Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CognitionCognition
Problem Solving and Problem Solving and CreativityCreativity
Chapter 11Chapter 11
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
IntroductionIntroduction
problem solving—used when you want to reach a certain goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious and obstacles block your path
initial state
goal state
obstacles
thinking—requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so you can reach a goal
transformation of knowledge
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
understanding the problem—construct a mental representation of the problem, based on the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
Paying Attention to Important InformationPaying Attention to Important Informationidentifying and then attending to the most
relevant informationBransford and Stein (1984)
algebra story problemsdistracting negative thoughts
effective problem solvers read the description of a problem very carefully, paying particular attention to inconsistencies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
Methods of Representing the ProblemMethods of Representing the ProblemSymbols
translating words into symbolsoversimplificationmisremembering the problem
Matricesmatrix—chart showing all possible combinations of
itemsmost useful for complex, stable, categorical
information
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
Methods of Representing the ProblemMethods of Representing the ProblemDiagrams
instructions for assembling objectshierarchical tree diagramgraphs
Visual Images
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Situated Cognition: The Importance of ContextContext
situated-cognition approach—our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific context in which we learned to solve that problem
abstract intelligence or aptitude tests often fail to measure real-life problem solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Situated Cognition: The Importance of ContextContext
real-life cognition more complex than traditional cognitive approach
information-rich environmentssocial informationecological validitytransfer failure
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
algorithm• always produces a solution• sometimes inefficient• exhaustive search—try all possible answers
heuristic• general rule• strategy in which you ignore some alternatives and
explore only those alternatives that seem especially likely to produce a solution
• costs and benefits of using heuristics
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy Approachanalogy approach—using a solution to a similar,
earlier problem to help in solving a new problem
cross-cultural research
creative breakthroughs
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy ApproachThe Structure of the Analogy Approach
determining the real problemproblem isomorphssurface featuresstructural featuresfailure to see analogies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy ApproachFactors Encouraging Appropriate Use of Analogies
• hints on comparing problems can reveal structural similarities
• trying several structurally similar problems before the target problem
• training to sort problems into categories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends Heuristicmeans-ends heuristic• identify the "ends" you want and then figure out the
"means" to reach them• divide into subproblems• reducing the difference between the initial state and
the goal state for each subproblem• can be used in either forward or backward direction
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends HeuristicResearch on the Means-Ends Heuristic
Greeno (1974)—Hobbits-and-Orcs problemorganizing a sequence of moves to solve a
subproblem
sometimes the solution requires temporarily increasing the distance to the goal
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends HeuristicComputer Simulation
computer simulation—computer program that will perform a task the same way that a human would
Newell and Simon's General Problem Solverdifficulties with ill-defined problems—problems
where the goal is not obviousAnderson's ACT model and "cognitive tutors"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
The Hill-Climbing HeuristicThe Hill-Climbing Heuristichill-climbing heuristic—when you reach a choice point, choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal state
• useful when only the immediate next step can be seen
• less direct alternative may have greater long-term benefits
• encourages short-term goals, rather than long-term solutions
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving Comparisons in Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies
Güss and Wiley (2007)students in U.S., Brazil, Indiaquestionnaire on preferences in problem-
solving strategiesfrequency of useeffectivenessease of use
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving StrategiesProblem-Solving Strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
bottom-up processing
top-down processing
ExpertiseExpertiseexpertise—consistent exceptional performance on
representative tasks for a particular areaKnowledge BaseMemory
memory skills of experts tend to be very specificchess experts' memory is better only if the information
fits a particular schema
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
ExpertiseExpertiseProblem-Solving Strategies
experts more likely to use the means-ends heuristic effectively
experts more likely to emphasize structural features when using the analogy approach
Speed and Accuracyparallel processingserial processing
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
ExpertiseExpertiseMetacognitive Skills
experts better than novices at monitoring their own problem solving
experts better at judging the difficulty of the problem, allocating time, recovering from errors
experts underestimate the amount of time novices will require to solve a problem in the experts' area of specialization
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
Mental SetMental Setmental set—using the same solution from previous
problems, even though the problem could be solved by a different, easier method
overactive top-down processing
Luchin's water-jar problem
fixed mindset
growth mindset
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
Functional FixednessFunctional Fixednessfunctional fixedness—assign stable uses to an
object and fail to think about the features of the object that might be useful in helping solve a problem
Duncker's candle problem
emergencies
cross-cultural studies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
our stereotypes can influence our beliefs about our own abilities
gender stereotypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
The Nature of Stereotype Threatstruggling with a popular stereotype may cause
additional anxiety that may lead to less effective problem solving
stereotype threat—if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999)
compare the effects of two competing stereotypes using three groups of Asian American women
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
1. Ethnicity-emphasis condition: One group of participants were asked to indicate their ethnicity and then answer several questions about their ethnic identity. Then they took a challenging math test. These women answered 54% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
2. Control-group condition: A second group of participants did not answer any questions beforehand. They simply took the challenging math test. These women answered 49% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
3. Gender-emphasis condition: A third group of participants were asked to indicate their gender and then answer several questions about their gender identity. Then they took the challenging math test. These women answered only 43% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with Asian American FemalesAmbady and coauthors (2001)
• found similar pattern among Asian American girls• reminding them of their gender resulted in a decline in
problem-solving scores• reminding them of their ethnicity did not
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Research with European American FemalesO'Brien and Crandall (2003)
math test identified as "known to show gender differences" vs. "known to show no gender differences"
Johns and coauthors (2005)providing a brief description of stereotype threat greatly reduced gender differences in math-test scores
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving
Potential Explanations• arousal/anxiety and working memory• thought suppression reduces working memory
capacity• interfere with the ability to construct problem-
solving strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Stereotypes and Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingProblem-Solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight ProblemsInsight Versus Noninsight Problemsinsight problem—seems impossible until sudden
solution appearsnoninsight problem—gradual solution
The Nature of Insightgestalt psychologists vs. behavioristsbegin with inappropriate assumptions that need to be
discardedincubation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight ProblemsInsight Versus Noninsight ProblemsMetacognition During Problem Solving
Janet Metcalfe (1986)—people's confidence builds gradually for noninsight problems, but shows a sudden leap in solving insight problems
"feeling-of-warmth" scaleconsidering previous similar problems as well as the
possibility that a different approach might be required
thinking "outside the box"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Metacognition During Metacognition During Problem-SolvingProblem-Solving
Figure 11.4 “Warmth Ratings” for Answers That Were Correct, as a Function of Time of Rating Prior to Answering.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
similarities to and differences from other forms of problem solving
DefinitionsDefinitionsnovelty, originality
need to reach some goal
useful and appropriate
creativity—finding solutions that are novel, high quality, and useful
ordinary vs. exceptional thinking
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityDivergent Production
• measure creativity in terms of the number of different responses made
• moderate correlations between divergent production and other judgments of creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityInvestment Theory of Creativity
• "buy low and sell high”• produce a creative idea when no one else is
interested, then once the idea is popular, move on to a new creative project
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityInvestment Theory of Creativity (continued)
Characteristics of “Wise Creative Investors”• intelligence• knowledge• motivation• encouraging environment• appropriate thinking style• appropriate personality
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
Task Motivation and CreativityTask Motivation and Creativitycuriosityintrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task for its
own sakeextrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task to
earn a promised rewardThe Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity
people are most likely to be creative when they are working on a task that they truly enjoy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
CreativityCreativity
Task Motivation and CreativityTask Motivation and CreativityThe Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity
• students tend to produce less creative projects if they are working on these projects for external reasons
• extrinsic motivation reduces creativity when it controls you or limits your options
• extrinsic factors that provide useful information can enhance creativity
Algorithms vs Experts - Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingStereotypes and Problem-Solving
U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – Liebhaber & Liebhaber & Feher, 2002Feher, 2002
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Algorithms vs Experts - Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingStereotypes and Problem-Solving
Information to Consider1.Origin 10. Coordinated
2.IFF mode 11. Maneuvers
3.Intelligence 12. Wings clean
4.Airlane 13. Range
5.Altitude 14. Course
6.ES 15. Own Support
7.Speed 16. Visibility
8.CPA 17. Weapon envelope
9.Feet wet
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Algorithm -
Weigh all of the data.
Algorithms vs Experts - Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingStereotypes and Problem-Solving
What Experts Consider
1.Origin
2.IFF Mode
3.Intelligence
4.Altitude
5.Airlane
6.ES
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11
Heuristic -
Evaluate “important” data.
Experts have schemas for types of aircraft they are likely to encounter.
Very efficient and effective, but prone to many biases. See Ch. 12.
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