitisdesired.However,ifefficiencyisdefinedintermsthatarefamiliartolightingdesigners,specifically,''lumensin,lumensout,"thenthedesignerwouldbenefitinexaminingwhathappenstolightcomingfromthesourceasitrelatestotheentirefiberopticsystem.
Introduction
Agreatdealoftheresearchanddevelopmentthathasbeenoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticilluminationhasbeendevotedtoreducingtheamountoflightthatislostwithintheentirefiberopticsystem.Significantadvancementshavebeenmadeinareasrelatedtofocusingmorelightfromthelampontotheinputendsofthefibersandinthereductionofattenuation.
Evenwithbetteropticalcontrolandlowerattenuation,however,acertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampisstilllostbeforeitreachesthefiber'sinputend.Asthedevelopmentofmorelampsdesignedspecificallyforuseinfiberopticsystemscontinues,designerscanexpecttorealizeincreasedsystemefficiencyand,therefore,morelumensattheilluminatedenvironment.
Page60
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Absorption-Particularwavelengthsemittedfromthelightsourceareabsorbedbythefiberastheyattempttotransmitthefiber'slength.Whatwavelengthsareabsorbeddependsonwhatthefiberismadeofandhowlongtheparticularwavelengthstravelinthefiber.
Attenuation-Lightthatislostasittravelswithinafiberisreferredtoasattenuation.Attenuationincludeslossesduetoabsorption.BendRadius-Thebendradiusreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforealossoflightwilloccur.Anybendsmallerthantheminimumbendradiuswillcauselighttoescapethecore.
PackingFraction-Thesizeofthelighttransmittingareaswithinacrosssectionofafiberbundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssection.Instandardbundles,thisnumberisapproximately85percent.
LightLoss-Thetermthatreferstolightthatislostsomewhere
withinthefiberopticsystem.Lightlossincludeslossesduetoattenuation.
LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents
Currently,oneofthegreatestareasofresearchwithinthefiberopticilluminationindustrycentersonthedevelopmentoflampsthatwillfocusmorelightwithintheacceptanceangleoffibers.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,manyfiberopticsystemsutilizelampsthathavebeendesignedforuseinnon-fiberopticapplications.Theselamps,evenwiththeuseofreflectors,donothavethecapabilityoffocusingalloftheir
Page61
availablelightontotheinputendsofthefibers.Actually,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampwillstrikethefibersatall.Anylightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberscanbeconsideredlostwithinafiberopticsystem.Thepercentageoflightthatislostbecauseitcannotbefocusedintothefiberswillgenerallybedeterminedbythelampandopticalaccessoriesutilizedwithinthesystem,thelocationofthelampinrelationtotheinputendsofthefibers,andthesizeofthecommonend.Figure4-1providesarepresentationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.
LightLossatRelatedComponents
Themajorityoffiberopticsystemsutilizeareflector,filter,colorwheelorconnectioncomponentsthatlightmustpassthroughinorderforitreachthefiber'sinputends.Infact,manysystemsemployseveralaccessoriestoassistinachievingthedesiredlightingdesign.Whenlightpassesthroughanycomponentutilizedinthesystem,acertainpercentageofthelightwillbeabsorbedbythecomponentthelightispassingthrough,andacertainpercentagewillbereflectedawayasitentersandleavesthecomponent.Approximatelyeightpercentofthelightattemptingtopassthrougheachcomponentorconnectionutilizedinthesystemwillbelost.
ThislossisillustratedinFigure4-2.
LightLossesattheFiber
Besideslightlossesattheilluminatorandrelatedcomponents,lightlossesoccuratthefiber.
LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds
Inprinciple,anylightthatstrikesthefiberswithintheacceptanceangleshouldbetransmittedbymeansoftotalinternalreflection.However,notallofthelightstrikingwithintheacceptanceanglewill
successfullyenterthefiber.Acertain
Page62
Figure4-1.Representationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.
Page63
Figure4-2.Lightislosteachtimeitpassesthroughacomponentwithinthesystem.
Page64
percentageofthelightwillbereflectedaway.Theamountofreflectionthatwilloccurdependsonthefiberthatisutilized,but,aswithanycomponentlightmustpassthrough,alossofapproximately4percentatthefiber'sinputendandanother4percentattheoutputendcanbeconsideredtypical.Figure4-3illustrateslightfallingwithintheacceptanceangleandreflectingawayfromthefiber.
Toachieveoptimumlighttransmittingperformance,certainfibersneedtobepolishedattheirinputandoutputends.Dependingonthefiberutilized,thisprocesswilleithertakeplaceatthefactorywherethefiberismanufacturedorathejobsitewherethefiberwillbeutilized.Plasticfibersarecuttotheappropriatelengthinorderforthemtobesizedtothedesign.Anadditionallossoflightcanbeexpectedatthefiber'sinputandoutputendsifthefiberisnotcutorpolishedproperly.
LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea
Applicationsthatutilizebundledfiberssufferfromanotherformoflightloss.Becauseindividualfibersaregroupedtogethertoformabundle,onlyacertainpercentageofthetotalareaofthebundlewillactuallybeusedfortransmittinglight.
Non-lighttransmittingareasinthecrosssectionofthebundleincludespacesthataretakenupbythecladdingofeachindividualfiber,variousvoidsthatarecreatedduetothepositionofeachfiberwithinthebundleandbyadhesivesthatareusedtoholdcertainbundledfiberstogether.Thesizeofthelighttransmittingcoreareaswithinthecrosssectionofabundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssectionisreferredtoasthebundle'spackingfraction.Somebundlescanlooseasmuchas30%ofthebundle'scrosssectionduetopoorpackingandareastakenupbycladdingcrosssections.Figure4-5illustratesacrosssectionofabundle.
Page65
Figure4-3.Apercentageofthelightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewill
bereflectedaway.
Figure4-4.Poorpolishingorunevencutswillcauseanadditionalamountoflighttobelost.
Page66
LossesDuetoDirtandDust
Lightcanalsobelostduetoabuildupofdustonthesurfacesofthecomponentswithintheilluminator.Dirtaccumulatingonthelamp,reflectors,filters,fiberendsandanyotheraccessoriesutilizedinthesystemwilldecreasetheirefficiencyandcauselighttobescattered.Inaddition,dustaccumulatingonanythermalprotectors(heatsafetydeviceslocatedwithinsomeilluminators)usedinthesystemwillabsorbheat.Thisheatabsorptionmayincreasetemperaturestoalevelthatcancausethermalprotectorstoshuttheentiresystemdown.Recentdevelopmentspertainingtothesealingofcertainsystemshasreducedsomedustrelatedconcerns,butmanufacturersofparticularcomponentsrecommendedthatmaintenancepersonnelbetrainedinthepropercleaningtechniquesoffiberopticsystems.Figure4-6illustratesareaswithinthesystemwhereefficiencycanbereducedduetoabuildupofdust.
TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance
Lightlossdescribedinthepreviousparagraphshasgenerallyreferredtolightthatislostbeforeitentersthefibers.Additionallightislostasittravelsalongthefiber'slength.Thetermattenuationisusedtodescribelightthatislostwhileittravelswithinthefiber.Therearecertainarticlesorotherpiecesofpublishedinformationthatmayrefertoattenuationusingthetermlineloss.
Measurementsrelatedtoattenuationareobtainedbyusingamathematicalcalculationbasedonlightlevelstakenatparticularpointsalongafiber'slength.Therefore,afiber'sattenuationcanbeviewedasarelativeindicationofhowmuchlightthereisatthebeginningofthefibercomparedtohowmuchlightthereisattheendofthefiber.Manypromotionalpackagesandcataloguesproducedbythefiberopticindustrydonotincludeinformationrelatedtolightthatislostduetoattenuation.Thedesignermustrealize,however,that
theselossesmaybesomewhatsignificantasrelatedtothelength
Page67
Figure4-6.Componentswithintheilluminatorthatcanbeaffectedbydust.Dustcanhaveamajor
impactontheefficiencyofthesystem.
Page68
andtypeoffiberutilized.
Oneofthereasonsattenuationoccursisbecauseparticularwavelengthsemittedbythesourcewillbeabsorbedastheytravelthelengthofafiber.Becausecertainwavelengthsareabsorbed,theintensityoflightdiminishesandcolorisalteredaslighttravelsinafiber.Whichwavelengthsareabsorbedwilldependonthevariousmaterialsusedinthefabricationofthefiberandtheabilityofthosematerialstoabsorbspecificwavelengths.Theamountofabsorptiondependsonthedistancethewavelengthsmusttravelwithinafiber.Thismeansthatifafiberisconstructedofmaterialsthatabsorbwavelengthsat450nanometers,someamountofthebluelightat450nmwillbeabsorbedasittravelsthefiber'slength.
Sinceabsorptiononlyoccursoncethelightfromthelamphasenteredthefiber,itmustbenotedthatthespectraloutputofthelampandtheabsorptioncharacteristicsofthefiberareindependentofoneanother.Thespectraloutputofthelampwillbealteredaslighttravelsparticulardistanceswithinafiber.Publishedfiguresrelatedtoabsorptionaredependentontheexactfibersutilized.However,anexponentiallossof1-5percentperfootoffiberisconsiderednormal.
LossesDuetoFiltration
Absorptionshouldnotbeconfusedwithfiltration.Filtrationtakesplaceintheilluminatorwherelightpassesthroughafilterinordertoremovecertainwavelengthsbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission(seeFigures2-6and2-7).Asdescribedabove,absorptiontakesplacewhilelighttravelsinafiber.Filtrationremoveslightraysbymeansofeitherinterfacereflectionorabsorption.Therefore,anadditional8percentofthevisiblelightemittingfromthelampislostifaninfraredfilterisutilized.Morevisiblelightislostifthesystemrequiresadditionalfiltration.
Page69
LossesDuetoFiberImperfections
Attenuationmayalsooccurduetominorimperfectionsinthefiberthatcantakeplaceduringthemanufacturingorshippingandhandlingprocess.Theseimperfectionscouldbetheresultofdustparticlesorotherenvironmentalimpuritiesenteringthefiberduringfabricationandmayincludebubblesorsmallbends.Whenlighttravelinginthefiberencounterstheseimpurities,itwillbeabsorbedorreflectedinsuchawayastodeviatefromtheanglewhichitwastravelingandbecomelost.Figure4-7(above)demonstratesimperfectionswithinthefiber.
LossesDuetoSevereBending
Attenuationwillalsooccurifafiberisbenttooseverelywithintheapplication.Allfiberspossessspecificationsrelatedtohowfartheycanbebent.Thebendradiusofafiberreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforelightwillescapethecore.Fiberthatisbentsmallerthanthebendradiuscausesthecriticalanglerequiredforlighttransmissiontobeexceeded.
Figure4-7.Lightraysstrikingimpuritiesinthefiberanddeviatingfromthecriticalangle.
Page70
Therefore,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountbendradiuswhenplanningadesignthatrequiresfibertobebentaroundenvironmentalobstructions.
Thebendradiusisdeterminedbasedonthediameterofthefiberandreferstotheradiusofthesmallestcircleafibercanbebentaroundbeforelightislost.Insystemswherebundledfibersareutilized,thebendradiusappliestothediameterofeachfiberusedinthebundle.Completeinformationrelatedtobendradiusisnotoftenincludedinthegeneralpromotionalliteratureproducedbytheindustry.Somepublishedguidelinesrelatedtobendradiusstatethatthesmallestradiuscanbeobtainedbymultiplyingthediameterofthefiberby10.Exactguidelineswilldependonthefiberbeingutilizedandcanbesuppliedbythefibermanufacturer.Figure4-8illustratesbendradiusutilizingthegeneralguidelinesprovidedabove.Forthepurposeofexample,thediameterofthefiberis0.25inches.Multiplying0.25x10providesaradiusof2.5inches.Themostthisfibercanbebentisinacirclethatis5inchesindiameter,2.5-inchradius.Additionalbendingofthisfiberwouldcauseleakageoflighttooccurthroughthecladding.
Figure4-8.
Afiber'sbendradius.
Page71
Onemanufacturerofplasticopticalfibersstatesthatloose,largeturnstransmitlightfurtherthantightbendsorkinks.Additionally,infibersdesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,bendssmallerthanthesuggestedbendradiuswillcauseabrightspottooccurwherethebendislocated.Thefollowingillustrationdemonstrateshowlightcanescapefromthecoreifthefiberisbentsmallerthanthemanufacturer'ssuggestedbendradius.
Page73
Chapter5GlassorPlastic?Utilizingafibermadefromeitherglassorplasticisperhapstheareaofgreatestcontroversywhencomparingliteratureproducedbyvariousmanufacturersandrepresentativesoffiberopticcomponents.Itisnotuncommonforcompanymarketingmaterialstomakeambiguousreferencesrelatedtothesuperiorityoftheirproductwhileindicatingthattheseclaimsarerelatedonlytotheglassorplasticfiberstheyrepresent.Fiberopticsystemspossesscharacteristicsthatarecommonregardlessofthefiberutilized.Somerepresenativesoffiberopticproductsrepresentbothglassandplasticsystemsandthereforemaintaintheaccuratepositionthatallfibersofferuniquebenefitsdependingontheapplicationneeds.
GlassVersusPlastic
Inthissection,wewilldiscussvariousgeneralcharacteristicsinwhichglassandplasticfibersdifferandaresimilarinperformance.
ColorShift
Chapter4describedhowfibersabsorbparticularwavelengthswithinthespectrumofvisiblelight.Theindividualwavelengthsthatcombinetoform''white"lightmaybeabsorbeddependingonthelengthandtypeoffiberthatisutilizedintheapplication.Theintensityoflightisdiminishedandthecoloroflightisalteredduetowavelengthabsorption.Thedesignerneedstorealizethatcompanyliteraturetendsto
Page74
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Epoxy-Thematerialmostoftenusedtoholdbundlefiberstogether.
FusedFibers-Aprocesssometimesusedinthemanufacturingofglassandcertainsmallplasticfiber.Byutilizinghightenperatures,fibersarefusedtogetherattheirinputends.Epoxiesarenotrequiredwhenfibersarefused.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandextremelyhightemperatures.
Randomization-Randomizationisaprocessthatdistributesacertainamountofthefibersinthecommonendtoeachindividualtail.Thisprocessisusedtoundothenon-uniformlightdistributionattheinputendsofthefibersthatiscausedbymostlightsources.
offerattenuationinformationasafactoriallossoflightperfootoffiber(seeChapter4).Itisextremelyraretofindpublishedinformationpertainingtothenanometerrangewherethislosswilloccur.Generally,plasticlargecorefiberwillabsorbwavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefibertoyellow.Certainplasticandlowerqualityglassfibersmayshiftthecoloroflighttogreen.Glassfibersofthehighestqualitywillalsoabsorblightinthevisible
spectrum,buttendtoexcelintheirabilitytotransmitwhitelight.
Itshouldbenotedthatinmanyapplications,colorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorptionmaynotposeproblemstotheoveralllightingdesign.Theseareasmayinclude,butarenotlimitedto,certainarchitecturalandcommercialenvironments,numerousdecorativeapplications,installationsthatutilizecolorwheels,andthelightingofswimmingpoolsandfountains.Becausetheamountofcolorshiftthatwilloccurisdirectlyrelatedtothelengthofthefiber,relativelyshorterrunsoffiberwillhavelesscolorshiftsthanrelativelylongerruns.Inapplicationswherecolorrenderingisextremelyimportant,colorcorrectingfiltersareavailabletoassistinre-balancingthecolorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorption.
Page75
Color-CorrectingFilters
Thedesignershouldbeaware,however,thatcolor-correctingfilterswillremoveadditionallightraystocomplementthecolorsthathavebeenlost.Ifafiberabsorbswavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefiberstogreen,acolorcorrectingfilterthatabsorbsorreflectsgreenlightwillbeutilized.
AbilitytoWithstandHeatfromtheLamp
Theamountofheatthatglassandplasticfiberscanwithstandattheirinputendsisconsiderablydifferent.Theacceptableoperatingtemperatureisestablishedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.Glassfibersareinert,andthereforemoreabletoaccommodatehighertemperaturesthanthosethataremanufacturedfromplastic.Operatingtemperaturesforplasticfibersvary.Onecompanyoffersseveraldifferentplasticfibersthathaveacceptableoperatingtemperaturesthatgenerallyrangefrom-20°Cto85°Cdependingontheexactfiberutilized.Anothermanufacturerofplasticfiberhasatargettemperatureattheinterfaceofthefiberandtheilluminatorsetatorbelow50°C.Certainplasticfiberswillbegintolosetheirlight-transmittingabilitiesiftheyareexposedtotemperaturesabove70°C.Ifthesefibersarecontinuouslyexposedtotemperaturesthatexceed100°C,theywillmelt.Fibermanufacturersdonotalwaysofferinformationrelatedtooperatingtemperaturesintheirpromotionalliterature.Generally,theaverageacceptableoperatingtemperatureforplasticfibersattheinputendshouldnotexceed85°C.Innoticeablecontrast,typicalglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesatthecommonendofapproximately200°C.
Figure5-1illustratestheareaofconcernpertainingtoheatfromthelampandtheinputendofthefibers.Additionalconsiderationspertainingtofibertemperaturemustbetakenintoaccountthroughoutthedesignandinstallationprocess.Temperaturesensitivefibers
shouldnotbeexposedtoanysourceofheatthatcouldallowforthefibertoexceedthe
Figure5-1.Dependingonthefiber,thetemperatureattheinputendshouldnotexceed
approximately85°Cformanyplasticfibersandapproximately200°Cfortypicalglassfibers.
Page77
recommendedoperatingtemperature.
Excessivetemperaturesfromthelightsourceattheinputendofanyplasticfiberwillcausedamageandthereforelimitthefiber'sabilitytotransmitlight.Althoughglassfibersarenotdirectlyaffectedbyheatfromthelamp,theadhesivesusedinmanyglasssystemstoholdbundledfiberstogethercanbedamagedbyhightemperatures.Epoxyresinsarecommonlyusedtoholdfiberstogetherinthecommonendandendferrulesofglassfibersystems.Manyplasticfiberassembliesarealsoheldtogetherwithepoxies.Overaperiodoftime,theheatfromthelampmaydeterioratetheepoxy,causingittochangecolorandeventuallydamagethefibers.Lightemittingfromthesefibersmaypossesspoorcolorcharacteristicsandbeoflesserintensity.Recentadaptationsinthemanufacturingofsomeglassandsmallplasticfibershasdoneawaywiththeneedforepoxies.Fibersinthecommonendarefusedtogether.Becausethereisnoepoxyusedtoholdthefiberstogether,considerablymorespaceinthecross-sectionofthebundleisusedtotransmitlight.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesofapproximately350°C.
Heatfromthelampisusuallymanagedbyutilizingacombinationofacoolingfanandinfraredfilterslocatedintheilluminator.Generally,thegoalofinfraredfiltersistoremovewavelengthsabovethevisiblerange.Infraredfiltersandcoolingfansassistinkeepingthetemperatureofthefiber'sinputendsatorbelowthemanufacturer'srecommendations.Theserecommendationsaredevelopedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.
Whenacoolingfanisutilized,designersshouldrealizethattheremaybeacertainamountofnoiseassociatedwiththefan'soperation.Certainsystems,suchasthosethatutilizefusedglassfibers,donotrequireafanforcooling.
UltravioletLight
Ultravioletlightisanareaofprimeconsiderationwhenconsideringasystemthatutilizesfibersmadeofplasticor
Page78
glass.Generally,highqualityglassfibersabsorbacertainamountoftheultravioletradiationemittedfromthelampafterthelighthastraveledafewfeetwithinthefibers.However,certainplasticfibersareextremelysensitivetoultravioletlight.Therefore,toensurethelongestpossiblelifeofplasticfibers,systemdesignsshouldeffectivelyremoveultravioletlightbelow390nmbeforeitreachesthefibers.Therearecurrentlyfiltersavailableforuseinfiberopticsystemsthatfilter99.9percentoftheultravioletlightemittedfromthelampbeforeitreachestheinputendofthefiber.
Harnesses
TheconceptoftheharnesswasintroducedinChapter2.Itwasstatedthatnotallfiberopticsystemsrequiretheuseofaharness.Manysystemsthatutilizeplasticfibersallowforindividualfibersorfiberbundlestoattachdirectlytotheilluminatorbymeansofacommonendormodifiedports.Whenaharnessisutilized,however,therearespecificdifferencesthatmayneedtobeconsideredwhenselectingasystemthatutilizesglassorcertainplasticfibers.
Allsystemsthatutilizeonlyglassfibersrequireaharness.ReferringtotheexampleinChapter2,itwasdeterminedthataharnessconsistingofa30mmcommonendcouldprovide33"Size12"bundlesofglassfibers.Thismeansthat33differentpointsoflight(tails)canbeobtainedfromthisonesystem(meaningonelamp)allofferingthesamebasicphotometriccharacteristics(dependingontheselectionofthefixtureattheoutputend,lengthoffiber,andissuesdiscussedinChapter4)asthosethatareillustratedinFigure2-24andFigure2-25.
Formanyapplicationsutilizingglassfibers,however,theharnessmustbecustom-builtbythefibermanufacturerbasedonthespecificapplicationrequirements.Theharnessisnotassembleduntilthedesignerprovidesthemanufacturerwiththenumberoftailsthatwill
beused,therequiredtailsizestoobtainthenecessarylightlevels,andtheexactlengthofalltheindividualtailsthatwillextendfromthecommonendtoany
Page79
outputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Ifthedesignerfindsthatchangesarenecessarybasedonanynumberoffactors,theharnesswillneedtoberebuiltbythefibermanufacturer.Itisextremelydifficulttomakechangesatthejobsitewhenutilizingaharnessthathasbeenspecificallydevelopedforaparticularlightingapplication.
Therearecertainbenefitstohavingtheharnessassembledbythemanufacturer.Thesesystemsarethoroughlytestedatthefactorybeforetheyareshipped.Whenthesystemarrives,theharnessisinsertedintotheportoftheilluminatorandtheindividualtailsareattachedtoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilizedinthedesign.Thelaborofdesigningthesystemwascompletedduringthelightingdesignprocess.Anditshouldbenotedthatmanyapplicationsmakinguseofglassfibersdonotrequirethattheharnessbecustom-built.Almostallmanufacturersofferstandardharnessesthatareappropriateformanylightingapplications.Aswithcustom-builtharnesses,however,theseharnessesdonotallowforagreatdealofflexibilityshouldthedesignneedtochange.
Amajordifferenceinharnessesusedinplasticsystemsversustheharnessesthatareusedinglasssystemsisthatplasticharnessesdonotneedtobecustom-assembledatthefactory.Shouldthedesignneedtochange,modificationscanbemadeatthejobsite.However,comparedtohavingthesystemreadytobeinstalledwhenworkingwithaglasssystem,plasticsystemsmayrequireacertainamountoflaboratthejobsiteinordertomakethemwork.
AssemblingaHarnessforPlasticFibers(SampleProcedure)
Somemanufacturersdonotincludetheinformationrequiredtoassembleaharnessintheirstandardpromotionalmaterials.Therefore,thefollowingstepsofferageneraloverviewoftheproceduresthatmayneedtobeperformedinordertoassembleaharnessutilizingcertainplasticfibers.Theexactproceduresmayvarygreatly
dependingontheplasticfiberutilized.Certainsystemswillrequire
Page80
additionalstepswhileotherfibersmaycallforfewerordifferentproceduresinordertoassemblethesystem.Manycompaniesthatmanufactureplasticfibersystemsofferaccessoriesthatassistincompletingsomeorallofthesesteps.AsdiscussedinChapter2,differentsizes,lengthsaswellasacombinationofsideandend-emittingfiberscanattachtothesameilluminator.
1.Thefirststepistosizethefiberstotheappropriatelength.Plasticfibersaregenerallyavailableinspoolsthatcanrangefrom100to1000feetinlength.Smallerlengthsareavailable.Somecompaniesrecommendthatfibersbeplacedagainstaflatsurface(suchasguidingthefibersagainstawall)foraperiodoftimeaftertheyhavebeenunrolled.
2.Thefibersarenowcuttotheappropriatesize.Itisimperativetoensurethatallcutsaremadeasstraightandcleanaspossible.Thedesignershouldrefertothefibermanufacturer'sguidelinesbeforemakinganycutinafiber.Anewsingle-edgedrazorbladecanbeused,butmanymanufacturesofferacuttingtool(usuallyatadditionalcost)designedspecificallyforcuttingfibers.
3.Plasticfibersthatpossessasheathingmayrequirethataparticularamountofthesheathingberemovedfromtheendofthefiberthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Thesheathingcanberemovedbyscoringaroundthefiberatacertaindistance(usually2-4inches)fromthefiber'sinputendandthenpullingthesheathingbacksothatthecladdingisexposed.Removethesheathingbycuttingcarefullyaroundthefiberorfiberbundle.
4.Thefiberscannowbearrangedintherequiredpatterntocreatethelightingdesign.Thestrippedendofthefiberswillcometogetherforinsertionintothecommonend.Fi-
Page81
bersthatdonotneedtobestrippedcanbearrangedsothateitherendofthefiberattachestotheilluminator.
5.Itisatthispointthatcertainfibersmayhavetobesecuredtogetherforinsertionintotheilluminator.Teflon®heatshrinktubingiscutandinsertedoverthefibersthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Heatisappliedtoshrinkthetubingintoplace.Itisimportanttokeepthesourceofheatinconstantmotion,astemperature-sensitivefiberscanbedamagedifheatisappliedforaprolongedperiodoftime.Somemanufacturesrecommendpracticingthistechniquebeforeactuallyworkingwiththefibers.
6.Whenthefibersaresecured,theyareheldtogetherinsidethetubingbyepoxy.Onlyepoxyrecommendedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Theepoxywillneedtobemanipulatedsothatitfillsallofthespacesnottakenupbythefiberswithintheheatshrinktubing.Thepurposeistocompletelyjointhefiberstogetherattheirsides.Theassemblyisthenheatedandinsertedintothecommonendsothataportionofthefibersextendfromtheopposite
Figure5-2.Anelevationandcrosssectionofafiberillustratingthecore,claddingandsheathing.
Page82
Figure5-3.Certainfiberswillrequiretheremovalofthefiber'ssheathing
beforethefiberisinsertedintothecommonend.
Figure5-4.Tosecurethefibers,heat-shrinktubingisplacedoverthefibersandsized
byapplyingheat.
side.Theepoxywillsetwhilethefibersorfiberbundlesareinthisposition(thecompletecuringprocessmaytake24hours).
7.Whentheepoxyhashardened,anotherpieceofheatshrinktubingmayneedtobeappliedoverthecompletedassembly.
8.Thefibertipsextendingfromthecommonendarenowcutaway.Itisimportantthatthesefibersarecutsothattheyareevenwiththecommonend.Anunevencutwillaffecttheamountoflightthatwillenterthem.Somesmallplasticfibersmaynowneedtobepolished.
Page83
Figure5-5.Theassemblyisplacedintothecommonend.Theepoxysetsinthisposition.
Figure5-6.Theextendingportionofthefibersarecutaway.Certainfibersmaynow
requirepolishing.
9.Thecommonendisnowreadytobeattachedtotheilluminator.
Dependingonthedesignandfiberutilized,additionalstepsarerequiredtoinstallfibersintooutputdevicesoralongmountingchannels(seeChapter6).Figure5-8offersarepresentationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingstepsthataresimilartotheonesillustratedabove.
Page84
Figure5-7.Theassembledcommonendconsistingofallfibersorfiberbundlesutilized
inthedesignconnectstotheilluminatorbymeansoftheport.
CuttingtheFibers
Certainly,theabilitytocutplasticfiberstoaspecificlengthatthejobsitehasadvantages.Itisextremelyimportant,however,toensurethatanycutismadeascleanaspossible.Someplasticfibermayprojecttheimagesleftfromanunevencutintotheilluminatedenvironment.Asmentionedabove,harnessesutilizingglassfibersareoftencustom-assembledbythemanufacturer;therefore,glassfiberscannotbecutatthejobsite,althoughtheyalsopossesscharacteristicsthatmayallowforcertainprojectionstooccur.Whenlightcomingfromanybundledfiber(glassorplastic)ispreciselyfocused,thepatternoftheindividualfiberswithinthetailmayprojectontotheilluminatedsurface.
VariationsinLightColorandIntensity
Inbothglassandplasticsystems,thereisthepossibilitythatthe''spot"oflightstrikingtheinputendsofthefibersmaybeunevenincolorandintensity.Metalhalidelampshavedistinctlyseparatecolorsblendedwithintheoutputspectrumand,therefore,lightofdifferentcolorsandintensitiescanenterintodifferentfibersextendingfromthesamecommonend.Theresultofnon-uniformlightattheinputendsofthefibersiscolorandintensityvariationsattheilluminatedsurfaces.
Page85
Figure5-8.Representationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingthestepsdetailedinthetext.AdaptedwithpermissionfromLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Page86
Certainsystemsutilizevariouslenses,quartzrods,"couplers"orotherpatenteddeviceswithintheilluminatortoassistin"mixing"thesevariationsbeforelightreachesthefiber'sinputends.Mixingthelightbeforeitreachesthecommonendallowsforamoreevendistributionoflightacrosstheinputendofthefibers.Somesystemshavetheabilitytorandomizefibers.Randomizationisaprocedurethatdistributesacertainamountoftheindividualfibersinthecommonendtoeachtail.Varyinglightintensitiesoccurringatthecommonendarethereforedistributedtoeachtaildependingontheamountofrandomizationthatoccurs.
Thedesignercanspecifydifferentamountsofrandomization,eachofferingvariousdegreesofsuccessinmixingthelight.Theabilitytorandomizeiscommononlytoglassandsomesmallplasticfibers.ThedrawingsinFigure5-9illustratetheconceptofrandomization.
BendingtheFiber
Chapter4discussedtheamountofbendingthatafibercanwithstandbeforelightlossoccurs.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,bendingisrelatedtothediameterofeachindividualfiberutilizedinthesystem.Becauseglassfibershavesmallerdiametersthanplasticfibers,theycanbebentmorewithintheapplicationbeforetheyexperiencealossoflight.However,ifglassfibersarebentsmallerthanthesuggestedbendradius,theylosetheirabilitytotransmitlightandeventuallybreak.Shouldaglassfiberbreak,acompletelossoflightwilloccurinthedesignedenvironment.Ifthelossoflightissubstantial,theentireharnesswillneedtobereplaced.Somemanufacturessuggestorderingaharnesswithextratailstosafeguardagainstthispotentialproblem.Therearecertainplasticfibersthatmayalsobreakiftheyarebenttooseverely.Butbecauseplasticfiberscangenerallyberemovedfromtheilluminatoratthejobsite,problemsrelatedtobreakagearemoreeasily(andcost-effectively)solved.
Figure5-9.Exampleofrandomization.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics,Schottlite,FiberOptic
LightingfromSchott.
Page88
Price
Fibersarepricedbasedonthematerialstheyaremadeof.Historically,glassfibershavecostconsiderablymorethanplasticfibers.Inmostapplications,thisisstilltrue.Duetoissuesrelatedtohighervolumedemandandincreasedproductionefficiency,however,pricesmayberelativelycomparableincertainlarge-scaleprojects.
HowLongWillItLast?
Thelifeofafiberwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheconditionsinwhichitoperatesandwillincludefactorsrelatedtoenvironmentandoverallsystemdesign.Theindustryhasnot,asyet,hadopportunitytodetermineexactlyhowlongafiberwilllastbasedonactualfieldapplications.Becausethetechnologyisrelativelynew,soarethemajorityofinstallations.Sinceglassfibersareinert,theycouldlastforever.
Plasticfiberscansufferfromexcessiveheat,ultravioletenergyandvariousotherenvironmentalfactors.Onemanufacturerofplasticfibershasrecentlystatedthatgivenpropersystemdesign,thefiberstheyproducehaveaproductivelifeof20years.
MixingGlassandPlastic
Untilveryrecently,glassorplasticfiberscouldonlybefoundindistinctivelyseparatesystems.Nooptionswereavailabletothedesignerthatallowedforacombinationofbothfibertypestobeutilizedwithoneilluminator.Therearecurrentlyilluminatorsmanufacturedthataccommodatebothglassandplasticfibers.Theportsoftheilluminatorsaredesignedtoallowstandardorcustomdesignedglassorplasticbundlesorindividualplasticfiberstobeattachedorremovedasdesired.Inaddition,illuminatorscanbecustomdesignedtomatchspecificfibers.Thedesignercanrealizea
multitudeoflightingeffectsandcharacteristicswhenutilizinganilluminatorthatisdesignedtoworkwithavarietyofplasticorglass,sideorend-emittingfibers.
Page89
Chapter6AccessoriesAccessoriesincludeclips,endcaps,fixtures,colorwheels,filtersandavarietyofotherdevicesusedtocontrollightdistribution,colorandproduceotherdesiredbenefits.Inthischapter,wewilldiscusstheseaccessories,andreviewproductsavailablefromseveralmanufacturers.
AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem
Chapter3discussedtheacceptanceangleofafiber.Lightacceptedintoafiberfortransmissionmuststrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangleinorderforittoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Generally,lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewilltransmitoutofthefiberatthesameangle.
Theexactangleoflightcomingfromthefiberwillbedeterminedbyhowoftenthefiberisbentthroughouttheapplicationandhowexactingtheinstallerhasbeeninadheringtobendradiusspecifications.Ifafiberislaidperfectlystraight,thedesignercanexpecttorealizealightcut-offhalf-angleatthefiber'sterminatingendtobethesameastheacceptancehalf-angle.Aspreviouslydiscussed,certainglassandlargediameterplasticfiberspossessanumericalapertureofapproximately0.65whilethenumericalapertureofsomesmallplasticfibersisapproximately0.55.Thesenumericalaperturesleadtolightoutputhalf-angles,ofapproximately40and33degreesrespectively.Lightemittingfromfibersattheseanglesisoftenwellsuitedtocertainapplications.
Page90
KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
EndFittings-Theendfittingislocatedattheterminatingendofatail.Dependingonthefittingselected,theyareusedtoassistindefiningandshapingthelightemittingfromthefibers.Insomecasesendfittingsarereferredtoasfixtures,luminairesoroutputdevices.Manyfixturesserveonlyasdecorativelightoutputdevices.
Synchronization-Synchronizationallowsforcoordinatingspecialeffectsinnumerousilluminatorsoperatingwithinthesameapplication.
Mostend-emittingapplications,however,doutilizeanendfittingattheterminatingendofthetailtoassistindefiningthelight.Themostcommonendfittingisalens.Alensallowsforcontrolofthelightwhileprovidingthedesignerwiththeabilitytoadjustthebrightnesslevelswithinaparticularapplicationbyindividuallyfocusinglightfromnumeroustailsontocertainareasorobjectswithintheilluminatedenvironment.
Newaccessoriesarecontinuouslybeingdeveloped.Industrycatalogsthatonlytwoyearsagofeaturedalmostnooptionsrelatedtofixtureselectionhavebeenupdatedtoincludeabroadrangeofnewlydevelopedfixturesforuseininteriorandexteriorapplications.Whilesomefixturesarepurelydecorative,othersaredesignedtoperformaparticulartask.Themajorityoffixturesarepatented.Byappearance,
manyofthesefixtureslookthesameasthosethatwouldhouseaconventionallamp.Butfibersattachtothefixture,notwires.Fixturesutilizedwithfiberopticsprovideilluminationwithouttheheatorelectricityassociatedwithatraditionallightingfixture.
Becausetherearenoelectricalrestrictions,moreandmoredesignersaredevelopingcustomfixtures.Designingafixture(andmountingmethods)isoftenonlylimitedtospecificationsrelatedtothedesignedenvironment.Fiberoffersthedesignertheabilitytotransformalmostanythingintoalightfixture.
Page91
Figure6-1.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandleavingthefiber
atthesameangle.
Figure6-2.Fiberendcaps.Endcapsaremountedattheterminatingendofside-emittingfibersorfiberbundleswhenthedesigndoesnotrequirethattheybeconnected
toanotherilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
Page92
Manyeverydayobjectssuchasfurniture,handrailsandsculptureshavebeenmodifiedordesignedtoaccommodatefiber.
Thefollowinglistrepresentssomeoftheaccessoriesthatareavailabletoassistinobtainingthedesiredlightingresults.Certainaccessoriescanonlybeusedwithspecificsystems;manyaccessories,however,canbeutilizedregardlessoftheilluminatororfibersemployed.Mostfixturesarecurrentlydesignedforusewithend-emittingfiber.
Fixtures
FixturesforDownlighting
Themajorityofcompaniesofferingaccessoriesmarketatleastonefixturedesignedtoprovidedownlight.Comparedto
Figure6-3.TheindividualPinpointDirectionalHead.Itfeaturesalensedballswivelforaimingandafocusinghoodthatslidesouttoadjustthebeampatternfromaspottoabroaderpattern.CourtesyofPinpoint
Fibreoptics.
Page93
Figure6-4and6-5.IndividualPinpointHeadspositionedinamountingbar.Themountingbarcanbesizedtofittheexactdimensionsofadisplaycaseandupto60individualheadscanbepoweredwithonelamp.Courtesyof
PinpointFibreopticsLtd.
Page94
traditionaldownlights,thesefixturesareincrediblycompact,oftenmeasuring1-3inchesindiameterand1-2inchesinheight.Attimes,theymaybeevensmaller.Duetotheirsmallsize,theyfitinareaswheretraditionallightingfixturescannotbeinstalled.Inmanycases,thesefixturesserveonlyasdecorativeceilingfittings.Atailattachestothefixturefromthebackandlightemergesdirectlyfromthefiberstotheareabeingilluminated.Thesefixturesareusedprimarilyfortask,accentanddisplayilluminationandareavailableinmanydifferentstylesandfinishes.
DecorativeFixturesforDownlighting
Similarinsizetofixturesdesignedtoprovideonlydownlight,decorativedownlightsusuallyincorporateanelementthatlightpassesthroughinordertoprovidereflectionsorglowingeffects.Thesefixturesaregrowinginpopularitybecausetheyaredesignedtoprovideadecorativelightingelementthatcombineswithorcomplementsinteriororexteriordesign.Suchfixturesmayincorporateacrylicmolds,crystalsorshapedclearorcoloredglassintotheirdesign.
EyeballFixtures
Severalcompaniesoffereyeballfixturesthatareadjustablebymeansofasocket.Thebeamoflightcanbeeasilyaimedatparticularareasforuseinwallwashingandaccentlighting.Manyofthesefixturesincludeanadjustablelensthatallowsforlighttobefocusedfromsmalltowidebeams.
LandscapeLightingFixtures
Numerousfixtureoptionsareavailableforilluminatinglandscapes,sidewalksandgardens.Thesefixturescanoftenbemountedflushtothegroundforuplightingorresemblebollardsthatcandiffuseorreflectlight.Somemanufacturersofferoutdoorfixturesthatare
extremelyflexibleandcanbeaimedatvariousareasinthelandscape.Decorativeelementsthatglowareoftenincorporatedintothesefixtures.
Page95
Figure6-6.Downlightforaimablespot,highlighting
oraccentlighting.
Figure6-7.Downlightforfixedspot,highlighting
oraccentlighting.
Figure6-8.Downlightforspot,highlightingoraccentlighting.Courtesyof
Fiberstars,Inc.
ExteriorLightingFixtures
Inadditiontofixturesdesignedtoilluminatelandscapes,wall-mountedfixturesforexteriorwallwashing,stairlightingandpatioandsidewalklightingarealsoavailable.Manyofthesefixturescomeinavarietyofshapesandallowforcontrollablelightoutput.Someofthesefixturescanbeburiedinthegroundormountedinconcrete.
Decorativeoptionsareusuallyavailable.
ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures
Itisintheareaofdisplayilluminationwherefixtureselectioncurrentlyexcels.Althoughalmostanyfiberopticfixturecanbeusedfordisplayillumination,therearenumerousfix-
Page96
Figure6-9.Steplight.
Figure6-10.Adjustablefloodforlandscape
lighting.CourtesyofFiberstars,Inc.
turesdevelopedspecificallyforthispurpose.Directionalsystemsaremountedinshowcasesorinceilingstoilluminatemanyindividualobjectsorentiregallerywalls.Thesesystemscancontainnumerouslightoutletsthatarepositionedinmountingbarsorrails.Feweroutletscanbeuseddependingontheilluminationrequirements.Theoutletsusuallyswivelinasockettodirectlighttoalmostanyareainthedisplay,whilealsoofferingtheabilitytofocusordiffuselight.
SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures
Manyfixturedescriptionsincludeastatementthattheyarewaterproof(thedesignershouldalwaysensurethatfixturesandsystemsaredesignedforuseintheappropriateenvironment);however,therearemanyfixturesthataredesignedspecificallyforunderwaterlocations.Thesefixturesusuallyincludeonlyalens,butcustomdecorativeoptionsareavailable.
Page97
DecorativeLightingElements
Anassortmentofsmallfixturesdesignedtoprovidetinypointsoflightareavailablefromcertainmanufacturers.Althoughgenerallyusedfordecorativepurposes,someofthesefixturesmayoffersomedegreeoflightcontrol.Thesefixturesinclude''bullets"andChristmastreelights(suchas"icicles")andareusuallymadeofshapedclear,coloredorfrostedglass.
CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication
Aswithanylightingapplication,standardfixturesmaynotalwaysbeappropriateforcustomdesigns.Inmanycases,fixturesaredevelopedbasedontheneedsoftheparticularapplication.Designersdevelopafixturebasedonthefibersutilizedandlightingeffectsdesired.Therearemanymanufacturers(includingfacilitiesnotdevotedspecificallytolighting)thatwilldevelopacustomfixturebasedonspecificationsprovidedbythedesigner.
Figure6-11.LowProfileLightingSystem.CourtesyofLightlyExpressedLtd.
Page98
Figure6-12.EyeballSpotLuminaireTM.UsedwithpermissionfromNoUVIRResearch.
SpecialEffectsAccessories
ColorWheels
Theabilitytoeasilychangethecoloroflighttransmittinginafiberallowsforextremelyuniquelightingeffects.Themajorityofsystemscurrentlyavailableallowfortheoptionofincludingacolorwheelwithintheilluminator.Colorwheeloptionsvaryfrommanufacturertomanufacturer,butallcolorwheelsarelocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers.Manycolorwheelsmakeuseofdichroicfiltersthateitherselectivelytransmitorreflectlight.Somecolorwheelsutilizeglassfiltersthatabsorbunwantedwavelengthsinordertocreatethedesiredcolor.Standardcolorwheelsaregenerallyavailablewitheitherfouroreightcolors,yetmostmanufacturersoffertheoptionofallowingthedesignertocreatecustom
Page99
Figure6-13.TheDimmerSpliceTM.UsedwithpermissionbyNoUVIRResearch.
Figure6-15.Landscapefixture.Courtesy
ofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
Figure6-14.Stairlight.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
colorwheelsthatcanincludeadditionalcolors.Colorwheelsrotatebymeansofamotor,generallyfrom1to7.5timesperminute.Otherrotationspeedsareavailable.
Asanexample,onemanufacturer,SuperVision,offersasstandardforitsfourcolorwheelproducts:
Page100
·White,magenta,limegreen,cyan
·Clear(white),limegreen,magenta,mediumblue
·Clear(white),yellow,limegreen,orange
·Clear(white),primaryblue,yellow,turquoise,orange,darkblue,magenta,limegreen
Inaddition,optionalcolorsareavailablethatincludeclear(white),bluemagenta,hotpink,red-magenta,darkblue,primaryblue,mediumblue,cyan,turquoise,darkgreen,primarygreen,limegreen,yellow,amber,orangeandred(customcolorsareavailableuponrequest).
Gobos
Therearerotatingwheelsavailablethatprovideotherspecialeffects.Aperforatedgoborotatingonacolorwheelmotorallowsforcertainfiberstoreceivelightwhileothersdonot.Thisprovidesa"twinkling"effectattheoutputendsofthefibers.Variousshapesandholesizescanbeincorporatedintothegobotocreatedifferentlightingeffects.Whenutilizedwithcolorwheels,gobosallowforspectaculardisplaysoflight.
Synchronization
Manyilluminatorsusedinthesamedesigncanbeconnectedsothatcolorchangeandspecialeffectsoccurineveryilluminatorusedintheapplication.Thisprocessisgenerallyreferredtoassynchronization.Synchronizationcanonlyoccurwhenilluminatorsarewiredtogetherandtoa"master"illuminatororexternalcontroldevice.Everyconnectedilluminatormustbeequippedwiththeappropriateequipmentinorderforcontrolstobeaccepted.Controllingthespeedofthecolorwheelandgobos,strobingandcoordinatingcolorchanges
tomusicarejustsomeofthemanyeffectsthatarepossible.Applicationsmakinguseofsynchronizationcanbefoundinsystemsinstalledinnightclubs,shoppingmalls,theaters,casinosandamusementparks.
Page101
DimmingAccessories
Somecompanieshavegonetoexhaustivelengthsinordertodevelopcustomaccessoriestoperformaparticularlightingtask.Theseaccessoriesoftenincludemethodsfordimming.Dimmingmetalhalidelightsourcesisusuallyachievedbyutilizingawheelorotherdevice(locatedintheilluminatorandrotatingasacolorwheelorgobowould)torestricttheamountoflightenteringthefibers(seeApplication#15inChapter7).Othermethodsofdimmingincludepatentedadjustabledevicesdevelopedtointerruptthefiberruninordertoreducetheamountoflightthatistransmitted(seeFigure6-13).
AdditionalAccessories
Otheraccessoriesincludecustom-designedkitstocutandsecurefibersatthejobsite.Thesekitscontainvariousknives,bladesorothercuttingdevices.Iffibersrequirepolishing,kitsareavailabletoensurethatthefibersarepolishedquicklyandtothemanufacturer'sspecifications.Thesekitsincludevariousfilesormachinepolishingtools.
Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,otheraccessoriesincludefiltersandfanstocontrolheatattheinputendsofthefibersaswellasfiltersthatremoveultravioletenergyorcorrectcolor.
Cost
Dependingonthenumberofaccessoriesutilizedinaparticularapplication,theycanaddconsiderablecosttothesystem.Someaccessoriesarepricedextremelyhigh.Performancecharacteristicsmustbecarefullyweighed.Componentsmadeofhighqualitymaterialsorofferinguniquedesignbenefitscostevenmore.
Page102
MountingtheFiberOpticSystem
Illuminators
Theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedinanareathatallowsforeasyaccess.Manyilluminatorsaresecuredtowalls,floors,shelvesandotherarchitecturalsupportsbymeansofscrews.Someilluminatorsarepre-attachedtoportablemountingdevicesandcanbemoved.Certainmanufacturersofferbracketsorotherdevicesthatattachtorecessedceilingsupportsorbetweenarchitecturalbeamsthattheilluminatorwillattachto.Thesedevicesaregenerallyusedformountingilluminatorsaboveceilingpanelsandinplenumareas.Someilluminatorswillneedspaceforaircirculation.Mostmanufacturershavestrictguidelinesastowhereandhowilluminatorsshouldbemounted.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelinesaswellasallcoderequirementsandlocalregulations.
Fibers
Theexactmethodofmountingfiberswillbedeterminedbytheapplication.Inthesimplestcases,fibersarehiddeninceilingsordisplaycaseswithlittleconcernforsecuringthem.Inothercases,however,therearestrictrequirements.Thesheathingofsomefibersmustmeetcertaincodesinordertobeplacedincertainareas.Someregulationsmayrequirethatfibersbeplacedinconduit.Thedesignermustmakesurethatfibersmeettherequiredcodesbasedonwhereandhowtheywillbemounted.
Whenfibersaresecured,particularlyside-emittingfibers,itisusuallybymeansofclipsormountingtrack.Clipsaresecuredtoawallorsomeothersurfaceandfibersrunfromcliptoclip,similartothewayneonissecuredwith"standoffs."
Mountingtracksareattachedtoaparticularsurfaceandtheentire
lengthoffiber(sometimessecuredwithadhesives)isinsertedintoit.Somemanufacturersrecommendthattheirside-emittingfiberbesecuredinawhitemountingtrackinordertoachievemaximumbrightnesseffects.
Page103
AsdiscussedinChapter2,side-emittingfibersmakeuseofanendcapattheendofthefiberrun.Ifside-emittingfibersarenotattachedtoanotherilluminatoror"looped,"anendcapwillmostlikelybeutilized.Endcapsprotecttheendofthefibersfromenvironmentaldamageandprovidetherequiredlightterminationpointattheendofthefiberrun.EndcapsareshowninFigure6-2.
Fixtures
Mostfixturesaresecuredwithspringclips.Aholeoftheappropriatesizeisdrilledintothemountingsurfaceandthefixturesareinsertedandsecuredinplacebytheclips.Otherfixturesaresimplyscrewedintoplace.Somemanufacturersmayrecommendusinganadhesivetoassistinkeepingthefixturessecure.Althoughtheexactmethodformountingwillvarydependingonthefixtureandfiberutilized,itgenerallytakesverylittletimetoinstallafiberopticfixture.
Page105
Chapter7ApplicationPresentationsInthischapter,wewillpresentavarietyofapplicationswherefiberopticlightingwasemployed.
AsnotedinthePreface,thisbookwasprintedusinganewtechnologythatenablestheproductionofhighlyspecializedtexts.Assuch,althoughthisbookintersectsareasofvisualdesign,photographsareshowninblack-and-whiteasthistext'spurposeistoillustratetechnicalandpracticalperformanceprinciplesratherthandemonstrateaestheticcapabilities.Colorphotosdemonstratingaestheticenvironmentsmadepossiblebyfiberopticilluminationareavailablefrommanufacturersandfromthepagesofmagazinesdevotedtolighting.
Page106
CaseStudy#1
ProjectLocation
BlumenthalPerformingArtsCenterCharlotte,NorthCarolina
ProjectDescription
Fiberopticceiling.
LightSource
Inthisproject,thereare72illuminatorseachutilizingan85Whalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibersprovidingover2,000pointsofindividuallight.
AccessoriesUsed
Colorwheelsarelocatedintheilluminators.Custom-madelensesarelocatedattheendofeachtail.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Developingasystemthatcouldbemaintainedremotelywasimperative.Acousticalbaffleswouldhaveblockedanyaccesstotraditionallightingfixtures.Accordingtothelightingconsultant,BenBoltin,ofTheatreProjectsInc.inHartford,CT,theprojectcouldnothavebeencompletedbyutilizingaconventionallightingsystem."We'retalkingabout2,000pointsoflightthatareatleast80feetintheair.Situatingthatmanypoints,thathighup,whilepreservingaccesstotheluminaireswouldhavebeenimpossiblewithanytechnologyotherthanfiberoptics."
Page107
CourtesyofStarfireLighltingIncorporated.PhotographsbyJoannSieburgBaker.
Page108
CaseStudy#2
ProjectLocation
ConEdisonClockTowerNewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
Thisprojectreplacedaconventionallightingsystemandinvolvedtheilluminationoffourclockfaces,each25feetindiameter,ontheupperfloorsoftheConEdisonBuilding.
LightSource
Atotalof44illuminatorsareused,11ateachclock.Eightilluminatorslighttheclock'sfacesandcontain60Wxenonmetalhalidelamps.Threeilluminatorslightthehandsofeachclockandutilizea150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Largeend-emittingplasticfibersareused.
AccessoriesUsed
Someilluminatorscontaincomputer-controlledcolorwheels.Aspeciallydesignedopticattheendofeachfiberspreadsthelightsothatthehandsappearbrightfromeveryviewingangle.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theformerincandescentsystemutilized860lampsthatrequiredcontinuousmaintenance.Colorchangesalsoaddedtomaintenancecosts.AccordingtoPeterJacobsonofConEdison,thefiberopticsystemreducedcostsassociatedwithmaintenanceby$40,000ayear.Theenergydollarsspentonlightingthe860incandescentlampsamountedto$12,501ayear.The44lampsusedinthefiberoptic
systemcost$2,211dollarsayeartooperate.
Page109
CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
Page110
CaseStudy#3
ProjectLocation
128PrinceStreetNewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
Retailjewelryexhibitcaselighting(seeFigure1-9).
LightSource
Thetotalinstallationcontains12illuminatorsutilizing150Wmetalhalidelamps.
FibersUsed
Acombinationofglassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Directionalheadslocatedinmountingbars.Afibertailattachestoeachhead.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theownerofthestorewantedthelightingtomeetthefollowingrequirements:
·Spotlightwithafocusedintensebeamthesmallpiecesdisplayed
·Havetheabilitytochangebeamdirectiontocoverthedisplaycase'scompletearea
·Havetheflexibilitytochangethebeamspreadfromatightspottoawidespread
·Evenlywashspecialobjectssuchaspearlnecklaces
·Provideacrisplightwithoutagrainytextureforviewingobjectssuchasdiamonds
Thedirectionalheadwasspecificallydesignedtomeetthesevisualmerchandisingobjectivesandthispatentedsystemisnowusedextensivelytoilluminatedisplaycasesinvariousenvironments.
Page111
CaseStudy#4
ProjectLocation
FederalOfficeBuilding290Broadway,NewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
''AmericaSong,"asculpturedesignedbyClydeLynds.
LightSource
Fourilluminators,eachusinga70Wmetalhalidelamparelocatedinstainlesssteelpanelsalongthesidesofthesculpture.
FibersUsed
Fivemilesofsmallplasticend-emittingfibersareusedinthisinstallation.Thefibersaremountedinconcrete.
AccessoriesUsed
Alensisusedtochangethedistributionpatternoflightemittingfromvariousterminatingendsofthefibers.Aspecialeffectswheellocatedwithintheilluminatorallowsforcertainfiberendstobeilluminatedatvarioustimeswhileothersarenot.Thisgivestheimpressionthatlightismovingacrossthesurfaceofthesculpture.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightingdesignrequirednumerouspointsoflightthatneededtobeinconstantmotion.Fourconvenientlylocatedlamps,combinedwiththeabilitytosequence,providethedesiredeffects.Accordingtotheartist,"Thelightingeffectsdesignedinthesculptureareonlypossiblewithfiberoptics."
Page112
CaseStudy#5
ProjectLocation
Bentall'sShoppingMallLondon,England
ProjectDescription
Decorativeinteriorlighting.
LightSource
Theprojectused122illuminatorseachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Glassend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Thereare632pointsoflight.Eachtailemploysalensattheterminatingendofthefiber.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Atraditionallightingsystemwouldhavebeenrelativelyinaccessiblewhenitwastimetochangelamps.Fiberopticssavedspaceandreducedenergyuseinthisapplication.
Page113
CaseStudy#6
ProjectLocation
BullRunShoppingPlazaManassas,Virginia
ProjectDescription
Exteriorarchitecturallightingdesignedtohighlightfourmainentrancestotheplaza.
LightSource
Thetowerhastwoilluminatorslocatedontherooftops.Thetotalprojecthas13illuminatorsthatuse150Wmetalhalidelamps.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Theilluminatorscontainacolorwheelthatislockedongreen.TheilluminatorsareULwetlocationlistedandcontainatimerforon/offcontrols.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theclientwantedaneasytomaintainalternativetoaneonsystem.Theabilitytopredictmaintenancecostswasparticularlyimportant,and,opposedtoneon,thereisnobreakageofthelightedpath.
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Page114
CaseStudy#7
ProjectLocation
TokyoDomeTokyo,Japan
ProjectDescription
Amusementparkferriswheellighting.
LightSource
Theferriswheelutilizes26illuminatorsthatcontain150Wquartzhalogenlamps.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Theilluminatorscontaincolorwheels.Eachspoke-setoftheferriswheelchangescolorinpattern.Afteralleightcolorsofthecolorwheelhavebeensequencedthrougheachspoke-set,theentireridecyclesthrougheightcolorchanges.Asafinale,randomcolorsfromthecolorwheelchangesindividualspoke-setswithalleightcolorsoflight.Theterminatingendsofthefibersarecutsothatlightescapesandilluminatesthecenterofthewheel.
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Neonwasconsideredtoobigofamaintenanceissueforthisprojectanddidnotallowforanycolorchanges.
Page115
CaseStudy#8
ProjectLocation
ChurchoftheHolyTrinityGeorgetown,Washington,DC
ProjectDescription
TheCrosslocatedoverthepulpitisilluminatedwithfiberoptics.
LightSource
Thisapplicationutilizesoneilluminatorcontaininga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers
AccessoriesUsed
OnelampprovideslighttosixcustomfixtureslocatedwithintheCross.
ReasonforFiberOptics
TheheatfromtheformerlightingsystemwasdamagingtheCross.Thefiberopticsystemprovideslightabsentofheatandultravioletrays.Theonelamputilizedinthefiberopticsystemisconvenientlylocatedinthebasement,10feetfromthebottomoftheCross.Unlikethepreviouslightingsystem,changingthelampwhennecessaryiseasy.Churchrequirementsrelatedtothedesignincludedspecificationsthatnopointsoflightbevisibletothecongregation.Thecustom-designedfiberopticfixtureswereeasilyconcealedwithintheCross.
Page116
CaseStudy#9
ProjectLocation
HardRockCafeUniversalStudios,Florida
ProjectDescription
Thisfiberopticapplicationreplacedaneonlightingsystem.Theaestheticlightingwasdesignedtobeviewedfromtheairaswellasfrompedestrianandautoareas.Theshapeoftheguitarsurroundsthebuildingandishighlightedbyfiberopticlighting.The"strings"oftheguitararefibers.
LightSource
Inthisproject,11illuminatorsutilizing400wattmetalhalidelampsareusedintheguitar"handle"and"string"sectionsofthisdesign.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Colorwheelslocatedintheilluminators.Thefibersareheldinplacealongtheguitarareasbytheoriginalneonmountingsystem.Thefibersareattachedtothe"strings"oftheguitarbymonofilamentfishingline.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Neonwasreplacedduetobreakageandmaintenanceproblems.Accordingtothedesigner,RobertLaughlinofRobertLaughlin&AssociatesinWinterPark,FL,"Fiberopticlightingwasselectedastheappropriatesourceto'mimic'guitarstrings.Thesize,texture,saggingproperties,etc.wereideal.Inaddition,thelightingsources
wereconcealed.Looksgoodindaytimeandbetteratnight."
Page117
CaseStudy#10
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidenceFlorida
ProjectDescription
Exteriordrivewayandpathlighting.
LightSource
One250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Themaximumlengthoffiberusedinthesystemis75feet.
AccessoriesUsed
Timersforonandoffcontrol.Colorwheelwithintheilluminatorandadjustableaccentfixturesatthefiber'sterminatingend.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thisprojecteliminatedtheneedtochangeindividualbulbsandgavetheoptionofprovidingdifferentcolors.Thefixturescanbemovedtodifferentlocationsprovidedthefiberlengthisadequate.
Page118
CaseStudy#11
ProjectLocation
TrumanLibraryIndependence,Missouri
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofamuralthatillustratesthegardenssurroundingthere-createdOvalOfficeofHarryS.Truman.Thethreedimensionalmuralispaintedonawallapproximately6inchesfromthefabricatedwindowsanddoors.Viewersseethemuralfromapointlocatedacrosstheroom.Thereisnonaturallightinthisspace.
LightSource
Fourilluminatorsperwindowarelocatedunderthefloorintheplenumspaceofthebasement.Eachilluminatorcontainsa60Wxenonmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Largeend-emittingplasticfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Certainfibersallowthelightthatiscomingfromthemtoilluminatethemuralwithouttheuseofaccessories.Otherfibersemployzoomfocuslensesattheirterminatingendstoassistindirectinglight.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightingdesignforthemuralcalledforeffectsthatwouldcomeclosetomimickingoutdoorsunlightvariations.Thelightcomingfromtheterminatingendofeachfiberisdirectedatvariousareasofthemuraltoassistincreatingthiseffect.Ultravioletandinfraredarefiltered.Inthisproject,192individualpointsoflightwereobtained
from16lamps.Muchlessspaceistakenupbythesystemthanwouldhavebeenifaconventionallightingsystemwasutilized.Totaloperatingcostsperyearwerecalculatedtobe$1,300lessthanthosethatwouldhavebeengeneratedbyusingaconventionalincandescentlightingsystem.
Page119
CaseStudy#12
ProjectLocation
Washington,DC
ProjectDescription
FiberOpticTreeTopperutilizedatthetopoftheU.S.NationalChristmasTreein1993.
LightSource
Thisapplicationutilizestwoilluminatorseachcontaininga60Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallend-emittingplasticfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Onecolorfilterineachilluminatorprovidingblueandorangelighttovariousareaswithinthefixture.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thiswasacustomengineeredprojectthatcouldbescaledtotheappropriatesizewithoutconcernforspacethatwouldhavebeenrequiredifindividuallampsandelectricalcomponentswereutilized.Theilluminatorsareconvenientlylocatedatthebottomofthetree,30feetbelowthefixture.
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Page120
CaseStudy#13
ProjectLocation
Orlando,Florida
ProjectDescription
ThisfiberopticinstallationislocatedintheconferenceandshowroomofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.Covelighting,wallandtablehighlighting,andastar-fieldceilingarepresented.Theroomdimensionsare12feetby12feet.
LightSource
Thereisoneilluminatorforeachspecificapplication.Thecove,table,andvideowallalluseanilluminatorthatcontaina150Wmetalhalidelamp.Thestar-fieldceilingusesa75Whalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Thecove,table,andvideowallutilizesmallplasticside-emittingfibers.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizessmallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Thecove,table,andvideowallare"looped"(seeChapter2)totheirrespectiveilluminator.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizesdimmingcontrolsandallilluminatorscontainacolorwheel.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thisprojectillustratesavarietyoffiberopticlightingpossibilities.Theobjectivewastointegratefunctionalapplicationswhiledemonstratingseveralfiberopticaccessories.Thecoveisextremelycompact.Accessformaintaininganeonorfluorescentapplicationwouldhavebeenalmostimpossible.Afterthefibersareinstalled,theyrequirealmostnoadditionalmaintenance.Colorchangewouldhave
beenimpossibleifatraditionallightingsystemwasutilized.
Page121
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Page122
CaseStudy#14
ProjectLocation
WarwickCastle,England
ProjectDescription
Stairlightinginthetowersofanhistoriccastle.Thecastleisatouristattractionthatreceivescrowdsoftouristsonadailybasis.
LightSource
Threeilluminators,eachutilizinga150wattmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Glassend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Fiberbundlesaremountedwithinthehandrail.Lightisallowedtoexiteachbundlewithouttheuseofadditionalaccessories.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightinggoalwastoprovidesafelevelsofilluminationwithoututilizinganylightingfixturesthatwouldtakeawayfromthehistoricatmosphereofthecastle.Theexistinghandrailwasrebuilttoaccommodatethefibers.Nofurtherarchitecturalmodificationswerenecessary.
Page123
CaseStudy#15
ProjectLocation
BeloitCollege,LoganMuseumofAnthropologyBeloit,Wisconsin
ProjectDescription
Museumlighting.TheLoganmuseumcontains225,000artifactsonpermanentdisplayrequiringsafe,conservationlevelillumination.
LightSource
30illuminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Fiberlengthsaverage20feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingend.Atotalof25milesoffiberisutilizedintheapplication.
AccessoriesUsed
Five-and8-footcustomfixturesareutilizedthroughoutthisapplication.Acustomdesigned''variableaperturedimmingsystem"isinstalledineachilluminator.Thisdimmingsystemoperatesonacolorwheelmotorand,whenactivated,rotatesandstopstoallowthecorrectamountoflighttoreachtheinputendsofthefibers.Eachdisplaycaseisindividuallycontrolled.Acolor-balancingfilterisutilizedthroughoutthedesigntoachievelightoutputatapproximately3000K.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Controllingultravioletandinfraredwascritical.Theabilitytoeasilyfiltertheseraysbecameamajorreasonforselectingafiberopticsystem.Additionalpreservationbenefitsarerealizedbecausethe
fibersproducenoheatattheilluminatedareas.ThelampsarelocatedawayfromthedisplaycasesinthebasementoftheMuseum.Becauseallmaintenanceactivitiestake
Page124
placeataremotelocation,thecasesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobechanged.Exteriorreflectionsonthefrontofthecasesarereducedbecausethelightcarryingfibersarelocatedinside.Fiberopticsalsoofferedflexibilitypertainingtothedesignofthecases.Becausethefibersandfixturesaresmall,theywereeasilyincorporatedintothesupportsystemofeachindividualcase.
CaseStudy#16
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidence,Florida
ProjectDescription
Swimmingpoolandlandscapeillumination.
LightSource
Sevenilluminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticsideandend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Numerouslensesdesignedforunderwateruseaswellasvariousfixturesdesignedtoprovideuplightingandwashingeffects.Colorwheelsarelocatedineachilluminatorandareindependentlycontrolledfromtheinterioroftheresidence.Thisallowsthehomeownertoselectsynchronizedcolorsoravarietyofdifferentcolorscomingfromeachilluminator.
Page125
ReasonforFiberOptics
Fiberopticsisawidelyacceptedandexpandingmethodofilluminatingswimmingpoolsandspas.Therearenoelectricalconcernsbecausealloftheelectricalcomponentsarelocatedawayfromthedesignedenvironment.Byutilizingacombinationofside-andend-emittingfibersextendingfromacommonilluminator,bothlinearandpointlightingisachievedfromonelamp.Thistechniquewouldhavebeenimpossibleifanyotherlightingsystemwasutilized.
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Page126
CaseStudy#17
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidence,CA
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofrarewinesinacustomdesignedtemperaturecontrolleddisplaycase.Thecasemeasuresapproximately8feetinheight,12feetacrossand2feetdeep.
LightSource
Twoilluminators,eachutilizinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Custom-designedfixtures.Colorwheelsarelocatedwithintheilluminator.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Therarewinesneededtobeprotectedfromultravioletandinfraredlight.Thiswasaccomplishedbymeansoffiltrationwithintheilluminator.Thetemperaturewithinthedisplaycasecouldnotbealteredbytheilluminationsystem.Becausethereisnoheatassociatedwiththelightcomingfromthefibers,noadditionaldemandsareplacedupontherefrigerationsystem.Reflectionsontheglassdoorsfromoutsidelightsourcesareminimizedbecausethefibersaremountedwithinthecase.
Page127
CaseStudy#18
ProjectLocation
HuntingtonLibraryandBotanicalGardensSanMarino,CA
ProjectDescription
DisplaycaselightingfortheExhibition"MasterpiecesinLittle:PortraitMiniaturesfromtheCollectionofHerMajestyQueenElizabethII."
LightSource
Eachcasecontainsacustomizedilluminatorutilizinga75Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Glassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
DirectionalHeadspositionedinU-ChannelMountingBars.
ReasonforFiberOptics
ThistravelingexhibitiononloanfromtheBritishRoyalCollectioncontained75pricelessminiaturesbymasterssuchasHolbeinandHilliard.Manyoftheportraitswerepaintedonsensitivematerialssuchasvellumandivory.TheQueen'sSurveyorhadprescribednomorethan5footcandlesinthecases.Theuseoffiberopticsallowedforfiltrationofultravioletandinfraredwavelengths.Andbecauseonelampprovidesilluminationtomanydirectionalheads,thepreparatorcouldfocusindividuallightbeamsoneachdelicateobjectwhilemaintainingthelowcuratorialilluminationlevels.
Page128
CaseStudy#19
ProjectLocation
CedarCreekCinemaWausau,Wisconsin
ProjectDescription
DecorativelightingintheflooroftheCinema'slobby.
LightSource
Theilluminatorhousesa75Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Acolorandspecialeffectswheelislocatedintheilluminatorprovidingcolorchangeandtwinkling.Differentfiberswithinthecommonendreceivedifferentcolorsandamountsoflightasthecolorwheelrotates.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thedurabilityofthefibersutilizedinthisapplicationallowsforthemtobemountedinthefloor.Thelightshowcreatedbytheaccessoriesisvisibletopatronsastheywalkto,from,andovertheinstallation.Lowmaintenance,specialeffectsandtheabilitytoeasilychangecolorwerethereasonsfiberopticswereselectedforthisproject.
Page129
CaseStudy#20
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidenceOrlando,Florida
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofartobjectsinrecessedniches.
LightSource
Oneilluminatorhousinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Afixedlensisutilizedattheterminatingendofthefibers.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theareasthatneededtobeilluminatedarecompact.Thecomponentsutilizedinthefiberopticsystemareideallysizedtothespacelimitationsoftheenvironment.Theilluminatorislocatedinthegarageoftheresidenceandprovideslight,withoutheat,tofournichelightsandtwosteplightsinsidethehome.
Page131
Chapter8TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItTogether
ApplicationDetails
We'veseenthecomponentsthatcanbeusedinthefiberopticilluminationsystemaswellasanassortmentofapplicationsmakinguseoffiber.Thischapterwilladdresssomekeypointsthedesignermaywanttoconsiderwhendevelopingastar-likedisplayoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications.
TheStar-LikeDisplay
Thestar-likedisplayusesfibertocreatepointsoflightthatoftenresemblesastarfilledsky(seeapplicationpresentation).Whilesomeoftheseapplicationsmayuseonlyoneilluminatorandafewfeetoffibertocreateindividualpointsoflight,otherswillrequiremanyilluminatorsandperhapshundredsofthousandsoffeetoffibertoobtainthedesiredlightingcharacteristics.
Asanincreasingnumberofdesignersincorporatestar-likedisplaysintoresidential,retailandcommercialenvironments,consultantsneedtounderstandbasicsystemlayoutandinstallationconceptsiftheyaretomaximizelightoutputcharacteristicsandcontroloverallsystemcosts.Althoughceilingstendtobethemostcommonareaforcreatingthestar-likeeffect,thedisplayisoftenincorporatedintofacades,floors,walls,domesandavarietyofotherinteriorandexteriorenvironments.
Thissectionwilldemonstratehowthedesignprocesscan
Page132
KeyTermsUsedinThisChapter:
FiberDensity-Thetermassociatedwithhowmanyfibersarelocatedinasquarefootsectionofthestar-likedisplay.Atypicalfiberdensityisbetween3and5.
FiberMix-Fibermixreferstomixingthesizeofthefiberswithinthestar-likeapplicationtocreateaperceptionofdepth.Usuallydescribedinpercentages.Forexample;90-5-5.Thismeansthat90%ofthetotalfibersusedinthedisplaywillbeonesize,5%ofthefiberswillbeanothersizeandtheremaining5%areyetanothersize.
Section-Largeapplicationsaretypicallydividedintosectionsinordertocalculatehowmuchfiberwillberequiredfortheentireapplicationandtoensuremaximumlightoutputbasedonilluminatorlocation.Oftenreferredtoaszone.
beapproachedsothattheconsultantmaygainanunderstandingofhowthestar-likedisplaycanbespecifiedandinstalled.Theexamplesincludedbelowfocusspecificallyonaceilingdisplay,butthebasic
conceptscanberelatedtoalmostanyapplication.
TheStar-LikeDisplay,SelectingFiberType
Althoughanyfibermaybeusedinthedisplay,themajorityofstar-likedecorativeapplicationstendtoutilizesmallplasticfiber.Theabilitytocutthefiberatthejobsiteaswellasmaximizethenumberofpointsoflightthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatoraretwokeyreasonsforspecifyingsmallplasticfiber.Largeplasticfibermaybeappropriateforsomedesignsthatrequirelargerpointsoflightsuchasinhighceilingsorinareaswhereambientlightlevelsarehigh.Glassfibersareoftenspecifiedinapplicationsthatdemandabsolutelongevity.Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,differentfiberswillpossessesvaryinglighttransmittingcharacteristicsand
Page133
factorsrelatedtocostandinstallationtechniquesmayneedtobeaddressedbeforetheexactfiberisspecified.Thischapterwillfocusonassemblingthestar-likedisplayusingsmallplasticfiber,butmanyoftheconceptswillapplytoglassandlargeplasticfiberaswell.
Somemanufacturesrecommendaparticular"fibermix"whenspecifyingastar-likedisplay.Fibermixreferstovaryingthefibersizeswithintheapplicationinordertocreatelightpointsofdifferentsizes.Thiscreatesaperceptionofdepththatcloselyresemblesanactualstar-filledsky.Differentmanufacturerswillrecommenddifferentratiosoffibermixing,butatypicalfibermixwillconsistof90%ofthefibersusedintheapplicationbeingofonesize.Another5%ofthefiberswilloftenbethenextsizeup,andtheremaining5%willbeofanevenlargersize.Figure8-1illustratesanassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.
Figure8-1.Anassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.RowArepresentssmallplasticfiber.RowBrepresentslargeplasticfiber.
HowMuchFiberIsRequiredtoCreateaStar-LikeApplication?
Theamountoffiberrequiredwillbedeterminedbythesizeofthedisplay,thelocationoftheilluminator(s)andthefiber"density."Fiberdensityisthetermthatreferstothenumberofpointsoflightpersquarefootintheapplication.
Page134
Typicalapplicationswillemploy3to5pointsoflightpersquarefoot.Factorsthatmayinfluencefiberdensityareusuallyrelatedtotheoveralldesigngoal,butmayincludehowhightheceilingis,theneedtoincorporateuniquedesignsorshapesintothedisplay,andissuesrelatedtooverallsystemcosts.Figure8-2illustrateshowthetotalnumberoflightpointsaredeterminedbasedonaparticularfiberdensity.
The10x10footareamakinguseofafiberdensityof5willrequire500(100x5=500)pointsoflight.Thismeansthat500individualplasticfiberswillbeneededtoassemblethedisplay.Figure8-3illustrateshowfibersmountedinaceilingpanelcreatepointsoflight.
TheLocationoftheIlluminator
Thelocationoftheilluminatorwillsignificantlyinfluencetheamountoffiberthatisrequiredtomeetthelightingdesignobjective.Manufactureswilloftendeterminetheamountofplasticfiberneededfortheapplicationbyobtaininganoverall
Figure8-2.Thefirststepsindetermininghowmuchfiberisrequiredforatypicalstar-likedisplay.
Page135
Figure8-3.Dependingonthefiberdensity,atypical2'x4'areaofthestar-likedisplaywillmakeuseof25-40individualfiberstocreate25-40
pointsoflight.
averagefiberlengthbasedonilluminatorlocationandsizeofthedisplay.Oncethelocationoftheilluminatorisdetermined,theshortestandlongestfibersneededintheapplicationarecalculated.Thenextstepistoaddanadditionalamountoffibertoboththeshortestandlongestfiberrun.Theextrafiberwillallowtheinstallertoeasilymovethefiberaroundanyarchitecturalobstructionswhileprovidingenoughfibertoaccommodatefinishingcuts.Manufactureswilltypicallysuggestaddingthreetofivefeetofadditionalfibertoeveryfiberusedintheapplication.Oncetheshortestandlongestfibersaredetermined,andtheextrafiberisaddedtoeach,theaveragefiberlengthisobtained.Figure8-4illustratestheshortestandlongestfiberthatwillbeusedintheapplication.
CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheApplication
Thedesignercannowcalculatethetotalamountoffiberneededforthe10'x10'application.Basedontheilluminatorbeinglocatedwithinthedisplayareaandafiberdensityof5,multiplyingtheaveragefiberlength(6.25')bytherequirednumberoflightpoints(500)providesananswerof3,125.Thismeansthat3,125feetoffiberwillbeneededtocompletethisdisplay.Loweringthefiberdensitywillsignificantlyreducetheamountoffiberrequiredfortheapplication.Forexample,usingthesameareawithafiberdensityof3
reducesthetotal
Page136
Figure8-4.Theshortestandlongestfiberusedinthestar-likedisplay.
Figure8-5.Calculatingaveragefiberlength.
Page137
amountoffiberneededby1,175feetbecausemultiplyingtheaveragefiberlengthby300equals1950feet(6.5x300).Thismethodwillusuallyprovidethedesignerwithasolidguidelineforplanningtheamountoffiberneededtocompletethestar-likeapplication.Exactfiberneedswillbedeterminedbasedonspecificdesigncriteriaandwilloftenrequireinputfromthesystemmanufacture.
OptimumIlluminatorPlacement
Thedesignershouldnotethatlocatingtheilluminatorinanareaawayfromthedisplaywillincreasetheamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.Inaddition,iftheilluminatorislocatedataconsiderabledistancefromthedisplay,lightlossandcolorshiftmayoccur(seechapter4).Ifatallpossible,theilluminatorshouldbemountedwithintheapplicationifreducedfibercostsandmaximumlightoutputbasedonfiberdistancesaretoberealized.Figure8-6demonstrateshowtheamountoffiberneededtoassemblethedisplayincreasesastheilluminatorlocationmovesawayfromtheapplication.
TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorstoConsider
Theexamplesillustratedabovehavemadeuseofoneilluminatortocompletethedisplay.Therearemanyapplicationsthatwillrequirenumerousilluminatorsinordertomeetthelightingdesignobjectives.Theactualnumberofilluminatorsthatwillbeneededwilldependonmanyvariablesincludingthesizeofthedisplay,thefibersused,thefibermix,thenumberorportstheilluminatorpossessesandthesizeofthecommonend(s)thatwillattachtoeachilluminator.
TheSizeoftheDisplay
Calculatingthetotalpointsoflightrequiredforanyapplicationisbasedonmultiplyingtheareaofthedisplaybythe
Page138
Figure8-6.Locatingtheilluminatorawayfromthedisplaysignificantlyincreasestheamountof
fiberneedtocompletetheapplication.
fiberdensity.Thisexamplewillmakeuseofanareathatis100'x100'withafiberdensityof3.Thetotalareais10,000squarefeet(100'x100').Multiplying10,000bythefiberdensityof3equals30,000.Thismeanstherewillbe30,000pointsoflightinthedisplay.
TheNumberofFibersUsed
Basedonthe10,000-square-footareacalculatedaboveandafiberdensityof3,thisapplicationwillrequire30,000individualfiberstocompletethedisplay.
TheFiberMix
Sincemoststar-likedisplaysarecomposedofvaryingfibersizes,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountthatasthediameterofthefiberincreases,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatordecreases.
Page139
TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator
Asdiscussedinchaptertwo,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatorisgenerallybasedontheoverallsize(diameter)ofthefiberandthediameterofthecommonend.Forthepurposeofthisexamplewewillutilizeacommonendthatcanaccommodate1,000fibersofastandardfibermix.Dividingthetotallightpoints(30,000)bythenumberoffibersthatwillattachtothecommonend(1,000)givesthetotalnumberofone-portilluminatorsneededtocompletethedisplay.Forthisexample30illuminatorsarerequired(30,000/1,000=30.)
TheNumberofPorts
Manymanufacturersofferilluminatorsthathavemorethatoneport.Thenumberofilluminatorsneededinadisplaycanbesignificantlyreducedbasedonhowmanyportseachilluminatorpossess.Forexample,usingtheexampleabove,if30oneportilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedisplay,only15twoportilluminatorswillbeneeded.
LayingOuttheApplication
Thedesignermustconsiderthelocationofeachilluminatorusedintheapplicationinordertoensureageneralconsistencyoflightoutputthroughoutthedisplay.Typically,manufacturerswillsuggestdividingtheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedesign.Sinceitwasdeterminedthatthe10,000squarefootdisplaywillrequire30one-portilluminators,thelayoutapproachwillentaildividingthetotalareainto30individualsections.Figure8-7illustrateshowthetotalareaisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.
The30illuminatorsarenowlocatedintheindividualsectionsofthe
display.Iftwoportilluminatorswereused,15sectionswouldbedefined.Figure8-8illustrateshowilluminatorsarelocatedintheindividualsections.
Page140
Figure8-7.Thedisplayisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.
Figure8-8Locatingtheilluminatorsinindividualsections.
Page141
CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheLargerApplication.
Theproceduresfordeterminingthetotalamountoffiberneededforthelargerdisplayarethesameasthosethatareusedwhenonlyoneilluminatorisrequired.Averagefiberlengthisobtainedbasedonthelocationoftheilluminatorforeachindividualsection.Theaveragefiberlengthisthenmultipliedbytherequirednumberoflightpointsinthesection.Thisfigureisthenmultipliedbythetotalnumberofsectionsintheapplicationandequalstheamountoffiberneededtocompletethedisplay.Manyapplicationswilldivideintosectionsthatarenotalwaysthesamesize.Whenthisoccursindividualsectiontotalscanbeaddedtogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededfortheapplication.Figure8-9Illustratestheshortestandlongestfibersinasection.Usingthisexample,oncethefiberneedsaredeterminedforonesection,itwillbemultipliedby30(thetotalnumberofsections)toobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededforthedisplay.
Figure8-9.Theshortestandlongestfibersinthesection.
Page142
CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula:
Thefollowingformulareviewsthestepsandproceduresintroducedabove.Thesestepsshouldbeusedasaguidelineforplanningtheapplication.Actualfiberandilluminatorneedsshouldbedeterminedinconjunctionwiththesystemorfibermanufacturer.
HowManyFibersWilltheStar-LikeDisplayRequire?
A)Obtainthesquarefeetofthedisplayarea.
B)Determinefiberdensity.Howmanypointsoflightarerequiredpersquarefootofdisplay?
C)Multiplythesquarefeetoftheapplicationbythefiberdensity.
Thisnumberwillequalthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication.
HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?
A)Obtainthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication(seeabove).
B)Atthespecifiedfibermix,determinethemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.(Mayrequireinputfrommanufacturer.)
C)Dividethetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplicationbythemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.
Thisnumberwillequalhowmanyone-portilluminatorsareneededtocompletetheapplication.
Page143
WhatIstheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?
A)Determinethelocationoftheilluminator
B)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedintheapplicationbasedonlocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.
C)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.
D)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoints(fibers)intheapplication.
Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
ForLargerApplications:
A)Iftheapplicationrequiresmultipleilluminators,dividetheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequired.
B)Determinethelocationoftheilluminatorforeachsectioninthedisplay
C)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedinthesectionbasedonthelocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.
D)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.
E)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoint(fibers)inthesection.
Page144
Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletethesection
F)Ifallofthesectionsintheapplicationareofequalsizesandlightpoints,multiplythesectiontotalbythenumberofsectionsintheapplication.Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
G)Ifthesectionsareofvaryingsizes,addtheindividualsectiontotalstogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
InstallingtheStar-LikeDisplay.
Thefollowingstepsareincludedinthischaptertoprovidethedesignerwithgeneralinformationrelatedtoinstallingthestar-likeapplication.Thisinformationwillallowthedesignertoincorporateinstallationrequirementsintothelayoutandspecificationprocess.Theexactinstallationrequirementsshouldbeobtainedfromthesystemmanufacturer.
TheIlluminator
Asdiscussedaboveandinpreviouschapters,theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedperallpertinentcodesandguidelinessuppliedbythemanufacturer.
Moststar-likeapplicationsmakeuseofilluminatorsthatcontainalowvoltagehalogenlampofaparticularwattage.Illuminatorspossessingmorethanoneportwillcontainmorethanonelamp.Whendevelopingtheapplicationlayout,thedesignershouldtakeintoaccountthephysicalandoperationalcharacteristicsoftheilluminator.Figure8-10illustratesaoneandtwo-portilluminator.Someilluminatorswillpossessmultipleports.
Ventilation
Themajorityofilluminatorsusedinthestar-likeapplicationarecooledbyfan.Theilluminatormustbeinstalledso
Page145
Figure8-10.Aone-andtwo-portilluminator.
thatproperaircirculationisalwaysmaintained.Manufacturerssupplyguidelinesastohowcloseilluminatorsshouldbelocatedtoparticularsurfacesandotherilluminatorsusedintheapplication.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelines.Keepinmindthatcoolingfanswillmakeacertainamountofnoise.
AccesstotheLampandComponents
Illuminatorsmustbemountedsothatmaintenancepersonnelhaveeasyaccesstothelampandothersystemcomponents.Thecomponentsareoftenaccessedbyremovingorliftingthetoppaneloftheilluminator.Whenconsideringilluminatorlocation,thedesignermustallowenoughclearanceroomforanymovingparts.Figure8-11illustrateshowlampsandothercomponentsareaccessedinmanyilluminators.
Figure8-11.
Thedesignermusttakeintoaccountanymovingpartswhenlocatingthe
illuminator.
Page146
IlluminatorMountingAccessories
AsdiscussedinChapter6,somesystemandcomponentmanufacturesofferilluminatormountingaccessories.Theseaccessoriesareusedtosecurelymounttheilluminatorinareaswherenoappropriatemountingsurfacesareavailable.Figure8-12illustratesanilluminatormountingbracketthatcanbeusedindropceilingsorbetweenarchitecturalsupportsbasedonthemanufacturer'smountingguidelines.
Figure8-12.Anilluminatormountingbracket
InstallingtheFibers
Formanystar-likeapplicationsthesystemcomponentsarriveatthejobsitewithallofthefibersalreadyattachedtotheappropriatecommonend(s).Thismeansthatthefactorywherethecomponentsweremanufacturedassembledthesystembasedonmanyoftheproceduresintroducedabove.Themanufacturerwilloftensupplyamapindicatingwhatcommonendgoeswithwhatilluminatorandwhatfiberwithinthecommonendgoestowhatareaofthedisplay.Thisisparticularlyhelpfulwhenmultipleilluminatorsareused.Iftheapplicationisnotpreparedbythemanufacturer,theinstaller(s)willassemblethecommonend(s)basedonmanyoftheproceduresoutlinedinChapter5.Ineithercase,thefollowingparagraphswilloutlinesomeoftheinstallationtechniquesrequiredtoinstallthe
displayafterthecommonend(s)havebeenassembled.Asmentionedearlier,thestar-likedisplaycanbemountedinalmostanymedium.Thestepslistedbelowillus-
Page147
trateinstallationinastandarddropceiling.However,theprocedurescanbeappliedtoalmostanymaterial.Figure8-13illustratesanilluminatorandcommonend.
Figure8-13.Thestar-likedisplayfiberopticcomponents.
BeginningtheInstallation
Oncetheilluminator(s)andcommonend(s)arematchedtothecorrectsectionsofthedisplay,theilluminator(s)canbemounted.Mounttheilluminatorbasedonallmanufacturer'sguidelinesandaccordingtoallelectricalcodes.Itisnotrecommendedthatthecommonend(s)beattachedtotheilluminator(s)atthistime.
TheCeilingPanels
Theceilingpanelscannowbepreparedforthefibers.Theinstaller(s)shouldbeveryfamiliarwiththeexactfiberplan.Althoughthemajorityofstar-likeapplicationsplacethefibersinrandomlocationsthroughouttheapplication,someapplicationswillfollowadefinitepattern.Mostmanufacturerssuggestthatatleasttwopeopleareinvolvedintheinstallationprocess.
Holesarecreatedintheceilingtilesasperthespecifiedfiberdensity.Thismeansifafiberdensityof4wasspecified,4holespersquarefootwillbeprepared.Generally,holesaredrilledusinga1/16''drill
bit.Theinstallershouldpracticedrillingintotheceilingtilebeforetheactualinstallationprocessbe-
Page148
gins.Aftertheholesareprepared,theceilingpanelsaremountedintheceilingframe.Itisoftenrecommendedthatafewpanelsbepreparedatatimeandthepanelslocatedthegreatestdistancefromthesectionilluminatorbeinstalledfirst.Figure8-14illustratesthepreparedceilingpanelsbeinginstalled.
Figure8-14.Installingtheceilingpanels.
Afterthefirstfewceilingtilesareinstalled,thecommonendcontainingallofthefibersrequiredinthesectionisbroughttothedisplay.Althoughthecommonendcanbeattachedtotheilluminatoratanytime,itisofteneasiertoinstallthedisplaywithoutthecommonendattached.Thisallowsforacertainamountofflexibilitywhenmovingandinstallingindividualfibers.Theindividualfibersareinsertedintothepreparedholesfromabovesothatafewinchesofeachfiberextendstowardthefloor.Figure8-15demonstrateshowfibersareinsertedintothepanels.
Oncethefirstfewpanelsareinstalledandalloftheappropriatefibersinserted,thefibersaregluedintoplacefromabove.Onlygluethathasbeenapprovedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Figure8-16demonstrateswherethefibershouldbeglued.
Page149
Figure8-15.Insertingthefibersintotheceilingpanels.
Figure8-16.Gluingthefibersintoplace.
Additionalceilingpanelscanbepreparedwhilethegluedries.Continueinstallingtheceilingpanelsuntiltheentiresectioniscompleted.Iftheceilingistobepainted,somemanufacturer'srecommendthatitbedonewhilethefibersareintheextendedpositionasillustratedinFigure8-17.Paintingshouldnotbedoneuntilthegluehasthoroughlycured.
Figure8-17.Completingthesection.Paintingshouldtakeplace
afterthegluehasdriedwiththefibersintheextendedposition.
Page150
Onceanynecessarypaintingiscompetedthefiberscanbecutsothattheyareflushwiththeceiling.Thefibersusedinthestar-likedisplaycanbecutwithavarietyoftoolssuchasanelectroniccutteroranyothersharpblade.Somemanufacturersincludeacutterwiththesystempackage.Figure8-18illustratesthecompletedstar-likedisplay.
Figure8-18.Thefibersarecutsotheyareflushwiththeceiling.
GlassFibers
Star-likedisplaysemployingglassfibersaretypicallypre-assembledatthefactorywherethesystemismanufactured.Whiledisplaysmakinguseofplasticfiberrequireonefibertoprovideapointoflight,numerousglassfibersarebundledtogethertoformindividualtails.Eachtailwillprovideapointoflight.
Thesesystemsaregenerallyspecifiedbasedonmanyofthestepsoutlinedinthischapter.Whenglassfibersareemployedinastar-likedisplay,theentiresystemgenerallyarrivesatthejobsitereadytobeinstalled.Manufacturerssupplydetailedinstallationguidelinesforeachapplicationandnocuttingisrequired.
Manymanufacturersofglassfibersystemsofferastandardstar-likedisplaypackage.Thesesystemstendtobeshippedquicklybecausetheyarepre-built.Designersgenerallyspecifythesesystemsforparticularareasbasedonthenumberoftailsincludedinthepackage.
Page151
Chapter9PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination
WheretofromHere?
Itwasstatedintheintroductionthat"thefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth."Thedesignershouldrealizethatthisgrowthcannotbeoveremphasized.
MoreApplications
Lightingapplicationsmakinguseoffiberopticsareincreasingatanastoundingrate.Refrigeratedareas,Navyships,medicalenvironmentsandlocationsthatareeasilyvandalizedarebutafewofthenewestinstallationstakingplace.Theautomotiveindustryisexperimentingwithfiberopticsfortheinteriorandexteriorlightingofautomobiles.Similarexperimentsareoccurringinallaspectsofthetransportationindustry,withfiberopticsystemsalreadyinstalledinairplanes,shipsandtrains.Studiesrelatedtopotentialapplicationsareconstantlyoccurring.
IndustryGrowth
Intheearly'90s,tradeshowsdevotedtolightingfeaturedonlyasmallnumberofcompaniesrepresentingfiberopticssystems.Atthe1997LightFairInternational,therewerenumerouscompaniesshowinganextensivearrayoffiberopticlightingproducts.Newsystems,accessoriesandevencompa-
Page152
niesmanufacturingfiberopticcomponentshaveincreaseddramaticallyinthelastfewyears.
Somecompanieshavealwaysmanufacturedentiresystems(illuminators,fibersandaccessories),whileothershavemanufacturedonlyfiberorparticularsystemaccessories.Manyofthenewercompaniesarequitespecializedandmanufactureonlyilluminatorsorfixturestobeusedwithcomponentsthatareproducedbyothers.Thegrowththathasbeenoccurringinthefieldcanbeattributedtothetechnologicaladvancementsrealizedbyalmosteverycompanyinvolvedintheproductionoffiberopticsystemsorcomponents.
AttenuationImprovements
Advancementsrelatedtoreducingattenuationareallowinglighttotravelfartherdistancesinfibers.Afewyearsago,dependingonthelightingdesignrequirements,thegenerallypublishedfigurerelatedtohowfarlightshouldtravelinanend-emittingfiberaveraged30feet.Althoughissuesrelatedtowavelengthabsorptionarealwaysanimportantfactorinfiberopticlightingdesign,todaymanymanufacturerswillstatethat60feetistheacceptabledistance.
OpticalControl
Considerableimprovementshavealsobeenmadeintheareaofopticalcontrol.Theabilitytofocusmorelightontotheinputendsofthefibershasincreasedefficiencyinmanysystems.Asanexample,Chapter7includesacasestudyofthefiberopticinstallationattheHardRockCafeatUniversalStudiosinFlorida.Theoriginalsystemwasdesignedutilizing11illuminators,eachcontaininga400Wmetalhalidelamp.Atthetimeofthiswriting,theentireinstallationisbeingrelampedtoreplacethe400Wlampswithametalhalidelampthatdraws150watts.Thereflectorsusedinthesystemhavebeennewlydesignedsothatmorelightfromthelampentersthefibers.The
manufacturerclaimsthatthebrightnesslevelsachievedbyusingthenewreflectorsareequivalenttothelevelsthatwereobtainedwiththe400Wlamp.
Page153
LightSourceDevelopment
Evenwithreducedattenuationandbetteropticalcontrol,itisintheareaoflightsourcedevelopmentwhereanincredibleamountofsuccessisbeingrealized.Lampdesignhasbecomeapriorityinmostcompaniesconcernedwithmanufacturingfiberopticilluminationsystemsorcomponents.Tremendoussuccesshasbeenobtainedutilizingsulfurlamptechnology.Althoughstillintheexperimentalstage,therearesomeilluminatorsbeingmanufacturedutilizingasulfurlampasthesourceoflight.Thislamphasallowedfortheentireilluminatortobere-designed.Onecompanyusingthislamptechnologyhasdevelopedaprototypeilluminatorthatcontains53individualports.Thisilluminatorisnotyetavailabletothedesigner,butresultsofpreliminarytestinghavebeenextremelyimpressive.Asadvancementsandcontinuedsuccessoccursintheareaoflightsourcedevelopment,designerswillhavetheoptiontoutilizefiberopticsinanextraordinaryamountofeverydaylightingapplications.
TheNeedforMoreEducation
Evenwiththeextraordinarygrowthoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticillumination,thereremainsveryfewwaystoeffectivelyandobjectivelylearnaboutthissubject.Currently,themainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnologyisavailablebymeansoftheliteratureproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Itshouldbenotedthatagreatdealofthisguidewaswrittenusingarticlesandproductinformationsubmittedbythefiberopticmanufacturingcommunity.Informationcollectedincludedproductandsystemdescriptions,installationinformationandtechnicalreports.Inthefallof1995,aconferencewasheldinBostononthesubjectof"PlasticOpticalFibers"andincluded,forthefirsttime,seminarsonplasticfibersusedforilluminationpurposes.Papersandinformationpresentedandavailableatthisconferencewerealsousedinwriting
thisguide.Additionalmaterialswerecollectedfromlightingdesignerswhohaveworkedwithand/orresearched
Page154
fiberopticlightingsystemsaswellasfrominterviewswithindividualsworkinginthefieldoffiberoptics.Thereislittleotherinformationavailablethatspecificallyaddresseslightingdesignutilizingthistechnology.Therefore,themanybrochuresofferingvaryingamountsofinformationrelatedtoparticularsystemsandcomponentsbecomeakeysourceforeducation.
ItwasstatedintheIntroductionthatthespecificgoalofthisbookwastoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingoffiberopticillumination.Thisbasicunderstandingisvitalifthepromotionalliteraturesuppliedbythefiberopticindustryistobeusedasatrueeducationaltool.Itisextremelyimportanttonote,however,thatthemajorityoftheliteraturethatiscurrentlyavailableoriginatesfromcompaniesorindividualswhoaredirectlyassociatedwithpromotingparticularproductsorsystems.Therefore,thistypeofliteratureisoftenriddledwithinformationdesignedtopromoteratherthaneducate.Studyingoneortwocompanybrochures,orevenmorecompletepublicationsauthoredbyindividualswithinthefiberopticcommunity,willneverofferthereaderenoughinformationtomakeaneducatedchoiceastowhatsystemmaybethebestforaparticularapplication.Evenliteraturewhichappearstobetheresultofthoroughresearchandcomparesparticularproductsdoesnotofferthereaderenoughinformation.Marketingliteratureconsistingofcomparedsystemsmayillustrateoneambiguouspositiveaspectaboutacompetitorsproductwhilealsodescribingseveraloverlydetailednegativeaspects.
LookingattheBenefitsObjectively
Almostallpromotionalliteraturewillincludestatementsaboutthedirectbenefitsoffiberopticilluminationsystems.Thesestatementsusuallyincludetheabilitytoprovidelightthatisfilteredofcertainwavelengths,noheatattheilluminatedsurface,flexibilityindesign,
andincreasedoptionsrelatedtocreatingspecialeffects.AsdiscussedintheIntroduc-
Page155
tion,however,manystatementsincludedinpromotionalliteratureallowforacertainamountofconfusiontooccur.
"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy"
Therearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavebeeninstalledtoreplaceatraditionallightingsystem.Insomeoftheseapplications,energycostshavebeenreduced.Butpromotionalliteraturethatincludesstatementsclaimingsavingsinenergycostsmustbeviewedwithacertainamountofskepticism.Therearefactorsrelatedtoenergycoststhatneedtobeconsideredforeachspecificapplicationandwillincludeissuesrelatedtothelightingefficiencyoftheformersystemversestheefficiencyofthefiberopticsystem.AsdiscussedinChapter4,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightemittedfromthelampwillreachthedesignedenvironment.Insomedesigns,lightcomingfromthefibersanddirectedtoprecisepointsmayprovetobemuchmoreefficientthanthegenerallightingprovidedbyatraditionalsystem.Inmanydesigns,however,theamountoflightlost,combinedwiththeoverallenergyconsumed,makefiberopticsystemsarelativelypoorlightingchoice.
Otherfactorswillincludeissuesrelatedtotheenvironment'sHVACsystem.Becauseheatismanagedatalocationawayfromtheilluminatedsurfaces,lessairconditioningmayberequiredinthedesignedenvironmentthanwhenatraditionallightingsystemisutilized.Butthesepotentialenergysavingswillalsobebaseduponthespecificrequirementsoftheapplication,andwillincludefactorsrelatedtotheefficiencyoftheHVACsysteminuse.
"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"
AsdiscussedinChapter1,changingonelampinaneasilyaccessiblelocationwillrequirelesstimethanchangingmultiplelamps.However,thehoursworkedbymaintenancestaffmaynotalwaysbe
reducedbecauseafiberopticsystemisinstalled.AsdiscussedinChapter4,dirtanddustaccumulatingwithinoronthecomponentsofafiberopticsystemwill
Page156
reducetheirefficiencytremendously.Someapplicationswillrequireanextensivemaintenanceprograminordertoensurethatanadequateandevenlightoutputismaintained.Similartoanypotentialsavingsinenergy,reductionsinmaintenancecostswillberealizedonlyinparticularapplications
Chapter7introducedanapplicationwherebothenergyandmaintenancecostswerereducedafterafiberopticsystemwasinstalled.TheConEdisonClockTowerreplacedatraditionallightingsystemandsignificantreductionsinenergyconsumptionandmaintenancecostswererealized.Theinitialcostofafiberopticsystemiscurrentlyhigherthanthecostofatraditionallightingsystem.However,inapplicationswhereenergyandmaintenancecostsarereduced,theoriginalhigherpricecanoftenbeoffsetoveraperiodoftime.Anyreductioninenergyormaintenancecostswillbedeterminedbytheexactsystemandcomponentsutilized,buttherearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavepaidforthemselvesinarelativelyshortperiodoftimebyreducingthesecosts.
PhotometricData
Photometricdataisanareaofcompanyliteraturethatthedesignershouldpayparticularattentionto.Althoughnotallcompaniesprovidephotometricreportsintheirstandardliterature,companiesthatdoprovidethisinformationtendtodevelopstandardprocedureswhencompilingreportsrelatedtotheirownproducts.Differentcompaniesmayuseatotallydifferentsetofcriteriatoobtaintheirresults,however.Itbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,forthedesignertocomparetheefficiencyofvarioussystemswhendifferentstandardsareusedtoobtainphotometricinformation.
Fiberspeak
Anadditionalareathatmaycauseconfusionwhenreadingvariouspromotionalliteraturecanbefoundinindustryvocabularydifferences.Manufacturersandrepresentativesdonotalwaysusethesamewordstodescribethesamebasicpieceof
Page157
equipment.Somecompanyinformationwilldescribeacomponentutilizingaparticulartermwhileotherswillcallthesamebasicpieceofequipmentsomethingentirelydifferent.
ThedifficultiesthedesignerexperiencespertainingtoavariedindustryvocabularyandinconsistentphotometricdatahasbeenrecognizedbytheLightingIndustryResourceCounciloftheInternationalAssociationofLightingDesigners(IALD).TheRemoteSourceLightingCommitteewasformedtodevelopaseriesofstandardizationmaterialstobeusedinthefiberopticlightingindustry.AccordingtoanarticlewrittenbyKenYarnell,IALD,IESandpublishedinthe1996January/FebruaryIssueofArchitecturalLighting,thefirstsuccessfuleffortsofthiscommitteewereinestablishingastandardlistofvocabularyforunderstandingandtalkingabout''remotesourcelighting."Thesetermsincludemanythathavebeenusedinthisbook(andobtainedfromYarnell'sarticle)suchas"illuminator"and"ferrule."Thiscommitteehasbeenreferredtoinotherpapersbut,asofthiswriting,anyadditionalinformationrelatedtotheworkofthecommitteeappearstobeunavailableorincomplete.Giventheamountofmarketingandpromotionalmaterialscurrentlycirculatingrelatedtofiberopticillumination,itseemsthatimplementingthefindingsofthecommitteewhateverthesefindingsmaybethroughouttheentireindustrymaytakeconsiderabletime.
TheRoleoftheSalesRep
Salesrepresentativescanalsobeusedasasourceforeducation.However,designersseekingadviceandinformationfromcertainrepresentativesmaynotgainabetterunderstandingthanthosewhostudyonlycompanypromotionalliterature.Althoughtherearerepresentativeswhopossessagreatdealofknowledgerelatedtothissubject,thereareotherswhodonottotallyunderstandallofthetechnologyinvolvedwithfiberopticillumination.And,similarlyto
readingcertaincompanypromotionalmaterials,whenspeakingwithparticularrepresentatives,itcanbedifficulttosortoutwhatisabsolutefact
Page158
verseswhatmaybeacustomizedsalesprogram.Inflatedclaimsofproductsuperioritycombinedwiththedowngradingofcompetingproductsissomewhatcommonintheindustry.
GettingtheBestResults
Itmustbestatedthattherearenumerousfiberopticinstallationsthathavefailedintheirabilitytoprovidethedesiredlightingresults.Therearemanyreasonswhyafiberopticsystemmaynotperformasanticipatedbythedesignerorend-user.Inmostcases,thisfailurecanbeattributedtoeitherthewrongsystembeingselectedfortheparticularprojectorthedesigner'sgenerallackofunderstandingrelatedtothelimitationsofthetechnologyinvolved.
Thereareoptionsavailabletoassistthedesignerinlearningmoreaboutproductandsystemlimitations.Certaincompanieswillsupplythedesignerwithtechnicalpackagesthatofferspecificguidelinesrelatedtocomponentlimitations.However,evenwhenworkingwiththebestprintedtechnicalinformation,itisalmostimpossibleforthedesignertocompletelydevelopanentiredesignwithoutsubstantialinputfromsystemmanufacturers.Almostallmanufacturershaveengineersandtechnicalpeopleavailabletoassistinansweringquestionsrelatedtopotentialdesignsandproductlimitations.Speakingwithcompanytechnicalpeopleshoulddetermineifaparticularcomponentorsystemisrightforaparticularapplication.Itisnotuncommonformanufacturestoreferdesignerstoanothercompanywhoseproductsmaybebettersuitedtotheparticularapplicationbeingdiscussed.Inaddition,sometechniciansmayadvisethatamock-uptakeplacetodetermineifthesystemwillperformtothespecificrequirementsofthedesign.
Mock-Ups
Manydesignersperformmock-upsofanentireprojectbeforethe
actualsystemisspecified.Itisoftendifficulttovi-
Page159
sualizewhatcharacteristicsafiberopticsystemwillofferwithoutfirstworkingwiththesysteminanenvironmentwhereitcanbemanipulatedandtestedtomeettheneedsofaparticulardesign.Workingandexperimentingwithvarioussystemsisanexcellentwaytomakecomparisonsonwhatsystemscanofferthebestresultsforparticularapplications.
GettingInformationfromtheInternet
TheInternethasrecentlybecomeasourceofinformationrelatedtofiberopticillumination.Mostcompanies,aswellasmanyindependentdesignersworkingwithfiberoptics,haveWebpagesdevotedtotheirproductsandservices.Althoughmainlyservingasmarketingtools,somecompaniesdoofferacertaindegreeofeducationalinformation.Manycompaniesincludephotographsofilluminators,fibersandfixtures.Applicationphotographsareoftenincluded.TheseWebsitesareaccessiblebysearchingtheWebutilizingthecompany'snameorbysearchingunder"fiberopticlighting"andmovingaroundfromthere.
HowDidItWork?
Obtainingreferencesfromend-usersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsisanexcellentwaytolearnmoreaboutparticularsystemsandmanufacturers.Themajorityofcompanypromotionalliteratureprovidesalistingofcompaniesthathaveutilizedtheirproducts.Contactingindividualsandaskingquestionsrelatedtooverallsystemperformancecouldprovidevaluableinformationwhenconsideringaparticularsystem.
Companiesarenottheonlyplacetoobtainreferences.Everydesignerorarchitectwhohasworkedwithfiberopticshasastorytotell.Theseindividualsaremorethanwillingtosharetheirstoriesrelatedtoparticularinstallations.Theabilitytohearfirsthandofactual
successesandproblemsrelatedtoprojectdesign,communicationwithmanufacturersandrepresentatives,aswellasoverallexpectationsversusactualresultsallowsforalearningexperiencethatcouldneverbereal-
Page160
izedbystudyingprintedmaterialsalone.Obtainingreferenceswithdesignerswhoareworkingwithorhaveworkedwithvariousproductsisanextremelyinterestingwayoflearningmoreaboutthistechnology.
MoreInformationIsNeeded
Clearly,thereisaneedformuchmoreinformationonthesubjectoffiberopticillumination.Readingpromotionalliteratureandengaginginconversationswithrepresentatives,technicalpeopleandfellowdesignersdoesnotprovidenearlyenoughinformationinorderforthedesignertomasterthissubject.Designersshouldnothavetorelyoncompanypromotionalliteratureasthemainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnology.Thedesigncommunityisinneedofadditionaleducationalmaterials.
Thefirststepfollowingthedevelopmentofstandardsrelatedtothissubjectistocallupontheprofessionalsintheindustrytoeducatethedesignerswhowillbeworkingwiththistechnology.Personseducatedinthissubjectneedtocommunicatemorewiththelightingdesigncommunitythroughqualitynon-biasedwritings,seminarsandconferences.Educatorswhoteachcoursesinlightingdesignmustthoroughlyfamiliarizethemselveswiththistechnology.OrganizationssuchastheIALDandtheDesignersLightingForumneedtoexpandtheireffortsindevelopingunderstandableprogramstoeducateandpromotethistechnologytotheirmembers.Studentsandprofessionalsinvolvedinlightingdesignneedtobeinformedbymeansofliteraturethatisdevelopedspecificallyforeducationalpurposes.Onlywhendesignersandusersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsbecomefamiliarwiththistechnologybasedonqualityeducationwillthemysterysurroundingfiberopticilluminationcompletelydisappear.
Page161
BiblographyofSourcesAnson,Gordon,O.,"FiberOptics:AnIdeaWhoseTimeHasCome,"OnTrackNewsletterfromLightingServicesInc.,StonyPoint,NY:Volume6,Issue2,Fall1995.
Audin,Lindsay,"TheLatestonFiber-OpticLightingTechnologies,"ArchitecturalRecord,May1995.
Bowers,Larry,V.,MuseumSpecialist,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior."DevelopmentsinFiberOpticLighting."Photocopied.
Crawford,Laurie,"LowProfileLightingGetsaHighProfile,"ExhibitBuilder,November/December1995.
Drew,Thomas,E.,DramaLighting,"America'sSmithsonian(As-BuiltDrawings),"NewYork,NY,1996.(Confidential,ProprietaryInformation).TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
EdisonHaloLighting.FibreOpticLighting.Tongwell,MiltonKeynes,UnitedKingdom,1992.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Eurotec,SchottEurotecFibremOptics,FibreOpticTransportLightingforLightingSystemsontheMove.Doncaster,England,CompanyInformationSheet.
FiberopticSystems,Inc.LightforCustomApplications.SimiValley,CA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Page162
Fiberstars.TheIlluminator.Fremont,CA1995.CompanyInformationSheet.
Fiberstars.FiberOpticLightingArchitecturalAccentsLandscapesInteriors.Brochure#FOL2.Fremont,CA1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Fiberstars.ColorChangeOptions.Fremont,CA1995.CompanyInformationSheet.
FibreOpticsInternational,Inc.,Seattle,Washington.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Fischer,John,"FiberOptics,ANewLightingAlternative?NotReally,"VisualMerchandisingandStoreDesign,November1995.
GELightEngine.ApplicationGuide.Cleveland,Ohio:GeneralElectricLighting,1992.
Glass,Alstair,M.,"FiberOptics,"PhysicsToday,October1993.
"How'sThisForaBrightIdea,Mr.Edison?",DupontMagazine,March/April1996.
Huber,John,C.,Ph.D.,"UnderstandingFiberOptics:TheBasics,"PlantEngineering,December1993.
Huber,John,C.,Ph.D.,"UnderstandingFiberOptics:TerminatingCable,"PlantEngineering,August1994.
Hughes,Robert,ProductManager,LightingandTrafficSystems,NorthAmerica,SchottFiberOpticsInc.Interviewbytheauthor,29July,1996,Southbridge,MA.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
Page163
Hughes,Robert,ProductManager,SchottCMLFiberOpticsLLC.Interviewbytheauthor,manuscriptdraftcritique.June1997,Marlborough,MA.
IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.IlluminationTechnologies.EastSyracuse,NY,October1992.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Jankowski,Wanda,"ConEdisonClocks'Energy-SavingFacelift,"ArchitecturalLightingMagazine,April/May1994.
Jaquet,Patrick.LetterfromPatrickJaquet,PresidentofOptectron,Inc.totoZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY,1992.
Kay,Gersil,N.WhatisGlassFibre-OpticsArchitecturalLighting?ConservationLightingInternational,Philadelphia,PA,1995.
Kay,Gersil,N.LetterfromGersilKay,president,ConservationLightingInternational,Ltd.toZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY,1995.
Libson,Hyla,"TutorialFiberOpticDisplays,"paperpresentedattheBostonPOFConference,October1995.GrantsPass,Oregon:FibreopticLighting,Inc.
LightingServicesInc.FiberOpticLighting.StonyPoint,NY,April,1994.CompanyInformationCatalog.
LightlyExpressed,Ltd.FiberOpticLightingSpecialists.Salem,VA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Page164
LumenyteInternationalCorporation.IlluminationFiberOpticsSince1980.CostaMesa,CA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
MoritexU.S.A.Incorporated.FiberOpticIlluminationSystems.SanDiego,CA.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Mangum,Scott,R.GELightingApplicationBulletin:"OpticalFiberIlluminationSystems."Cleveland,Ohio,1995.
Mangum,Scott,R.,"PlasticOpticalFiberandIllumination,"paperpresentedattheBoston,MA:POF95IlluminationConference,October1995.
Mangum,Scott,R.,DirectorofApplicationEngineering&Development,RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.,SanJuanCapistrano,CA.Manuscriptdraftcritique,July1997.
Miller,RuthEllen.LetterfromRuthEllenMiller,ofNoUVIRResearch,Seaford,DE,totheauthor,July4,1996.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
MitsubishiRayonCo.Ltd.TechnicalBulletinEskaCables(1).Tokyo,Japan:MitsubishiRayonCo.Ltd.,FiberOpticsDept.,1982.
Muehlemann,Michael.ThePhotonicsDesignandApplicationsHandbook."OpticalFibersforIllumination,"1991.
Muehlemann,Michael,M.,President,IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.,E.Syracuse,NY.Manuscriptdraftcritique,July1997.
Newman,Craig,"ALookatWhyFiberOpticsWork,"StarfireNews,JerseyCity,NJ:Volume1,No3.Companynewsletter.
Page165
NoUVIR.NoUVIRResearchCatalog.Seaford,DE,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Nuckolls,James,L.InteriorLightingforEnvironmentalDesigners,2nded.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1983.
OCLIOpticalCoatingsLtd.OCLIFilters:Dicro,ControllingLight&Color.RidgeWay,Scotland,UK,1993.CompanyInformationSheets.
OptectronInc.,PMMA-PlasticOpticalFibersandCables,GeneralPresentation,Raynham,MA,1991.CompanyInformationSheets.
PinpointFibreopticsDisplayIllumination.FiberOpticLightingSystems.BeverlyHills,CA.CompanyInformationCatalog.
POFNewsletter,Business,Volume4,Number4.Gatekeepers,Inc.,July/August,1995.
RemoteSourceLightingInternationalIncorporated.SanJuanCapistrano,CA,1997.CompanyInformationSheets.
RohmandHaasCompany.IlluminatingTheFuture.Philadelphia,PA,1995.CompanyInformationSheets.
RohmandHaasCompany.OptiFlexLightPipeFabricationandInstallationTechniques.Philadelphia,PA,1995.
SchottFiberOptics,"FusedFibreOpticFaceplates,"ImageInverters;StepPlates;RadiusPlates;StripPlates;HydrogenfiredPlates.Southbridge,MA,May,1994.CompanyInformationSheets.
SchottFiberOptics,SchottInternalPaper,"ComparisonGlassvs.POF-StatusNovember'95,"ConfidentialInformation.
Page166
1995.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
SchottFiberOptics,Schottlite,FiberOpticLightingfromSchott,SchottGlaswerke,FiberOpticsDivision,Wiesbaden,Germany.
SchottFiberOptics,SchottProgram,"LightingWithFibreOptics,ASchottGroupPresentation,"July,1995,Southbridge,MA.
Schwartz,Bonnie,"MappingItOut&PuttingItTogether:TheInstallationofaFiberOpticCeiling,"StarfireNews,JerseyCity,NJ:Volume1,No3.Companynewsletter.
Sease,Catherine,"LightPiping:ANewLightingSystemforMuseumCases,"JournaloftheAmericanInstituteforConservation,1993.
Sikkens,M.andAnsems,J.P.M.,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"InternationalLightingReview,March1993.
SumitaOpticalGlass,Inc.OpticalGlass&FiberOpticsGuide.Saitama,Japan,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Sorvig,Kim,"NewLightontheLandscape,"LandscapeArchitecture,August1993.
SuperVisionInternational,Inc.FiberOpticLighting.Orlando,Florida,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Timson,PaulandGregson,Barry.FibreOpticLightingandSensingTechnology.Doncaster,DN24SQ:EurotecFibreOpticsLimited,1994.
TorayIndustriesInc.HighPurity&HighQualityPF/PGSe-
Page167
riesRaytelaPolymerOpticalFiber.NewYork,NY.CompanyInformationCatalog.
TPREnterprises,Ltd.TheMostCompleteandVersatileFiberOpticProductLineintheWorld.Mamaroneck,NY.CompanyInformationCatalog.
VandeVelde,Pamela.LetterfromPamelaVandeVelde,ofPinpointFibreoptics,BeverlyHills,CA,totheauthor,February27,1996.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
VandeVelde,PamelaLetterfromPamelaVandeVelde,ofPinpointFibreoptics,BeverlyHills,CA,totheauthorandMr.ZackZanolli,March14,1996.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
VandeVelde,Pamela,PinpointFibreoptics,BeverlyHills,CA.Manuscriptdraftcritique,June1997.
Yarnell,Kenneth,E.,''RemoteSourceLightingUpClose,"ArchitecturalLightingMagazine,January/February1996.
Page169
AppendixIIASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentativesCableLiteCorporation15510WrightBrothersDriveDallas,TX75244-2137Tel:972-239-5483Fax:972-239-5489
ConservationLightingInternationalLtd.1901WalnutStreet,Suite9BPhiladelphia,PA19103Tel:215-568-0923Fax:215-568-4572
DramaLighting,Inc.49AyerRoadAmherst,NY14221Tel:716-626-9300Fax:716-626-1055
EdmundScientific101EastGloucesterPikeBarrington,NJ08007Tel:609-573-6250Fax:609-573-6295
Page170
FiberopticSpecialties,Inc.P.O.Box215Ellenton,Florida34222Tel:800-523-5520Fax:813-723-1441
Fiberstars,Inc.2883BayviewDriveFremont,CA94538Tel:800-327-7877510-490-0719Fax:510-490-3247
FiberOpticsInternational,Inc.309SouthCloverdaleStreetSuiteD-2Seattle,Washington98018Tel:206-762-2922Fax:206-762-3503
GELightEngineGELightingNelaPark#5438Cleveland,Ohio44112Tel:216-266-6876Fax:216-266-2987
LightingServicesInc.2KaysFriesDriveStonyPoint,NY10980-1996Tel:914-942-2800Fax:914-942-2177
LightlyExpressedLtd.
803EighthStreetSalem,Virginia24153Tel:540-387-2104Fax:540-387-2105
Page171
LumenyteInternationalCorporation350LearAvenueCostaMesa,CA92626Tel:714-556-6655Fax:714-556-9329
MitsubishiInternationalCorporationFiberOpticsDepartment520MadisonAvenueNewYork,NY10022Tel:212-605-2392Fax:212-605-1746
NoUVIRResearchUSHighway13&Loop532RR4Box748Seaford,DE19973Tel:302-628-9933Fax:302-628-9932
OpraKeyInternational,Inc.150East52ndStreetNewYork,NY10020Tel:212-308-6100Fax:212-308-8686
PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.P.O.Box7085BeverlyHills,CA90212Tel:310-276-3437Fax:310-276-3475
RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.
32961CallePerfectoSanJuanCapistrano,CA92675Tel:714-248-0141Fax:714-248-0142
Page172
RohmandHaasCompany100IndependenceMallWestPhiladelphia,PA19106Tel:215-592-3437Fax:215-592-3300
SchottCMLFibreopticsLLC45BartlettStreetMarlborough,MA01752Tel:508-229-8312Fax:508-229-8323
StarFireLighting317SaintPaul'sAvenueJerseyCity,NJ07306Tel:800-443-8823Fax:201-656-0666
SumitaOpticalGlass,Inc4-7-25,HarigayaUrawa,Saitama,338JapanTel:48-832-3165Fax:48-824-0734
SuperVisionInternational,Inc.8120PresidentsDriveOrlando,Florida32809Tel:407-857-9900Fax:407-857-0050
TorayIndustries600ThirdAvenueNewYork,NY10016Tel:212-697-8150
Fax:212-672-4279
Page173
AppendixIIIHowtheResearchWasDoneTheidealeadinguptothisprojectwasoriginallyconceivedinthesummerof1995.TheauthorhadagreedtoperformresearchonfiberopticilluminationsystemsforthedepartmentofLightingDesignatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorkCity.CompletionofthisprojectwouldserveashisthesisfortheLightingDesigngraduateprogramhewasenrolledinatParsonsSchoolofDesign.Preliminaryideasinvolvedcompilingacollectionoflightingapplicationswherefiberopticswereutilizedandwritingabouteachproject.Thegoalwastoprovideapicturerepresentationoffiberopticilluminationsystemsinusewhilealsoexplainingwhytheywereselectedtoaccomplishtheparticularlightingdesignobjective.Itbecameapparentthatthisprojectwouldonlyhavevaluetothepotentialreaderiftheconceptsrelatedtohowfiberopticilluminationsystemsworkwerealsoincluded.Therefore,theauthorbeganresearchthatinvolvedassemblingtechnicalinformationaswellasphotographsanddescriptionsofcompletedapplicationswherefiberopticshadbeenutilized.Hisgoalwastokeepthesubjectasnon-technicalaspossiblewhileexplaininghowthetechnologyisusedinillumination.
InNovemberandDecemberof1995,afiberopticdatabasewiththenamesofcompaniesandindividualsworkingwithfiberopticswasdeveloped.Themajorityofthedatabaseconsistedofcompanieswhomanufactureorrepresentvariousfiberopticsystemsorcomponents.Someofthedatabaseincludeddesigners.Thesenameswereobtainedfromseveralpublications.AdditionalnamesweresuppliedbyLindsayAudin,EnergyManageratColumbiaUniversity.Mr.Audinhadrecently
Page174
developedaprogramonfiberopticlightingfortheDesignersLightingForumofNewYorkandhegraciouslysharedhisdatabaseforthatprogramtothisproject.Atotalof85namesandorganizationswerecompiledintheoriginaldatabase.
InconjunctionwiththedevelopmentoftheoriginaldatabaseandalsoinDecemberof1995,aletterwasdevelopedthatwouldserveasthefirstformofcommunicationintroducingthisprojecttotheindividualsandorganizationsincludedintheoriginaldatabase.ThisletterwasmailedtoeverypersonandorganizationinthedatabaseduringthemonthsofFebruaryandMarch1996.Astheprojectprogressedandmorenameswereaddedtothedatabase,asecondletter,modifiedslightlyfromthefirst,wassentbyfaxto30moreindividuals.Thisbroughtthetotalnumberofnamesinthedatabaseto105.
Phonecallsweremadetopersonsincludedinthedatabaseapproximately10daysaftertheletterwassent.Thepurposeofthisinitialphonecallwastoaskindividualsoftheirinterestintheprojectandforcontributionsofinformationoractuallightingapplications.Thetelephoneprocesswashelpfulinnarrowingthedatabasedowntospecificindividualsandorganizationsthatcouldbethemosthelpfultothisguide.Theauthorspokewithmanypeoplewhowereextremelyinterestedintheproject,butwhowereeithertoonewinthefiberopticindustrytohaveprojectstosubmit,orwhosecompanygoalwasnotrelatedtofiberopticsforilluminationpurposes.Manyindividualswereuntiringintheireffortstohelpwithsubmittinginformation,answeringquestionsandinofferingadditionalnamesofpeopletocontact.ThemonthsofFebruary,March,AprilandMayof1996weredevotedtothisprocess.
Itwasintheearlyspringof1996thatprojectswerebeginningtobereceived.Astandardsetofquestionsthatcouldberelatedtoallprojectssubmittedwasdevelopedatthistime.Thegoalofhaving
thesequestionsansweredwastoprovidetheendreaderofthisguidewithabasicconsistencywhenviewingcompletedinstallationssothateachprojectcouldbeeasilyunderstoodandrelatedtooneanother.Thelistofquestions
Page175
wasmodifiedovertime.Someindividualsandorganizationsobjectedtoparticularquestions,especiallythosethatwererelatedtocostsandend-userfeedback.Andbecausethequestionnairerequiredadditionaltelephonecommunication,responsessuffered.Overall,atotalof61projectswerereceived,butonlyasmallfractioncontainedanswerstothequestionsfromtheoriginalquestionnaire.Themajorityofprojectsincludedonlyaphotographwithnoexplanationspertainingtohowthesystemwasdesigned.Onequestionnairewasansweredcompletely.Theinformationpresentedintheapplicationpresentationsectionofthisguideisbaseduponquestionsthatweredevelopedafterallprojectshadbeenreceived.
Throughoutthisperiodandintothebeginningofthesummerof1996,theauthorresearchedarticlesandinformationrelatedtofiberopticlighting.Individualcomputerfileswereset-uprelatingtoparticulartopicsonthesubject.Severalofthesedocumentscontainednumerouspagesfilledwithnotesobtainedfromseveraldifferentsources.Themajorityofthesesourcescontainedonlysmallpiecesofinformationoneachofthetopicdiscussed.Itwasbyassemblingalargecollectionofinformationfromnumeroussourcesthatallowedforworktoprogress.Thesedocumentswereconstantlyaddedtoandedited.ItwasduringthemonthsofJune,JulyandAugust1996thatthesecomputerfilesbecametheindividualchaptersincludedinthisbook.
Theauthor'sphonecallworkthroughoutthisperiodprovidedhimtheopportunitytomeetandinterviewseveraldesignersandcompanyrepresentativesworkingwithfiberoptics.Informationobtainedduringtheseinterviewsprovedinvaluabletohisowneducationinthesubjectand,whereappropriate,isincludedinAppendixI,Bibliography.TheauthorwasalsofortunatethroughoutthisperiodtoworkwithZackZanolli,lightingdesigneratTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,onfiberopticmock-upprojectstakingplacewithintheMuseum.TheexperienceattheMuseumwasextremelyhelpfulinrelating
informationreceivedinprinttoactualfiberopticsystems.
Page176
TheInternetwasanothersourceforresearch.ManylightingcompaniescurrentlyhaveinformationavailableontheInternet,butthemajorityofthisinformationseemstobeorientedtowardmarketingandpromotionalstrategies.Theamountofinformationonfiberopticsislimitedwithsomesitesmarked"underconstruction."However,communicatingtocertaincompaniesviae-mailbecamecommonpracticethroughouttheresearchprocess.
Thefollowingthreepagesincludetheoriginalletterthatwassenttonamesincludedinthefirstdatabase,theoriginallistofquestionsthatweretobeaskedofallprojectssubmitted,andthemodifiedletterthatwasfaxedtoindividualswhowereaddedtothedatabaseasresearchprogressed.
Page177
Page178
Top Related