English as a global language: issues and attitudes For use with Chapter 3 of: Galloway, N. and Rose,...

English as a global language: issues and attitudes For use with Chapter 3 of: Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge. Dr. Heath Rose and Dr. Nicola Galloway

Review of Lecture 2 Language change: normal and natural, and the result of numerous factors (diachronic, endogenous, exogenous synchronic, language contact, code-switching, code-mixing, and borrowing). Widespread variation phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatics. New Englishes many stages involved, native or nativized? World Englishes paradigm variation, codification, ownership, and ELT: Part of Global Englishes paradigm English belongs to everyone who speaks it, but it is nobodys mother tongue (Rajagopalan, 2004, p. 111). WE, ELF, and GE. Despite variation, there is an idea of a standard English, deeply rooted in history (Lecture 1 history is important to fully understand GE). OC varieties are often seen as inferior and illegitimate. Why standard English is a fallacy: The very idea of a standard implies stability but language is unstable (Widdowson, 2003) To support the notion of standard English is incompatible with the complex reality of how English is used worldwide (Saraceni, 2009) ELF research questions the existence of a standard English difficult to define a NES (continued in this lecture).

Overview The advantages of the global spread of English The dark side of the global spread of English Linguistic imperialism The politics of the spread of English

Introductory activities Look at the statistics in the introduction to Chapter 3 and then discuss the questions below. 1.Which of the statistics were most surprising to you? 2.Do you think it is fair that the USA and the UK benefit financially because they are native English-speaking nations, and therefore attract international students? Do you think UK and US universities rank so highly due to quality of education? Or is it due to their location in historically powerful English-speaking countries? 3.What do you think is the cause for a decline in foreign language learning in the UK? Do you think students will suffer any long-term negative affects by not picking up foreign language education? 4.What do you think will be the impact, if any, of the loss of languages and a decrease in the worlds linguistic diversity? 5.Do financial savings from translation services justify decisions to switch to a single working language in an international company or organization? What is streamlined and what is lost?

The advantages of the global spread of English Part 1

Factors affecting whether a language is adopted or abandoned when it spreads to new territories 1.Expectations of ruling power: e.g. The Ottoman Empire permitted communities in their wide-ranging empire to keep their ethnic identities and language use. 2.Geographical distance from home territory: e.g. Vikings in Italy were isolated from their homeland and thus adopted the local languages of their conquered villages. 3.Loss of home territory : e.g. French-speaking Normans in England switched to English after losing territory in France. 4.Population size ratio : e.g. in Australia, British settlers far outnumbered the indigenous population, and thus indigenous languages quickly diminished in the local populations compare with India where English settlers were a minority and thus the language had less impact. 5.Prestige attached to language: see Chapter 2 if prestige is attached to a language it is likely to be adopted. 6.Educational, religious, or public policy: e.g. if a language is packaged as the language of God it can have devastating effects on other languages which are viewed as inferior. In the same light, Welsh probably only survives today because the Bible was translated into the Welsh language and thus it was seen as a tool to deliver religious messages.

Advantages for international relations English is now an official or co- official language in one-third of the worlds countries (McArthur, 2002, p. 3) It has never been easier for other Europeans to know what Poles think about the credit crunch, Germans about the Middle East or Danes about nuclear power (The Economist, 12 February 2009) Benefits to international diplomacy Cost-cutting measures in ASEAN, unlike in the EU

Advantages for business Higher efficiency The use of a single working language means communications between company HQs and foreign branches, factories, subsidiaries, and various connected institutional bodies can be streamlined Many international firms have decided to instigate English as their working language, even though the company might be based entirely in non-English- speaking countries (e.g. Renault-Nissan) Business English as a lingua franca (BELF) 70% of the English communication in European multinational companies is characterized as BELF (Kankaanranta and Planken, 2010)

Advantages for communication Increased efficiency in international communication: English is by far the most useful language for international communication today (Ammon, 2003, p. 23). English radio programming is heard by 150 million people in 120 countries (Crystal, 2008, p. 4) English use in Internet-based media accounts for 45% of online content Popular media (film, book, and gaming translations becoming increasingly unnecessary) Transportation industry communication Shipping and aviation (specific phraseology ensures safe passage)

Advantages for education and scientific advancement Language is a historic barrier of information and knowledge Emergence of a global lingua franca means wider and quicker access to knowledge and new scientific discoveries English is now universal in many academic disciplines and key information is now only made available in English (e.g. Thomson- Reuters) Half of the worlds international students are learning through English Europe saw a 340% increases in English-medium instructed programmes in just 5 years, and a 1,000% increase in the past 10 years (Brenn-White and Faethe, 2013)

Advantages for political unity English is seen as a neutral language Because of its neutrality with regard to diverse ethnic groups wherein no single group is privileged English alone has the ability to function as a unifying language for Singaporeans (Rubdy et al., 2008, p. 44) Played a similar role in India where historically minority language speakers were denied access to certain tiers of society and politics, and language was used to divide society Egalitarian justice Enables the rich and poor, the powerful and powerless to communicate across formally insurmountable linguistic boundaries and national borders (van Parjis, 2011), such as in international protests and conflicts (e.g. Iran, Syria)

Summary of Part 1 The emergence of a global lingua franca comes with certain economic, political, and scientific advantages. English is also used in more language contact situations than any other language, and thus the social benefit of a global lingua franca should also not be underestimated: e.g. English fosters relationships between mobile populations around the globe: Chinese tourists use English to communicate with hotel staff in Norway; Italians use English to talk to Polish taxi drivers in Germany; Australians use English to communicate with storeowners in Chile. But the spread of English also comes at a cost for other languages and for global equality which will be discussed at length in the following parts of this lecture.

The dark side of the global spread of English Part 2

Disadvantages of a global lingua franca Language death Homogenization of culture Reduction in learning other foreign languages

Language death There are between 5,000 to 6,000 languages spoken in the world today: These figures are hard to estimate due to fuzzy boundaries between languages and dialects. Based on this figure, it has been predicted that 3,000 to 4,000 of these languages may cease to exist by the end of this century (Grenoble and Whaley, 1998). More recent statistics show 40% of the worlds languages are endangered (ELCat, 2014). At the end of this century only 600 languages will have more than 100,000 speakers (Hale, 1998).

Cause of language death Primary cause = arrival of new languages: Of the 270 documented mutually intelligible indigenous languages of the USA and Canada, one-third have already disappeared and all but several are expected to be extinct within the next few generations (Mithun, 1998). South America saw death of countless indigenous languages in favour of prestigious Mayan and Incan languages, and these in turn diminished with the arrival of Spanish. Regional Indian languages have diminished in the shadow of Hindi. Chinese minority languages have diminished with the spread of Putonghua (Mandarin). African vernacular languages have diminished with the pervasive lingua francas of French, English, and Swahili.

What is lost when languages die? Because the rapid loss of languages (and concomitant changes occurring in cultures) promises to reweave the social fabric of the world completely in the coming century, one might expect it to be a topic of keen interest for anyone concerned with the nature of social interaction in the not so distant future. On the contrary, attention to the issues surrounding endangered languages has remained mostly restricted to certain segments of academia and to individual communities currently faced with the real possibility of the loss of a traditional language. The general inattention to the issue of language death stems in part from a failure by linguistics to adequately explore and to explain questions about what, if anything, is lost when one language becomes obsolescent and is superseded by another (Grenoble and Whaley, 1998, p. xiii). The world not only loses a language but the cultures, traditions, and knowledge that surrounds it. The loss of language is a mental loss for society as it loses a perspective to look at things differently (Mithun, 1998). Language loss is a scientific and intellectual loss for humanity (Hale, 1998).

What of the spread of English in more recent times? Attention has been drawn to the threat English poses to foreign languages (Phillipson, 2003), which Paikeday (1985) has called linguistic genocide. In most of Europe, secondary students learn English in their modern foreign language class, often in place of traditional neighbouring European languages. English is now taught at the expense of other major ASEAN languages in ASEAN countries (Kirkpatrick, 2009).

Homogenization of culture Language can be seen as a symbol of culture, and the strong connection between the two means that the worldwide spread of English has resulted in the worldwide spread of Western and more specifically American culture = Americanization. Language, culture, and identity are inextricably intertwined, so each exerts influence on the other. It is difficult to ascertain the real impact on language of changing culture (i.e. cannot separate the effect of English and the effect of globalization. Do Irish people feel less Irish when they speak English? Do Maori feel less Maori? Pennycook (1994, p. 21) points out, Access to prestigious but often inappropriate forms of knowledge is often only through English, and thus, given the status of English both within and between countries, there is often reciprocal reinforcement of the position of English and the position of imported forms of culture and knowledge.

A killer of foreign language learning? The case of the UK: In 2010, 43% of students elected to do a foreign language among their GCSEs, compared to 71 % in 1999. In 2008, only 610 students enrolled in German language courses at university, compared with 2,288 in 1998. French has dropped 30% in the same period (The Independent, 2008). In Australia there has been a decrease in the traditional four big languages: Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, and Korean. Students are no longer viewing foreign languages as a worthy pursuit, which is perhaps indicative of the myth perpetuated by globalization: that knowing English will be sufficient for future international communication and careers. But ELF research shows these students will be at a disadvantage in their future lives.

Is English a killer language? Reference to the English language has often been analogous to monsters and other beasts that bring death and destruction (Wilton, 2012): ELF as a lingua frankensteinia (Phillipson, 2008) English as hydra (Rapatahana and Bunce, 2012) English as a Tyrannosaurus Rex (Tardy, 2004). Are such analogies warranted? English compared to Spanish was a much more accommodating language to local languages (Spolsky, 2004), being used in addition to and not forcibly in place of other languages. Mufwene (2002, p. 12): languages dont kill languages, their own speakers do, in giving them up. Dorian (1998, p. 4): because the standing of a language is so intimately tied to that of its speakers, enormous reversals in the prestige of a language can take place in very short timespan. What role did the policy of English-speaking nations play in the spread of English (top-down forces), and what role did people play in switching to English (bottom-up forces)?

Linguistic imperialism and the creation of inequalities by the global spread of English Part 3

What is linguistic imperialism? A term coined by Phillipson in 1992. Linguistic imperialism is seen by many academics as a globally organized form of linguicism, which is defined as the intentional destruction of a powerless language by a dominant one (Spolsky, 2004, p. 79). Phillipson in the 1990s argued: It was in the interests of the UK and the USA to have English spread, and policies put in place by these countries allowed English to become the global language it is today. ENL countries are unfairly benefiting today because of Englishs position as a global lingua franca.

Phillipsons current views on linguistic imperialism As a form of linguicism, which manifests in favouring the dominant language over another, along similar lines as racism and sexism. As a structurally manifested concept where more resources and infrastructure are accorded to the dominant language. As being ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant language form is superior to others, and thus is more prestigious. He also argues that such ideas are hegemonic and internalized and naturalized as being normal. As intertwined with the same structure as imperialism in culture, education, the media, and politics. As having an exploitative essence which causes injustice and inequality between those who use the dominant language and those who do not. As having a subtractive influence on other languages, in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others. As being contested and resisted because of these factors. (Phillipson, 2012, p. 214)

Creation of socio-economic inequalities Blommaert (2010, p. 197) notes, Globalization is something that has winners as well as losers, a top as well as a bottom, and centres as well as peripheries. In countries where the UK had a colonial presence, English is clearly the favoured language, even if it is not the language commonly used by its citizens. Social, political, and educational disadvantages exist for those who do not speak it. Discrimination also occurs in education around the world, with TOEFL and IELTS scores necessary to enter degrees. Kim and Elder (2009) note that in 2003, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) implemented English language proficiency requirements for aviation personnel, leading the Korean government to develop an English language test. Innumerable financial and social benefits are afforded to NESs because of the spread of English: they can more easily be: accepted into the worlds top universities (most of which have an English language entrance requirement) hired into top-paying international firms be published in world-reputed journals (which have strict language requirements) claim political positions (in many countries where English language has an administrative role).

The debate: was the spread of English a result of linguistic imperialism? Yes: the top-down perspectiveNo: the bottom-up perspective English was intentionally spread for the benefit of ENL nations. The spread of English was a consequence of the spread of British and American power. There is evidence to the contrary of British colonial policy to deny language education to local populations, as it was feared to lead to organized resistance to colonial rule (Ferguson, 2006). The development of English as a global language reflects local and individual language acquisition decisions, responding to changes in the complex ecology of the worlds language system (Spolsky, 2004, p. 90). Colonial policy indicates that English was enforced at the expense of other languages, through educational cultural and political structures.

The debate: was the spread of English a result of linguistic imperialism? Yes: the top-down perspectiveNo: the bottom-up perspective What enables dominance are ideologies, structures and practices that are considered extra-linguistic (Canagarajah. 1999b, p. 41). These organizations exist for most countries. The promotion of national language and culture should not be confused with imperialist notions. Linguistic Imperialist policy can still be seen in policy documents of the British Council and the United States Information Agency. English was used as a dividing mechanism to exert dominance over local populations.

Levelling inequality If language is viewed as a door to access the advantages afforded to English speakers (whether due to linguistic imperialism or incidental to the forces of globalization is irrelevant), then it can also be seen as a means to level such inequality. Knowledge of English is seen as a means to access the privileges that are tied with the language, and thus as a vehicle for upward social and economic mobility: Nations such as Rwanda and Georgia (discussed later in this lecture) are examples of this ideology. However, knowledge of English alone is not a means for political development i.e. Vietnam and Indonesia are enjoying economic success while maintaining strong national languages (Kirkpatrick, 2007).

Resisting linguistic imperialism Linguistic imperialism is connected to power and prestige: Shifts in power can already be seen at the macro level with the rise of nations like India and China as dominant global players, resulting in a rise in the learning of Chinese Mandarin. The importance of languages such as Spanish in former economic juggernauts like America is also becoming more apparent and part of public discourse. Challenges to English are also found at the local level, where discussions of Englishes, and individual decisions to engage in code-mixing and code-switching, challenge the ideologies and institutions which undergird the dominance of English (Canagarajah, 1999b, p. 42). The future of English will be discussed in the final lecture of this course.

The politics of the spread of English: influences on language policy and planning Part 4

Four common scenarios of English language policy Language policy In the Inner Circle English-only policy Minority language policy In the Outer Circle In the Expanding Circle

English-only policy in ENL nations Because of inequality in wealth/power held by English-speaking nations, ENL countries such as the USA, the UK, Australia, and Canada have attracted waves of immigrants in search for a better life, or in the case of the USA the American dream: This migration has been met with either enthusiasm or disdain (Ferguson, 2006) mostly disdain in more recent decades. There is a political backlash against influx of immigrant culture and language. This backlash manifests in English-only policies.

English-only policy in the USA USA is infamous for its sink or swim submersion policy to education: Immigrant children placed in classroom without language support. Bilingual Education Act (19681994): Bilingual in name only. Teachers within this programme were mostly monolingual English speakers. Aim was to integrate children into English-speaking programmes as quickly as possible. Aim to wean students off their home languages bilingualism was not the goal. No Child Left Behind Act (2002present): Moved even further away from notions of bilingual development. First language viewed as a hindrance to educational development. Maximum times were set for students to receive language support before integration. English-only movement has also been occurring at the political level: 1980s and 1990s saw states declare English to be only official language.

Minority language policy Some other Inner Circle nations have made a political effort to maintain and revitalize indigenous minority languages with degrees of success: The Welsh Language Act of 1993 aimed to revitalize Welsh in educational, public, and political spheres: Whether the increased emphasis on Welsh in schools will translate to increased usage in later life, or decisions to pass the language on to future generations in family language planning, is yet to be seen (Ferguson, 2006). Irish was declared the first official language when the Republic of Ireland was formed in 1922: Census data shows that Irish is rarely used outside the classroom context, and although people claim to be fluent, it is not used on a frequent basis (Grenoble and Whaley, 1998, p. ixx). The Maori Language Act of 1987 instigated Maori as an official language of New Zealand: 79.3% of students have no language education in Maori apart from a handful of cultural words and expressions, 18.5% have Maori language education in English medium schools, and 2.2% have Maori language immersion (Education Counts, 2014). Despite challenges, these are positive examples of endangered languages having been revitalized through policy.

Language policy in the Outer Circle English is usually maintained as an official language alongside other languages: Singapore acknowledges four official languages, but in education English is the medium of instruction (English + 1 policy). In nations like Singapore, English plays a politically mediatory role in the multilingual nations. In other nations like Malaysia, the emphasis on English has been lessened with the growth in importance of other unifying languages such as Bahasa-Melayu. In nations like Nigeria there is movement towards home language promotion, where primary school-aged children can theoretically elect to learn in their home language. However, with 400 languages, in practice parents elect to have children learn in a handful of dominant languages.

Language policy in the Expanding Circle In countries like Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Finland, English is becoming more predominant in education (not due to policy but due to bottom-up forces). In countries like China, English is becoming more predominant in education because of top-down policy. Rwanda is transitioning from French to English as its main official language, despite being a former Belgian colony, and despite already having a unifying national language of Kinyarwanda. English is seen as a means to: Distance the nation from its colonial past Improve relations with the east African community. Georgia is also transitioning from Russian to English in order to: Distance themselves from Russia Leverage economic advantages by increasing ties with powerful nations where English (not Russian) is the lingua franca.

In the European Union The current role of English in Europe is characterized by the fact that the language has become a lingua franca, a language of wider communication, and has entered the continent in two directions as it were, top-down by fulfilling functions in various professional domains and, simultaneously, bottomup by being encountered and used by speakers from all levels of society in practically all walks of life. So English functions as a lingua franca, enabling people to connect based on common interests and concerns across languages and communities. Despite widespread criticism of its dominance, it has to be acknowledged that English does serve the ideal of European integration and facilitate movement across borders. (Seidlhofer, 2006, p. 5)

Summary of Lecture 3 (1) More effective communication not only allows for increased efficiency in international organizations, political gatherings, and international business, but also in scientific scholarship, popular media, travel, and personal communication. The spread of English and the adoption of it as a lingua franca come at a cost: A reduction in global linguistic diversity as traditional languages are abandoned in favour of a more powerful lingua franca. The loss of a language also often means a loss of identity, traditions, and practices. With the death of languages comes the hegemony of global cultures and the notion of Americanization. The question of blame for the adoption of English and abandonment of local languages has been discussed in relation to linguistic imperialism that the spread of English and destruction of other languages was a result of policies connected to colonialism and the pursuit of power through inequality. Arguments against linguistic imperialism take a more bottom-up perspective, in that languages were abandoned by speakers in favour of English as an indirect consequence of colonialism and globalization, and that partial blame for its current status be attributed to speakers, who are driven by personal gain.

Summary of Lecture 3 (2) There are examples of policy that actively promoted English at the expense of other languages (American bilingual education policy) and others that actively revitalized languages that had been historically threatened by English (e.g. in Wales and New Zealand). Some top-down policies in light of globalization promote English education and use (such as Georgias switch from Russian to English), or aim to curb the bottom-up intrusion of English into educational domains (such as in Sweden). Issues and attitudes surrounding English are a complex mix of factors which can be measured in terms of policy and social discourse, but also subtler factors such as prestige attached to language and opportunities afforded by speaking some languages over others.

Key terms Linguistic imperialism Linguicism Language policy English-only policy Top-down perspective Bottom-up perspective Language maintenance Language revitalization Bilingual Education Act No Child Left Behind Act Transitional programmes Submersion Immersion

Further reading On the effects of the spread of English: Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd edition). Cambridge: CUP. Crystal, D. (2002). Language Death. Cambridge: CUP. On linguistic imperialism: Phillipson, R. (1992b). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: OUP. Canagarajah, S. (1999b). Resisting Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: OUP. On language policy: Spolsky, B. (ed.). (2012). The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy. Cambridge: CUP.

English as a global language: issues and attitudes For use with Chapter 3 of: Galloway, N. and Rose,...

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