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Kalahari Meerkat Project
Earthwatch Field Guide
Version 1
2007
Copyright: Kalahari Meerkat Project
This guide or parts of it may not be reprinted or published without written permission
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. GENERAL CONVENTIONS AND TECHNIQUES....................................................................3
1.1. SCHEDULE ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The Group Mark sheet...................................................................... 41.2.1. Codes ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2. Naming meerkats and groups ..................................................................................................................................... 41.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marks................................................................................................................... 51.2.4. Litter codes................................................................................................................................................................... 61.2.5. Age Categories ............................................................................................................................................................ 61.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet............................................................................................................... 6
1.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES .............................................................................. 61.3.1. Approaching the group ................................................................................................................................................ 61.3.2. Walking with meerkats................................................................................................................................................. 7
2. WALKING WITH MEERKATS................................................................................................10
3. GPS TRACKING ....................................................................................................................11
3.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)....................................................113.2. TRACKING PROTOCOL..................................................................................................................12
4. FORAGING FOCALS.............................................................................................................14
4.1. OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................................14
4.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL.....................................................................................................14
5. DRONGO SCANS..................................................................................................................20
5.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL..........................................................................................................20
5.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGS...........................................................................21
6. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS ....................................................................................................22
6.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEY ....................................................................................................22
6.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEY...............................................................................226.2.1. Maintenance of species lists .....................................................................................................................................226.2.2. Transect surveys ....................................................................................................................................................... 23
7. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOL .......................................................................................................25
APPENDIX I Meerkat behaviours...............................................................................................26
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1. GENERAL CONVENTIONS AND TECHNIQUES
Please read through the following information in preparation for your stay at the project. It will be
very beneficial if you are comfortable with Meerkat Identification Dye Marksand Habituation.
1.1. SCHEDULE DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4
Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
AMArrive in Upington; shop;
brunchMeerkats (photos, ID) Meerkats Meerkats
MiddayDrive to Kuruman River
ReserveTalk: Safety briefing Process data & FF intro
Process data &Drongo
PMTalk: Welcome & intro,Walking with Meerkats
Workshop: Behavioural guidelines& GPS
Meerkats Meerkats
Dinner Gannavlakte Rus-en-Vrede Gannavlakte Gannavlakte
Evening OPEN Talk: Project history, researchaims Night drive Talk & Dinnerguest
DAY 5 DAY 6 DAY 7
Saturday Sunday Monday
AM Meerkats FREEInsect survey - traps
out
Midday Process data Picnic lunch Biodiversity survey
PM Meerkats Game SurveyInsect Survey - check
traps
Dinner Gannavlakte Gannavlakte
Dune sundowners +
Gannavlakte dinner
Evening Light traps for insects 2 Dinner guests 2 Dinner guests
DAY 8 DAY 9 DAY 10 DAY 11
Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
AM MeerkatsBiodiversity survey: Veld
assessmentSchool visit to VZR Meerkats
Midday Process data Process data Process data
PM Meerkats Meerkats Meerkats Meerkats
Dinner Gannavlakte Gannavlakte Gannavlakte Gannavlakte
Evening 2 Dinner guests Talk & Dinner guest 2 Dinner guests 2 Dinner guests
DAY 12 DAY 13 DAY 14
Saturday Sunday Monday
AM Meerkats (GPS & FF) MeerkatsDepart Kuruman River
Reserve 6am!
Midday Process data FREE Arrive Upington
PM Meerkats (GPS, Drongo) FREE
Dinner Dune sundowners + Gannavlaktedinner
Evening
Braai @ Gannavlakte
OPEN
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1.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The Group Mark sheet
YOUNG ONES
LITTER D.O.B. Motha!
Whosthe
daddy? CODE NAME ACTUAL DESCRIPTION TELONICS TRANSPONDER
VY0109 15-23.11.01 VAF005 WILD VYF084 A ASTERIX (D) RC RADIOCOLLAR34 (L)(16g) 2034354B2C
VV9902 25.02.99 VVF001 VYM005 VVM037 BALEXANDER(D) LT 41105D650F
VY0502 02-04.03.05 VYM122 C AURINKOH + RT +
T 45753F5409
VY0502 02-04.03.05 VYF128 D LOTTE RR 455423435A
S
VY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM129 E PHILIPPESH + TB
+ 2T 45545E385A
VY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM130 FHOMESTARRUNNER
SH + RT+2T 445D0A590C
P
VY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF132 G FOXYMORON TB + MB 457A10590C
VY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF133 HSCRUTNYGIPPO RT + MB 456C685A58
VY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM135 I WEENA RT 457053107F
VY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM136 J BUNGLE LT 45550A4544
D DENOTES DOMINANCE TOTAL MEMBERS: 10 WHEN ALL PRESENT
1.2.1. Codes
Each meerkat is given a unique identity code (e.g. VLF021) at birth, or when it is first identified. It
then retains this code throughout its life.
the first letter of the code (V) stands for Vanzylsrus, to differentiate the animals at this
study site from those at the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.
the second (and sometimes third) letter of the code is the initial of the group in which the
animal was born (or where it was first identified) (e.g. L for Lazulior GGforGattaca).
the next letter in the code denotes the animals sex (F or M). Pups are given the letter P
until their sex is identifiable.
the code ends with a three digit number which is simply allocated consecutively (i.e.
VLF021 is the 21st animal to be named in Lazuligroup).
1.2.2. Naming meerkats and groups
As well as an identity code, each meerkat is given a personal name (e.g. Dante, Risca, Cazanna,
etc). These names are for day to day use only, and should never be entered into the data
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1.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marks
All meerkats born into the projects focal groups are permanently marked with uniquely numbered
transponders (rice-grain sized microchips detectable with a hand scanner), implanted under the
skin at the scruff of the neck. This ensures that the animals identity can be ascertained
throughout its life.
For day-to-day visual identification, dabs of black hair dye are applied on a particular part of each
animals body (see Figure 1). New litters of pups have their fur cut on particular areas using a set
sequence of marks. The first pup (i.e. the one with the lowest ID number) has the fur on its rump
(or tail-base) cut or dyed, the second pup is marked on its right thigh, the third, its left thigh, and
so on. The standard sequence for pup marks is: TB (tail base), RT (right thigh), LT (left thigh),
RS (right shoulder), LS (left shoulder), MB (mid back), SH (shoulders), RR (right rib), LR(left rib), T (tail), TBL (tail base long), MBL (mid back line), H (head).When pups get older we
add extra marks to all the littermates such as T (tail), MB (mid-back) or SH (shoulders) to
differentiate between the litters.
Figure 1. Identification dye marks for meerkats
* Please be very familiar with the identification of meerkats, it is the most important skill to develop.
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1.2.4. Litter codes
Each litter of pups born into the study population is allocated a standard litter code (e.g.
VMM0401). The first V stands for Vanzylsrus, the next letter/s are the groups initial/s, the
following two digits indicate the year, and the final two-digit number is allocated consecutively as
each litter is born. Hence, VMM0401 was the first litter born into Moominsin 2004.
1.2.5. Age Categories
The Project recognises four age classes for the meerkats
pups birth to 3 months
juveniles 3 to 6 months
sub-adults 6 to 12 months
adults over 12 months
1.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet
Maternity/paternity established by genetic paternity testing
Telonics this is the collar frequency for tracking the group and shows which animal has
the collar on.
D.O.B. the date of birth
Description any oddities about a specific meerkat are noted down here.
Please dye a request to put dye mark/s on the meerkat
1.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
The success of the Meerkat Project results primarily from our ability to collect large quantities of
very detailed and unbiased long-term data on individually recognised individuals. Without
habituation, this is not possible, therefore the maintenance of habituated meerkat groups is one of
the most important things that we (and you) do on a daily basis. Remember that you have the
opportunity to improve the habituation of groups and individuals and that your efforts will ensure
that we remain in the privileged position of being able to collect unbiased data from all individuals
in a group.
1.3.1. Approaching the group
Getting close to the meerkats is crucial. There are a number of steps you must follow onapproaching so that they will allow you to walk with them.
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Always accompany an experienced observer
They will introduce you to habituation techniques and the methods used to ensure that the group
remains calm.
Approach slowly and calmly
The smoother the better
Dont walk directly towards meerkats
Always angle yourself so that you are not walking straight into the group.
Stay together
When approaching form one group of people in a line, i.e. not fanned out around the meerkats.
Stay in a group when you arrive until the group relaxes to your presence.
Make your presence known, give recognised reassurance calls
Do not try to be stealthy. Predators approach with stealth and we obviously do not want to be
associated or confused with predators. So always make the recognised calls when approaching
andwhen leaving all meerkat groups, to ensure that the meerkats are aware of you.
Gauge the meerkats response and respond accordingly
If the meerkats are all standing up and watching you approach, stand still. Only approach very
slowly when this is the case.
Consider context
The meerkats may be alarming at a predator (other than you!); it could be very windy or the group
may have had recently had a significant event, e.g. moving very young pups or fighting with
another group. Always respond to them and remember that groups and individuals vary
greatly in the level of habituation.
1.3.2. Walking with meerkats
1. Regularly give the recognised reassurance calls
Regularly make the recognised calls when walking with meerkat groups. This is critical in the long
grassy conditions common on much of the reserve. Everyone must use the calls when working
with groups.
2. Never reinforce a call when the group is unsettled
Do not give them the relax call when they are nervous about anything other than a researcher
(e.g. a predator scare).
3. Watch your step!
Meerkats are small and are easily squashed! More commonly, you will scare meerkats that areforaging or standing if you walk to close. They will happily approach you of their own accord if they
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are tolerant of people. Take particular care in the event of a predator alarm. Meerkats will run to
cover, and this may involve running between (or under!) your feet. Stand still until they have
passed.
4.Move slowly
All movement should be controlled - move slowly when you sit down or stand up, or when you pickup an object such as a bag or scales, etc.
5. Dont make loud snapping, scraping and rustling noises
Be careful not to tread on twigs or stomp through vegetation. Sound is a major cue that meerkats
use to detect predators so this will frighten them and the more people the more careful we must
be.
6. Take note of where they are and what they are doing
All members in a group must accept you. It is important to know where group members are, and
the way they are responding to any stimuli you give. This ensures that you stop any action that
scares a member in the group immediately! Continuing such an activity will result in damage to the
trust that the habituated animals have in everyone working on the group afterwards, inevitably
damaging our data collection.
7. Cars and burrows
We attempt not to habituate the meerkats to cars and other vehicles. Do not ever park within 100
metres of a meerkat group.
8.Touching meerkats
It is recommended that tactile contact is kept to the minimal required for the maintenance of
habituation and to allow the collection of data. We expect no person to in any way touch or
interfere with anything a meerkat is doing except when you are weighing or a meerkat sitting on
you is causing you pain.
9. Meerkats are more nervous in:
Long grass
Poor visibility sometimes leads to the meerkats becoming nervous. Allowing them to knowwhere
you are is essential to prevent this from happening. The frequency of contact calling between
meerkats increases in long grass - we are simply adopting this too, and should call more often in
such circumstances.
Wind
The meerkats do not hear you as well in windy conditions, and are usually more nervous there
are more raptors flying about, vegetation moving suddenly, etc. Be much more aware of what you
are doing at these times, and try to make sure that they know where you are so that you do not
surprise them when walking around.
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10. Improving habituation
While collecting data on an individual, as in a focal: use this opportunity to habituate the individual
to your proximity and calls. This simply involves carefully following the meerkat without disturbing
it in any way. If it looks at you, stops what it is doing or even runs away, then it is not relaxed in
your presence and you will need to be more cautious. Try following from further away and makesure you and your partner stand together, and move very slowly.
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2. WALKING WITH MEERKATS
AIM:The aim of your first day with the meerkats is to get used to being in their company, giving
the habituation call when appropriate, and to get some good photos. However, there are a few
basic things that will be included in your first morning session to prepare you for data collection
later on.
1) Habituation:
Make the habituation calls regularly
Watch your step
Watch your movements
Watch the meerkats response to you
2) Habitat types:Take note of the different habitats you pass through, referring to your guide
when necessary.
3) ID marks:it is VITAL that you are able to identify the meerkats, so spend time using the
Group Mark sheet to identify the various individuals by their dye marks and collars.
4) Distances:you will need to be able to judge small distances in metres along the ground.
Practice this, if necessary, by using your tape measure to check how accurate you are.
5) Foraging: You will be following a specific meerkat observing the type and size of food it
finds. Try to keep your eyes on one meerkat for a short while, observing how it digs for food
and what types of food it finds.
6) Drongos: you will be involved in some data collection dealing with drongos. Ask your
meerkat volunteer to point out when these birds are near the group, and try to observe their
activities.
The meerkat volunteer assigned to that particular meerkat group will try their best to answer anyquestions you might have regarding the group and the activities taking place around you. Always
be aware that they also have important data to collect, and therefore might sometimes be
preoccupied with these activities (e.g. weighing, recordings). Please do not be offended if they do
not always respond immediately or if they continue to look at the meerkats rather than you whilst
speaking, or they even run off mid way through the conversation. When in doubt, follow the lead of
your volunteer. Above all, enjoy your first session with the meerkats.
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3. GPS TRACKING
3.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)
AIM: Track meerkat movements to investigate whether they follow foraging routes and what
factors influence group movement
Using your GPS
The short and easy way to take a GPS point, save or access tracks and conquer the world
1. Taking a GPS point
a. Switch on the GPS unit and wait for a
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b. The saveoption should be highlighted. Press ENTERonce to reveal a dropdown
menu.
c. Use the ARROW keys to select the midnight option if this is the end of your
morning session, or the noonoption if it is the end of the afternoon session. Press
ENTERonce.d. The OKoption of the screen should be highlighted. Press ENTERonce.
e. Use the down ARROW to highlight the track named with todays date. Press the
ENTERbutton once. Use the down ARROWto highlight the tracebackoption.
Press the ENTERbutton once.
f. The tobeginoption should be highlighted. Press ENTERonce. The distance to go
should appear at the top of the screen above the compass.
3. Distance and direction from nearest SB
a. Switch on the GPS and wait for 10m. Now store your position as a waypoint in the GPSs memory. The
point should be named with a four-digit time, using the 24-hour clock (e.g. 0620 for 06:20 or
1712 for 17:12). In addition, if you are starting the session at the morning sleeping burrow, add
SB to the waypoint time (i.e. 0620SB).
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2. Mark 15-min waypoints
Further waypoints should be taken at 15 minute intervals after the initial point of the session.
Position yourself in the centre of the group, and wait for > 10m accuracy. Points should be named
as per the system described above, e.g. 0630, 0640, 0650 etc.
3. Mark encounters with other meerkat groups (IGI)
If your meerkat group encounters another group during the tracking session, mark a waypoint to
indicate the approximate position of the encounter. As with other waypoints, name this point as a
time-stamp, but this time flag it with I (e.g. 1052I). Your Meerkat volunteer partner will give you
further details of the encounter (e.g. the name of the foreign group encountered), and this
information should be noted down for later incorporation into the trackfile when it is uploaded and
edited back at Gannavlakte.
4. Mark latrines (if seen ) (L)
If more than three meerkats defecate or urinate on the same spot, name this point as a time-
stamp on your GPS and flag it with a L (e.g. 0938L). Your meerkat volunteer will need collect the
faeces or urine, the time, number of meerkats using the latrine and the meerkat IDs.
5. Mark your final position (AM) or sleeping burrow (PM sessions only)
For AM sessions, take your final waypoint just before the commencement of lunch-weights, since
during this final period, the appearance of the scales and boiled egg may artificially affect the
groups movements! For evening sessions, take your last point as the group arrives at their
evening sleeping burrow, and flag this last point with an SB (e.g. 1812SB).
6. Back at Gannavlakte: Data Entry
a. Connect the GPS and switch on
b. Open Map source
c. Download saved tracks and waypoints
d. Delete superfluous waypoints and tracks from file
e. Rename any incorrectly labelled waypoints
f. Save the file in the relevant group folder, naming it according to group code, date, am/pm,
observer initials (e.g. CD60301amHB)
g. Clear all tracks and delete waypoints from GPS
h. Reload default waypoints to GPS from EW Farmmap, then switch off GPS
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4. FORAGING FOCALS
4.1. OVERVIEW
Note: a focal means observing a specific animal for a specified time.
AIM:
1. Undertake foraging focals to answer a range of questions:
a. Which meerkats are the most efficient foragers?b. How do meerkats develop their ability to find food, and how does this change with
hole depth?c. How does good foraging ability influence individual reproductive strategy?d. How do individuals alter their foraging strategies in response to ability and food
availability?
2. Collect tracking data
3. Observe behaviours
4. Learn Identification marks by doing group compositions
Foraging focals are conducted only on foraging meerkats and cannot be started until at least 50%
of the group is actively foraging. You will need to focal as many as possible of the priority
meerkats from the specified group, so move promptly between your focal meerkats to get a full
sample!
4.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL
1. Assign yourself as either Digging Recorder or Scribe
The focal needs two people and you take different roles. You should stay in the same role for
the whole day, but can swap around on other days. This is important for the quality and
comparability of the data.
a. Digging Recorder: Responsible for timing all the digs that the focal animal starts (those
greater than 2 seconds). This will provide the total time spent digging. The recorder will
also need to identify the size of holes, number, size and type of prey items found and
when the meerkat stands up, i.e. is vigilant.
b. Scribe: Responsible for timing the total focal time (15 min) while identifying and writing
down the size of each hole dug in (for greater than 2 seconds) and the size and type of
prey items found. They will also need to tally the number of times the meerkat stands upon its hind legs
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2. Get your equipment ready. (Before you go out to the field check you have everything.)
Both Digging Recorderand Scribeshould have a stopwatch. The Scribeshould also have a
clipboard with the Foraging Focal Data Sheet.
3. Fill in focal details on datasheet
At the start of a session, please remember to fill in the fields Date, Observer, Group,
number of foraging meerkats, Pup litter code and number of helpers. Then, for each animal
focalled, record its Individual ID, date of birth and sex in the boxes provided. This
information is available on your marksheet.
4. Locate your focal animal
You will have specified individual(s) to focal. Remember to double-check the ID of your focal
animal throughout the focal, especially if you temporarily lose sight of it (i.e. by checking the
identification marks). This is extremely important!
Starting and timing the focal
5. Definitions of Digging and Foraging and how to observe the focal meerkat without
affecting its behaviour
FORAGING: This is defined as searching for food. The meerkat will be wandering
about scratching and digging at the surface sand. Digging at a bolthole is not
considered foraging. Anything other than searching for food is considered to be non-
foraging behaviour. Meerkats most commonly stop foraging when they are alarming
at a predator, reacting to the sight of another meerkat group, or resting in the shade.
DIGGING: This is defined as when the focal animal starts a dig at a single location
lasting greater than 2 seconds. Usually this involves digging rapidly with both front paws
and chucking sand between its back legs. A dig is complete when the focal meerkat
stops digging and moves > 20cm from the hole. They sometimes dig in the same hole
(for the same food item) from different angles so it is better to lump together multiple
small holes dug very close to each other using the definition described above.
DOING A FOCAL:
From the point you start a focal you must concentrate entirely on the focal animal until
15 minutes have passed. Start both stopwatches for Digging Recorderand Scribe
simultaneously. If the meerkat stops foraging wait until it has begun foraging again
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before beginning or continuing a focal. Abort the focal completely if the meerkat stops
foraging for longer than 15 minutes, your recorded data is still good, the focal is just a
little shorter.
HABITUATION AND IDEAL FORAGING DISTANCE:While following your focal animal, position yourself as close as possible to ensure you
can clearly see what is going on (about 2 metres away), but be careful not to disturb the
animal, thus affecting its behaviour. If the meerkat looks directly at you back off slowly,
you should avoid standing on either side of a meerkat
6. Undertake the focal: Digging Recorderand Scribehave the following roles
DIGGING RECORDER:
a. To start the focal follow the target individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than
2 seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the Scribe. When the meerkat
stops digging in the hole, stop the stopwatch.
i. New holes are when the meerkat stops digging at one place and moves
>20cm (sometimes they try new angles for the same food items).
b. Keep following the meerkat, whenever it digs in a single location for > 2 seconds re-
start the stopwatch. If it stops digging and moves >20cm then stop the stopwatch.
c. Repeat this until 15 minutes of foraging time has passed.
d. While recording the above you should also help the Scribe by noting:
i. Hole Size - Size (Small 30cm)
ii. If food is found in a hole:
1. Size (see recording prey item types)
2. Type (see recording prey item types)
3. Number (total number of food items eaten from the same hole. Look
out for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)
iii. Any time the focal meerkat stands up on its hind legs (i.e. displaying
vigilance).
SCRIBE:
a. To start focal follow the focal individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than 2
seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the Digging recorder. Record
the start time on the data sheet. Do not stop your stopwatch unless the focal
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meerkat stops foraging (any food searching behaviour). When the focal meerkat
resumes foraging then you can resume the focal (start the stopwatch again).
b. Whenever the focal meerkat digs in a single location for > 2 seconds you will need to
note the following information on the data sheet, ask for assistance in observing this
from the Digging Recorder.iv. Hole Size - Size (Small 30cm). If the dig is unsuccessful, make a line to indicate that nothing
was found in the appropriate box on your sheet. However, if food is found
note the following information in the box for the appropriate hole size:
1. Size (see recording prey item types)
2. Type (see recording prey item types)
3. Number of food items (total number of food items eaten from the same
hole. Look out for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)
c. Throughout the focal you will also need to note down any time the focal meerkat
stands up on its hind legs (i.e. displaying vigilance). Tally these in the vigilance box.
d. End the focal when you have observed and recorded meerkat foraging for 15
minutes. If the meerkat is engaged in digging a hole then wait until it has finished
before ending the focal. Always record the exact total time the focal lasted, even if
greater or less than 15 minutes.
e. Write down the total time the meerkat was engaged in digging during the focal, this
is obtained from the Digging Recorder.
f. When you complete your focal of a meerkat, move on to the next meerkat you have
been asked to observe. Your Field Team Leader will specify which individuals have
priority and the order of meerkats which you need to focal may vary.
7. Additional information
At the end of your session remember to obtain the morning and lunch weights, the time the
meerkats left the burrow in the mornings and the time the meerkat was weighed at lunch for all
your focal meerkats.
Term Notes
Individual ID Use your group mark ID sheet to identify the individual based on dye marking, sex and size, andrecord the full identification number. (e.g. VVM037), never the name (e.g. Alexander),
Group Write down the name of the meerkat group (Elveera, Moomins).
No ofmeerkatsforaging
Count the number of meerkats in the group actively foraging at the start of your focal.
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No. ofhelpers
This is all the meerkats in the group excluding those under 6 months (pups and juveniles)
Morning andlunchweights
Enter the morning and lunch weight of the focal animal. Ask your meerkat volunteer or look it up in theweights book.
Timemeerkats left
the burrow
Note the time that at leasthalf of the groupleaves the morning sleeping burrow to start foraging.
Timemeerkatweighed atlunch
The time each meerkat is weighed is very important when taking lunch weight, to enable us tocalculate time specific rate of weight gain. The time your focal animal was weighed at lunch will benoted next to the weight in the weights book.
Focal starttimeTotal focaltime
Recording the time when the focal starts (hh:mm:ss) and the time it ends (hh:mm:ss) gives the totalfocal time. You do not have to record the seconds but try to get as close as you can to a total time of15 min.
Total diggingtime
A foraging hole is classified as follows: the animal uses both its paws, flings sand between its hindlegs, and works at the same hole for more than 2 seconds (you can count the seconds off in yourhead). Consider it as one hole as long as it has not moved more than 20cm from the original diggingpoint. Use a stopwatch to measure the total amount of time spent digging, by starting and pausing the
stopwatch at the start and end of each hole. At the end of the 15 min, enter the total time spentdigging from the stopwatch.
If successful,prey code
Prey codes are standardised three-letter codes that indicate the size and type of a prey item (e.g. LLI
large lizard). Size codes and prey type codes are listed below. When the prey item itself isunknown, try to at least record prey size.
8. Recording Prey Item Types
T tiny item: swallowed down immediately, e.g. ants, termites and ant larvae.
S small item: item not protruding from mouth at all (1 to 5 chews)
M medium item: less than half the item protruding from mouth (5 to 15 chews)
L large item: over half the item protruding from mouth (more than 15 chews)
X Very large item: 80% of the item protrudes from mouth (e.g. very large lizard or mouse. This is usedrarely for invertebrates with the exception of millipedes.
The last two letters of the food item code refer to the kind of food. See below for a complete list ofthese two-letter codes.
Al Ant Larva/Pupa (Always Tiny)
An Ant (Never Larger Than Small)
Ai Ant Lion
Bg Barking Gecko
Be BeetleVg Bulbs/Berries
Bs Burrowing Skink
Ca Caterpillar
Ce Centipede
Co Cockroach
Cr Cricket
Eg Egg (Medium Or Large)
Fr Frog
La Larva
Li Lizard
Lo Locust (Can Be Extra Large)
Mi Millipede
Mo Moth
Pu Pupae
Ro Rodent
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Sc Scorpion
Sf Silverfish
Sn Snake
So Solifuge
Sp Spider
St Stick Insects
Te Termite (Always Tiny)
To TortoiseGe Unidentified Gecko
Unk (or U) Unidentified
The original document contains examples and references of prey items in this place.
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5. DRONGO SCANS
AIM:Collect data on meerkat-drongo interactions in order to answer the following questions:
How often do drongos associate with meerkats?
Do they kleptoparasitise meerkats (i.e. behave in a way to deliberately steal a food item from a
meerkat)?
5.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL
1. Please familiarise yourself with the exact difference between a drongo and a glossy
starling before doing any drongo work.
Fork-tailed Drongo Glossy Starling
2. Fill in focal details on datasheet
For each session, fill in Date, Meerkat Group, Group Size, Number of Pups, Habitat
and Observer initials. Habitat type is defined by a three-letter code; the first letter is the
general topography:
a. Flat between dunes and bottom third of a dune
b. Dune top two-thirds of a dune
c. Riverbed any part of the Kuruman river including the banks
The second and third letters are two letter codes describing the type of vegetation in which
the majority of the group is foraging:
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GRass single-stemmed green/yellow grasses
SHrub perennial plant or bush with several woody stems
TRee - single bark-covered trunk
FOrbes small flowering plants, usually annuals, common after rains
OPen little or no vegetation
3. Begin scans at 10 or 15-minute intervals (as requested by the Field team leader)
Note the time of the first scan and if any drongos are present. If so, how many? By present
we mean that the drongo is close enough to the foraging meerkats to have them under
close observation. As a rough guide, this is a maximum of 20 metres from a meerkat.
4. Drongo scans
Continue drongo scans until end of session, recording drongo presence or absence every
10 minutes.
5.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGS
Observe drongo and try to establish if it has rings on its legs. Very few drongos have been
ringed so consider this a pleasant surprise. Record this at the end of the scan sheet.
Ringed drongos to look out for during data collection:
Ring combination Meerkat territory
MXWW Commandos/Balrog
YYXM Balrog
BBXM Balrog
GGXM Commandos/Balrog
RXMX Balrog
MXRG Commandos/Balrog
WWXM Whiskers
YRXM WhiskersMXYY Whiskers
Note that rings are read from left to right if the bird is facing you, right to left if facing awayfrom you
B = Blue M = MetalW = White Y = Yellow
G = Green R = RedX = Missing ring
e.g. YYXM has 2 yellows on the left and a metal on the right. There is a maximum of two rings oneach leg
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6. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS
6.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEY
AIM:The purpose of the invertebrate survey on KRR is to set up a comprehensive database of
the invertebrate life on the reserve. This not only forms an important part in the effective
management of any reserve but also yields important information about available food resources
for the meerkats, and how this abundance fluctuates from season to season, and how it differs
between different habitat types.
The aim is to set up a baseline invertebrate dataset by trapping insects with
Pitfall traps baited with dung, rotting vegetables/fruit and mushrooms
Sweeping with insect nets
Light traps et out at night
Sifting soil for burrowing invertebrates
Collected specimens will be pinned or preserved for subsequent classification. Initially, all
specimens will be roughly grouped into orders with the aid of field guides, after which the data will
be entered into the relevant files for long-term analysis.
6.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEY
AIM:To take a detailed inventory of what organisms are present in the reserve, and to try to
establish the distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur. We will approach this
in the following manner:
6.2.1. Maintenance of species lists
Provisional species lists for mammals, birds, and plants have been drafted for the KRR. These
incorporate both organisms whose presence here has been verified by reliable observers and
those that we anticipate to find here, based on published distribution data for the species inquestion (marked with an asterisk (*) next to the species name.
As an ongoing activity throughout the expedition, Earthwatch volunteers will be encouraged to
contribute to the updating and maintenance of these lists. A range of field guides are available to
assist with species level identification, and project staff will be more than willing to help where
necessary.
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6.2.2. Transect surveys
One day of the expedition will be spent conducting a walking survey along set transect routes.
Volunteers will spread themselves out such that each person is 50m from their nearest neighbour.
Then, up to six abreast, the formation will advance at a steady, uniform pace, holding true to the
specified bearing with the aid of GPS / compass.
While these surveys provide good opportunity to spot new species for the species lists, our
principle aim is to record the presence and position of the following features:
All ungulates
The KRR has reintroduced a number of ungulate species into the reserve. Monitoring of
these species, in terms of both number and group composition, forms an integral part of
reserve management. Any ungulates seen during game drives will be recorded, as well as
age and sex of the animals when possible. This information will supplement data collected
during the biannual age and sex surveys, and will allow management to monitor trends in
ungulate populations.
All medium to large size burrows (entrance diameter >7cm)
Very many animals in the Kalahari are at least semi-fossorial, i.e. burrowing into the dunes
to escape extremes of temperature. Unfortunately, burrows excavated by different animals
often look alike. Furthermore, burrows excavated by one animal may subsequently be
shared with other animals, or taken over by different species altogether. For these reasons
it is often difficult to know exactly which animals are using which burrows. We will note the
position of any burrows or burrow complexes encountered on the transect, and record any
signs that may shed light on the identification of the burrow builder, its present inhabitants,
and their activity patterns. Damaraland mole rat burrows are of particular interest to the
project and should be recorded according to the guidelines provided on the data sheets.
Sociable Weaver and White Browed Sparrow Weaver Nests
Sociable weavers are co-operative breeders and therefore of special interest to the project.
Any sociable weaver nests encountered along the transect will be noted. The tree species,
size of nest and presence of pygmy falcons are amongst the points we will be recording.
The white browed sparrow weaver nests will also be recorded along the transect. Not only
will we record species of tree, we will try to distinguish between breeding and sleeping
nests, as well as sexing the individual birds when possible.
Termite mounds
Ants and termites play a fundamental role in the cycling of nutrients in the veld, but also
provide a critical food source for specialist feeders such as aardvark, aardwolf, pangolin
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and a range of other generalist birds, mammals and reptiles. Knowing the distribution of
termite mounds may not only provide information on veld health and functioning, but may
also help to predict distribution patterns, and extent of available habitat, for termite-feeding
species. Of course, while termite mounds are highly conspicuous, ant nests are usually far
more difficult to detect. We will thus only record the position and status of termite moundsencountered.
Invasive species
Mesquite or Suidwesdoring (Prosopis glandulosa), and Mexican poppy (Argemone
ochroleuca) are highly invasive alien plants that can have serious negative consequences
on the ecosystems they invade. Mesquite, for instance, easily out-competes most native
trees for what little water the ground holds and can profoundly alter the vegetative profile
especially in water courses. We will note the position of any Mesquite or Mexican poppy
infestations encountered on the transect, to facilitate their later removal.
6.3. VEGETATION SURVEY
AIM:To take a detailed inventory of what plants are present in the reserve, and to try to establish
the distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur.
In order to determine stocking rates of mammals on a reserve, it is necessary to know not only
what plant species the area supports, but also the relative frequency of these species and the
overall condition of the veld. Baseline vegetation surveys are therefore essential in providing this
information to management. Monitoring of vegetation is also extremely important. It allows for the
detection of changes in the state of vegetation in response to utilization by mammals. It is
therefore critical to conduct reliable and repeatable vegetation surveys to allow for the monitoringof vegetation changes on a reserve.
Since the KRR stocks a variety of ungulate species, these surveys are necessary for effective
management. Volunteers will assist management by conducting vegetation surveys in a number
of selected plots on the reserve. Plots measuring 10m x 20m will be marked out, and within these
plots the volunteers will record 200 points, noting amongst other things, plant species encountered
and growth form. KRR staff will be on hand to supervise the sampling and provide interesting
information about the traditional use of some of the plants.
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7. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOL
AIM:Aid in environmental education of the children at Vanzylsrus by giving exposure to: foreign
countries and wildlife and the different animals in their own country. Additionally supply the school
with teaching aids such as posters, books and magazines.
1. Morning visit to Vanzylsrus Primary School
VZR school structure
Foundation phase
! Ages 6 10
! Grades 1-3
Intermediate phase
! Ages 11 - 16
! Grades 4 - 6
Senior phase
! Ages 16 19
! Grades 7 - 8
30-40 children per class
Our task:
Each EW volunteer introduce themselves and their country of origin 5 -10min
Questions
Competitions, games or other practical interaction or lessons are welcome and
designed as needed.
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APPENDIX I Meerkat behaviours
For your interest and to assist with our data collection we have listed the primary meerkat
behaviours we observe and record. Your meerkat volunteer will point some of these out to you,
but you may need to be patient as they are often rare and happen very quickly.
With all meerkats behaviours it is vital to correctly identify each meerkat or group of meerkats
involved. Please make sure of the ID codes first and foremost, then who was doing what. Double
check the markings with your partner. Remember, inaccurate data damages good data.
To make sure you are as accurate as possible, jot down on paper the markings of animals
involved in a behaviour and which was initiator or recipient (alter as necessary for each question).
1. Grooming
Meerkats all seem to groom each other irrespective of who is who but we hope to investigate these
patterns further. For instance, to see if meerkats prefer to initiate grooming on older partners, and if they
prefer the same sex or the opposite sex as a grooming partner.
Grooming is when one meerkat uses its teeth to groom another meerkat. Sometimes meerkats use this
behaviour when submitting to another meerkat. Look out for which meerkat groomed the other first, and
whether the other meerkat groomed back (even if only for a second).
2. Dominance Assertion
Meerkats have a despotic dominance structure, a single dominant male and female reproduce and
suppress the subordinate males and females in the group. This usually only happens when a subordinate
could breed in the group. The dominant male shows little aggression towards sons (related to all the
females) but lots of aggression towards brothers. The dominant female is primarily aggressive towards
older and bigger females who mate with visiting males from other groups.
There are various ways meerkats assert dominance, including:
Chinning: one meerkat rubs the underside of its chin over the head of another. Hip-slams: one meerkat slams its hip against another meerkat.
Approach/ Attack:one meerkat decisively moves towards another meerkat, or attacks it. The
approached individual can submit or ignore the approach/attack.
Look out for who started the interaction and what they did to the other meerkat. Also see how the other
meerkat responded, i.e. submitted.
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3. Submission
Subordinate meerkats often submit to the dominant male and female, usually at times when they are
receiving a great deal of aggression. Submissions to the dominant female are most common by
subordinate females to the dominant female just before she evicts them from the group in the late stages of
her pregnancy.
Submissions are initiated by subordinates in the presence of dominant individuals; they can be very long or
extremely brief and very subtle. Meerkats submit by:
Drooping head and relaxing body - This is a posture offering no offensive threat. They often
approach by crawling up to the dominant.
Making submission calls - repeated high-pitched mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi calls.
Grooming - they approach making submission calls and begin grooming.
Look out for what the subordinate did and how the dominant responded. The dominant usually ignores it
but sometimes asserts dominance over the subordinate.
4. Dominance Competition
Subordinate or dominant meerkats of the same sex occasionally compete for dominance. It is unclear
whether this resolves any conflict but the behaviour is common between adult competing brothers or
sisters. These are the individuals who typically compete for dominant positions in later life. Another entirely
more aggressive form of dominance competition is when a subordinate male or female competes with the
dominant male or female for the dominant position, or after an old dominant dies. This is extremely rare
and usually results in a bloody fight as seen by the scars on a number of adult meerkats. Look out for thescars over the left eyes on Yossarian and Zorilla, inflicted by Zaphod and Klientjie respectively.
The most common behaviours displayed when competing for dominance includes:
Nasal to nasal:two meerkats move towards each other and rub their noses side to side.
Hip Slamming:two meerkats push and rub their sides against each other.
This behaviour is hard to spot but watch adult brothers or sisters next to each other at bolt holes and try to
identify both protagonists.
5. Scent markingInformation regarding territory ownership, location, sexual state, group size and much more can be left by
scent marking. The primary advantage of this form of communication is that it does not alert predators to
your immediate location and remains in a specific location for long periods enabling information transfer
without risk of contact. The idea that marking your territory scares others away has been rejected in the
vast majority of species.
Marking is used to pass on or collect information regarding territory, dominance and group location. Types
of marking include:
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Anal marking:Rubbing of the anal gland against objects or other meerkats. This is usually
the ground or vegetation, but when on another individual, it is considered assertion of
dominance.
Rubbing: Rubbing the length of the body alongside or over vegetation, objects or other
meerkats (dominance).
Chewing:Biting vegetation and shaking of the head whilst biting the vegetation.
Urination/defecation: When the same place is defecated/urinated on by 3 or more
individuals it is defined as a latrine. It is also useful to note whether the mark is sniffed or
marked over another individuals mark.
Frenzy:When an animal undertakes lots of different marks in a very short space of time and
scuffs at the surface.
6. Raised guard
Raised guarding is one of the main helping behaviours meerkats engage in. The better foragers usually
guard more as the cost of doing so is lower. Listen carefully for the Pip Pip sentinel call they emit causing
those in the near vicinity to look for predators less and spend more time foraging.
A meerkat is considered to be on raised guard when it is raised off the ground for more than 10 seconds or
makes the sentinel call.
It is very helpful to point out who is up on guard, especially when they go up and when they go down, as
the meerkat volunteer will need to record all guards!
7. Predator Alarm
Meerkats emit many different alarm calls but they can be categorised into aerial (high pitched Mrrup,
when they have seen something in the air), terrestrial(rolling mururururururu, seen on land), panic
(hard to describe but it sounds as if someone trod on a meerkat, or maybe thats how I remember it?) and
mobbing calls(including growling and spitting). These have different levels of urgency depending on how
near a threat is and how dangerous it is. Sometimes they are generally scared and make panic calls at
most things! This is a fascinating form of communication in any species, especially a non-primate.
It is considered a predator alarm when over 50% of the group reacts to the alarm by moving away, goingdown into a burrow, looking briefly or watching continuously. This alarm can be given in response to any
threat, including birds, terrestrial animals, researchers, plastic bags etc.
Look out for meerkats dashing to boltholes or standing up suddenly. Check if half the group has done so
and look for the most common response.
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8. Digging
Digging is another helping behaviour enabling the maintenance of escape boltholes and sleeping burrows.
The meerkats do not dig them initially but invade those used by other species and maintain them in the
territory. Their sleeping burrows are usually made by ground squirrels.
Meerkat will dig at sleeping burrows or boltholes. This type of digging is defined by a meerkat using both its
paws to move soil between its hind legs. It is commonly seen, especially after alarms or in the morning or
evening.
9. Chattering
Typically meerkats chatter to reject or fend off other meerkats. This is usually seen when males approach
the dominant female and sniff her. It is difficult to ascertain a precise function for the behaviour but it is
apparently fairly rude as the animal chattered at typically moves away.
This is a repetitive, high-pitched ke ke ke ke ke sound, made in relation to various interactions including
play, submission, sex and food competition.
Listen out for it and see what context it is given in, who gave it and who approached who.
10. Pup feeds
One of the most fascinating helping behaviours; group members, typically older than 9 months though
some times younger, find food items and give them to a young pup in the group. This is the primary
helping behaviour and enables meerkats to support numerous entirely dependent mobile young. This has
been the focus of a great deal of research investigating who gives food and which pup do they feed.A meerkat brings a food item to a pup and drops it in front of the pup who then eats the food item letting off
a high-pitched squeal. There are variations on this theme:
Feeder eats the food itself rather than giving away the food item (false feed). This
may be because another adult or pup is trying to steal the food.
The pup loses the food. Sometimes the adult finds it and brings it back.
The pup rejects the food item.
The food is manipulated in some way by the helper to make it easier to eat.
Try to note the individuals involved, then the size and type of food item. Sometimes the food does not getsuccessfully fed as outlined above, so make a note of this.
11. Foraging competition
Meerkats apparently compete for food in poor conditions, but the dominant male and female quite
frequently steal food from other group members. The dominant female does this most often when she is
pregnant or lactating.
Foraging competition occurs over food items or foraging holes. Usually just two competitors are involved,
but sometimes many get involved. The most common forms of competition include:
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Blocking:meerkat places its body between the food item/hole and competitor, or growls at
the competitor.
Pushing: Similar to blocking but with sustained physical contact between the competing
individuals.
Fighting:Meerkat bites the other in an attempt to win the food item.
It is important to note what they are competing for and who the winner was, if this was clear (i.e. the one
who succeeded in getting the food item).
12. Pup competition
Pups actively compete for helpers whom they are foraging with. The high levels of aggression are
probably caused by the enormous benefit of early nutrition for the development of subsequent foraging
ability and thus reproductive success.
This is similar to foraging competition, but occurs between two pups and can be for a food item, an adult
helper or space.
Ensure you get the identity of the pups and the ultimate winner. If the fight is over an adult try to record who
this was.
13. Lead calls
It is important that groups have some form of cohesion and/or mechanism of coordination. It is likely that
lead calls enable individuals (typically the dominants) to draw the group together and move.
This can be difficult to see and hear, but occurs when one individual (usually a dominant or elder individual)tries to lead the group in a specific direction by giving high-pitched rolling calls. Try to get the identity of any
meerkat making lead calls to the group and note whether the group/pups follow.
14. Leave/return
Adult male meerkats (excluding the dominant) often come and go from their own group as they try to mate
with unrelated females in other groups, possibly even a dominant female! In addition, subordinate females
may be evicted from the group by the dominant female and consequently spend their time trying to get
back into the group.Males typically come and go as they please but note what happens, particularly when they return. Females
are usually chased from the group, and it is obvious when this happens, but keep a close eye out for them
hanging around on the edge of the group.
When evicted or roving meerkats return, pay attention to the groups reaction. For example, when a
meerkat was evicted: did the group give chase? If so, who lead the group? If a meerkat was returning, was
the meerkat accepted back or chased away again?
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15. IGI Inter group interactions
Inter group interactions occur wherever two groups encounter each other, typically near territory borders,
as maintaining control of foraging grounds as a safe home range for reproduction is very important for
meerkats. Failure to do so can result in babysitting burrows being attacked by other groups and pups
being killed.
The groups may react in the following fashion
Flee
Do a war dance (bounce up and down with tail pointing upwards)
Chase
Fight (inevitable if neither group backs down or they have been taken by
surprise)
Make sure you are ready! The meerkats sometimes run for as far as a kilometre. We have to stay with
them as much as possible.
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