English as a global language: issues and attitudes For use with
Chapter 3 of: Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global
Englishes. Routledge. Dr. Heath Rose and Dr. Nicola Galloway
Slide 2
Review of Lecture 2 Language change: normal and natural, and
the result of numerous factors (diachronic, endogenous, exogenous
synchronic, language contact, code-switching, code-mixing, and
borrowing). Widespread variation phonology, lexis, grammar, and
pragmatics. New Englishes many stages involved, native or
nativized? World Englishes paradigm variation, codification,
ownership, and ELT: Part of Global Englishes paradigm English
belongs to everyone who speaks it, but it is nobodys mother tongue
(Rajagopalan, 2004, p. 111). WE, ELF, and GE. Despite variation,
there is an idea of a standard English, deeply rooted in history
(Lecture 1 history is important to fully understand GE). OC
varieties are often seen as inferior and illegitimate. Why standard
English is a fallacy: The very idea of a standard implies stability
but language is unstable (Widdowson, 2003) To support the notion of
standard English is incompatible with the complex reality of how
English is used worldwide (Saraceni, 2009) ELF research questions
the existence of a standard English difficult to define a NES
(continued in this lecture).
Slide 3
Overview The advantages of the global spread of English The
dark side of the global spread of English Linguistic imperialism
The politics of the spread of English
Slide 4
Introductory activities Look at the statistics in the
introduction to Chapter 3 and then discuss the questions below.
1.Which of the statistics were most surprising to you? 2.Do you
think it is fair that the USA and the UK benefit financially
because they are native English-speaking nations, and therefore
attract international students? Do you think UK and US universities
rank so highly due to quality of education? Or is it due to their
location in historically powerful English-speaking countries?
3.What do you think is the cause for a decline in foreign language
learning in the UK? Do you think students will suffer any long-term
negative affects by not picking up foreign language education?
4.What do you think will be the impact, if any, of the loss of
languages and a decrease in the worlds linguistic diversity? 5.Do
financial savings from translation services justify decisions to
switch to a single working language in an international company or
organization? What is streamlined and what is lost?
Slide 5
The advantages of the global spread of English Part 1
Slide 6
Factors affecting whether a language is adopted or abandoned
when it spreads to new territories 1.Expectations of ruling power:
e.g. The Ottoman Empire permitted communities in their wide-ranging
empire to keep their ethnic identities and language use.
2.Geographical distance from home territory: e.g. Vikings in Italy
were isolated from their homeland and thus adopted the local
languages of their conquered villages. 3.Loss of home territory :
e.g. French-speaking Normans in England switched to English after
losing territory in France. 4.Population size ratio : e.g. in
Australia, British settlers far outnumbered the indigenous
population, and thus indigenous languages quickly diminished in the
local populations compare with India where English settlers were a
minority and thus the language had less impact. 5.Prestige attached
to language: see Chapter 2 if prestige is attached to a language it
is likely to be adopted. 6.Educational, religious, or public
policy: e.g. if a language is packaged as the language of God it
can have devastating effects on other languages which are viewed as
inferior. In the same light, Welsh probably only survives today
because the Bible was translated into the Welsh language and thus
it was seen as a tool to deliver religious messages.
Slide 7
Advantages for international relations English is now an
official or co- official language in one-third of the worlds
countries (McArthur, 2002, p. 3) It has never been easier for other
Europeans to know what Poles think about the credit crunch, Germans
about the Middle East or Danes about nuclear power (The Economist,
12 February 2009) Benefits to international diplomacy Cost-cutting
measures in ASEAN, unlike in the EU
Slide 8
Advantages for business Higher efficiency The use of a single
working language means communications between company HQs and
foreign branches, factories, subsidiaries, and various connected
institutional bodies can be streamlined Many international firms
have decided to instigate English as their working language, even
though the company might be based entirely in non-English- speaking
countries (e.g. Renault-Nissan) Business English as a lingua franca
(BELF) 70% of the English communication in European multinational
companies is characterized as BELF (Kankaanranta and Planken,
2010)
Slide 9
Advantages for communication Increased efficiency in
international communication: English is by far the most useful
language for international communication today (Ammon, 2003, p.
23). English radio programming is heard by 150 million people in
120 countries (Crystal, 2008, p. 4) English use in Internet-based
media accounts for 45% of online content Popular media (film, book,
and gaming translations becoming increasingly unnecessary)
Transportation industry communication Shipping and aviation
(specific phraseology ensures safe passage)
Slide 10
Advantages for education and scientific advancement Language is
a historic barrier of information and knowledge Emergence of a
global lingua franca means wider and quicker access to knowledge
and new scientific discoveries English is now universal in many
academic disciplines and key information is now only made available
in English (e.g. Thomson- Reuters) Half of the worlds international
students are learning through English Europe saw a 340% increases
in English-medium instructed programmes in just 5 years, and a
1,000% increase in the past 10 years (Brenn-White and Faethe,
2013)
Slide 11
Advantages for political unity English is seen as a neutral
language Because of its neutrality with regard to diverse ethnic
groups wherein no single group is privileged English alone has the
ability to function as a unifying language for Singaporeans (Rubdy
et al., 2008, p. 44) Played a similar role in India where
historically minority language speakers were denied access to
certain tiers of society and politics, and language was used to
divide society Egalitarian justice Enables the rich and poor, the
powerful and powerless to communicate across formally
insurmountable linguistic boundaries and national borders (van
Parjis, 2011), such as in international protests and conflicts
(e.g. Iran, Syria)
Slide 12
Summary of Part 1 The emergence of a global lingua franca comes
with certain economic, political, and scientific advantages.
English is also used in more language contact situations than any
other language, and thus the social benefit of a global lingua
franca should also not be underestimated: e.g. English fosters
relationships between mobile populations around the globe: Chinese
tourists use English to communicate with hotel staff in Norway;
Italians use English to talk to Polish taxi drivers in Germany;
Australians use English to communicate with storeowners in Chile.
But the spread of English also comes at a cost for other languages
and for global equality which will be discussed at length in the
following parts of this lecture.
Slide 13
The dark side of the global spread of English Part 2
Slide 14
Disadvantages of a global lingua franca Language death
Homogenization of culture Reduction in learning other foreign
languages
Slide 15
Language death There are between 5,000 to 6,000 languages
spoken in the world today: These figures are hard to estimate due
to fuzzy boundaries between languages and dialects. Based on this
figure, it has been predicted that 3,000 to 4,000 of these
languages may cease to exist by the end of this century (Grenoble
and Whaley, 1998). More recent statistics show 40% of the worlds
languages are endangered (ELCat, 2014). At the end of this century
only 600 languages will have more than 100,000 speakers (Hale,
1998).
Slide 16
Cause of language death Primary cause = arrival of new
languages: Of the 270 documented mutually intelligible indigenous
languages of the USA and Canada, one-third have already disappeared
and all but several are expected to be extinct within the next few
generations (Mithun, 1998). South America saw death of countless
indigenous languages in favour of prestigious Mayan and Incan
languages, and these in turn diminished with the arrival of
Spanish. Regional Indian languages have diminished in the shadow of
Hindi. Chinese minority languages have diminished with the spread
of Putonghua (Mandarin). African vernacular languages have
diminished with the pervasive lingua francas of French, English,
and Swahili.
Slide 17
What is lost when languages die? Because the rapid loss of
languages (and concomitant changes occurring in cultures) promises
to reweave the social fabric of the world completely in the coming
century, one might expect it to be a topic of keen interest for
anyone concerned with the nature of social interaction in the not
so distant future. On the contrary, attention to the issues
surrounding endangered languages has remained mostly restricted to
certain segments of academia and to individual communities
currently faced with the real possibility of the loss of a
traditional language. The general inattention to the issue of
language death stems in part from a failure by linguistics to
adequately explore and to explain questions about what, if
anything, is lost when one language becomes obsolescent and is
superseded by another (Grenoble and Whaley, 1998, p. xiii). The
world not only loses a language but the cultures, traditions, and
knowledge that surrounds it. The loss of language is a mental loss
for society as it loses a perspective to look at things differently
(Mithun, 1998). Language loss is a scientific and intellectual loss
for humanity (Hale, 1998).
Slide 18
What of the spread of English in more recent times? Attention
has been drawn to the threat English poses to foreign languages
(Phillipson, 2003), which Paikeday (1985) has called linguistic
genocide. In most of Europe, secondary students learn English in
their modern foreign language class, often in place of traditional
neighbouring European languages. English is now taught at the
expense of other major ASEAN languages in ASEAN countries
(Kirkpatrick, 2009).
Slide 19
Homogenization of culture Language can be seen as a symbol of
culture, and the strong connection between the two means that the
worldwide spread of English has resulted in the worldwide spread of
Western and more specifically American culture = Americanization.
Language, culture, and identity are inextricably intertwined, so
each exerts influence on the other. It is difficult to ascertain
the real impact on language of changing culture (i.e. cannot
separate the effect of English and the effect of globalization. Do
Irish people feel less Irish when they speak English? Do Maori feel
less Maori? Pennycook (1994, p. 21) points out, Access to
prestigious but often inappropriate forms of knowledge is often
only through English, and thus, given the status of English both
within and between countries, there is often reciprocal
reinforcement of the position of English and the position of
imported forms of culture and knowledge.
Slide 20
A killer of foreign language learning? The case of the UK: In
2010, 43% of students elected to do a foreign language among their
GCSEs, compared to 71 % in 1999. In 2008, only 610 students
enrolled in German language courses at university, compared with
2,288 in 1998. French has dropped 30% in the same period (The
Independent, 2008). In Australia there has been a decrease in the
traditional four big languages: Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, and
Korean. Students are no longer viewing foreign languages as a
worthy pursuit, which is perhaps indicative of the myth perpetuated
by globalization: that knowing English will be sufficient for
future international communication and careers. But ELF research
shows these students will be at a disadvantage in their future
lives.
Slide 21
Is English a killer language? Reference to the English language
has often been analogous to monsters and other beasts that bring
death and destruction (Wilton, 2012): ELF as a lingua
frankensteinia (Phillipson, 2008) English as hydra (Rapatahana and
Bunce, 2012) English as a Tyrannosaurus Rex (Tardy, 2004). Are such
analogies warranted? English compared to Spanish was a much more
accommodating language to local languages (Spolsky, 2004), being
used in addition to and not forcibly in place of other languages.
Mufwene (2002, p. 12): languages dont kill languages, their own
speakers do, in giving them up. Dorian (1998, p. 4): because the
standing of a language is so intimately tied to that of its
speakers, enormous reversals in the prestige of a language can take
place in very short timespan. What role did the policy of
English-speaking nations play in the spread of English (top-down
forces), and what role did people play in switching to English
(bottom-up forces)?
Slide 22
Linguistic imperialism and the creation of inequalities by the
global spread of English Part 3
Slide 23
What is linguistic imperialism? A term coined by Phillipson in
1992. Linguistic imperialism is seen by many academics as a
globally organized form of linguicism, which is defined as the
intentional destruction of a powerless language by a dominant one
(Spolsky, 2004, p. 79). Phillipson in the 1990s argued: It was in
the interests of the UK and the USA to have English spread, and
policies put in place by these countries allowed English to become
the global language it is today. ENL countries are unfairly
benefiting today because of Englishs position as a global lingua
franca.
Slide 24
Phillipsons current views on linguistic imperialism As a form
of linguicism, which manifests in favouring the dominant language
over another, along similar lines as racism and sexism. As a
structurally manifested concept where more resources and
infrastructure are accorded to the dominant language. As being
ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant
language form is superior to others, and thus is more prestigious.
He also argues that such ideas are hegemonic and internalized and
naturalized as being normal. As intertwined with the same structure
as imperialism in culture, education, the media, and politics. As
having an exploitative essence which causes injustice and
inequality between those who use the dominant language and those
who do not. As having a subtractive influence on other languages,
in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others.
As being contested and resisted because of these factors.
(Phillipson, 2012, p. 214)
Slide 25
Creation of socio-economic inequalities Blommaert (2010, p.
197) notes, Globalization is something that has winners as well as
losers, a top as well as a bottom, and centres as well as
peripheries. In countries where the UK had a colonial presence,
English is clearly the favoured language, even if it is not the
language commonly used by its citizens. Social, political, and
educational disadvantages exist for those who do not speak it.
Discrimination also occurs in education around the world, with
TOEFL and IELTS scores necessary to enter degrees. Kim and Elder
(2009) note that in 2003, the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) implemented English language proficiency
requirements for aviation personnel, leading the Korean government
to develop an English language test. Innumerable financial and
social benefits are afforded to NESs because of the spread of
English: they can more easily be: accepted into the worlds top
universities (most of which have an English language entrance
requirement) hired into top-paying international firms be published
in world-reputed journals (which have strict language requirements)
claim political positions (in many countries where English language
has an administrative role).
Slide 26
The debate: was the spread of English a result of linguistic
imperialism? Yes: the top-down perspectiveNo: the bottom-up
perspective English was intentionally spread for the benefit of ENL
nations. The spread of English was a consequence of the spread of
British and American power. There is evidence to the contrary of
British colonial policy to deny language education to local
populations, as it was feared to lead to organized resistance to
colonial rule (Ferguson, 2006). The development of English as a
global language reflects local and individual language acquisition
decisions, responding to changes in the complex ecology of the
worlds language system (Spolsky, 2004, p. 90). Colonial policy
indicates that English was enforced at the expense of other
languages, through educational cultural and political
structures.
Slide 27
The debate: was the spread of English a result of linguistic
imperialism? Yes: the top-down perspectiveNo: the bottom-up
perspective What enables dominance are ideologies, structures and
practices that are considered extra-linguistic (Canagarajah. 1999b,
p. 41). These organizations exist for most countries. The promotion
of national language and culture should not be confused with
imperialist notions. Linguistic Imperialist policy can still be
seen in policy documents of the British Council and the United
States Information Agency. English was used as a dividing mechanism
to exert dominance over local populations.
Slide 28
Levelling inequality If language is viewed as a door to access
the advantages afforded to English speakers (whether due to
linguistic imperialism or incidental to the forces of globalization
is irrelevant), then it can also be seen as a means to level such
inequality. Knowledge of English is seen as a means to access the
privileges that are tied with the language, and thus as a vehicle
for upward social and economic mobility: Nations such as Rwanda and
Georgia (discussed later in this lecture) are examples of this
ideology. However, knowledge of English alone is not a means for
political development i.e. Vietnam and Indonesia are enjoying
economic success while maintaining strong national languages
(Kirkpatrick, 2007).
Slide 29
Resisting linguistic imperialism Linguistic imperialism is
connected to power and prestige: Shifts in power can already be
seen at the macro level with the rise of nations like India and
China as dominant global players, resulting in a rise in the
learning of Chinese Mandarin. The importance of languages such as
Spanish in former economic juggernauts like America is also
becoming more apparent and part of public discourse. Challenges to
English are also found at the local level, where discussions of
Englishes, and individual decisions to engage in code-mixing and
code-switching, challenge the ideologies and institutions which
undergird the dominance of English (Canagarajah, 1999b, p. 42). The
future of English will be discussed in the final lecture of this
course.
Slide 30
The politics of the spread of English: influences on language
policy and planning Part 4
Slide 31
Four common scenarios of English language policy Language
policy In the Inner Circle English-only policy Minority language
policy In the Outer Circle In the Expanding Circle
Slide 32
English-only policy in ENL nations Because of inequality in
wealth/power held by English-speaking nations, ENL countries such
as the USA, the UK, Australia, and Canada have attracted waves of
immigrants in search for a better life, or in the case of the USA
the American dream: This migration has been met with either
enthusiasm or disdain (Ferguson, 2006) mostly disdain in more
recent decades. There is a political backlash against influx of
immigrant culture and language. This backlash manifests in
English-only policies.
Slide 33
English-only policy in the USA USA is infamous for its sink or
swim submersion policy to education: Immigrant children placed in
classroom without language support. Bilingual Education Act
(19681994): Bilingual in name only. Teachers within this programme
were mostly monolingual English speakers. Aim was to integrate
children into English-speaking programmes as quickly as possible.
Aim to wean students off their home languages bilingualism was not
the goal. No Child Left Behind Act (2002present): Moved even
further away from notions of bilingual development. First language
viewed as a hindrance to educational development. Maximum times
were set for students to receive language support before
integration. English-only movement has also been occurring at the
political level: 1980s and 1990s saw states declare English to be
only official language.
Slide 34
Minority language policy Some other Inner Circle nations have
made a political effort to maintain and revitalize indigenous
minority languages with degrees of success: The Welsh Language Act
of 1993 aimed to revitalize Welsh in educational, public, and
political spheres: Whether the increased emphasis on Welsh in
schools will translate to increased usage in later life, or
decisions to pass the language on to future generations in family
language planning, is yet to be seen (Ferguson, 2006). Irish was
declared the first official language when the Republic of Ireland
was formed in 1922: Census data shows that Irish is rarely used
outside the classroom context, and although people claim to be
fluent, it is not used on a frequent basis (Grenoble and Whaley,
1998, p. ixx). The Maori Language Act of 1987 instigated Maori as
an official language of New Zealand: 79.3% of students have no
language education in Maori apart from a handful of cultural words
and expressions, 18.5% have Maori language education in English
medium schools, and 2.2% have Maori language immersion (Education
Counts, 2014). Despite challenges, these are positive examples of
endangered languages having been revitalized through policy.
Slide 35
Language policy in the Outer Circle English is usually
maintained as an official language alongside other languages:
Singapore acknowledges four official languages, but in education
English is the medium of instruction (English + 1 policy). In
nations like Singapore, English plays a politically mediatory role
in the multilingual nations. In other nations like Malaysia, the
emphasis on English has been lessened with the growth in importance
of other unifying languages such as Bahasa-Melayu. In nations like
Nigeria there is movement towards home language promotion, where
primary school-aged children can theoretically elect to learn in
their home language. However, with 400 languages, in practice
parents elect to have children learn in a handful of dominant
languages.
Slide 36
Language policy in the Expanding Circle In countries like
Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Finland, English is becoming
more predominant in education (not due to policy but due to
bottom-up forces). In countries like China, English is becoming
more predominant in education because of top-down policy. Rwanda is
transitioning from French to English as its main official language,
despite being a former Belgian colony, and despite already having a
unifying national language of Kinyarwanda. English is seen as a
means to: Distance the nation from its colonial past Improve
relations with the east African community. Georgia is also
transitioning from Russian to English in order to: Distance
themselves from Russia Leverage economic advantages by increasing
ties with powerful nations where English (not Russian) is the
lingua franca.
Slide 37
In the European Union The current role of English in Europe is
characterized by the fact that the language has become a lingua
franca, a language of wider communication, and has entered the
continent in two directions as it were, top-down by fulfilling
functions in various professional domains and, simultaneously,
bottomup by being encountered and used by speakers from all levels
of society in practically all walks of life. So English functions
as a lingua franca, enabling people to connect based on common
interests and concerns across languages and communities. Despite
widespread criticism of its dominance, it has to be acknowledged
that English does serve the ideal of European integration and
facilitate movement across borders. (Seidlhofer, 2006, p. 5)
Slide 38
Summary of Lecture 3 (1) More effective communication not only
allows for increased efficiency in international organizations,
political gatherings, and international business, but also in
scientific scholarship, popular media, travel, and personal
communication. The spread of English and the adoption of it as a
lingua franca come at a cost: A reduction in global linguistic
diversity as traditional languages are abandoned in favour of a
more powerful lingua franca. The loss of a language also often
means a loss of identity, traditions, and practices. With the death
of languages comes the hegemony of global cultures and the notion
of Americanization. The question of blame for the adoption of
English and abandonment of local languages has been discussed in
relation to linguistic imperialism that the spread of English and
destruction of other languages was a result of policies connected
to colonialism and the pursuit of power through inequality.
Arguments against linguistic imperialism take a more bottom-up
perspective, in that languages were abandoned by speakers in favour
of English as an indirect consequence of colonialism and
globalization, and that partial blame for its current status be
attributed to speakers, who are driven by personal gain.
Slide 39
Summary of Lecture 3 (2) There are examples of policy that
actively promoted English at the expense of other languages
(American bilingual education policy) and others that actively
revitalized languages that had been historically threatened by
English (e.g. in Wales and New Zealand). Some top-down policies in
light of globalization promote English education and use (such as
Georgias switch from Russian to English), or aim to curb the
bottom-up intrusion of English into educational domains (such as in
Sweden). Issues and attitudes surrounding English are a complex mix
of factors which can be measured in terms of policy and social
discourse, but also subtler factors such as prestige attached to
language and opportunities afforded by speaking some languages over
others.
Slide 40
Key terms Linguistic imperialism Linguicism Language policy
English-only policy Top-down perspective Bottom-up perspective
Language maintenance Language revitalization Bilingual Education
Act No Child Left Behind Act Transitional programmes Submersion
Immersion
Slide 41
Further reading On the effects of the spread of English:
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd edition).
Cambridge: CUP. Crystal, D. (2002). Language Death. Cambridge: CUP.
On linguistic imperialism: Phillipson, R. (1992b). Linguistic
Imperialism. Oxford: OUP. Canagarajah, S. (1999b). Resisting
Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: OUP. On language policy: Spolsky,
B. (ed.). (2012). The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy.
Cambridge: CUP.