Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 11 Cognition Problem Solving and Creativity Chapter 11.

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

CognitionCognition

Problem Solving and Problem Solving and CreativityCreativity

Chapter 11Chapter 11


IntroductionIntroduction

problem solving—used when you want to reach a certain goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious and obstacles block your path

initial state

goal state

obstacles

thinking—requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so you can reach a goal

transformation of knowledge


Understanding the Understanding the ProblemProblem

understanding the problem—construct a mental representation of the problem, based on the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience



Paying Attention to Important InformationPaying Attention to Important Informationidentifying and then attending to the most

relevant informationBransford and Stein (1984)

algebra story problemsdistracting negative thoughts

effective problem solvers read the description of a problem very carefully, paying particular attention to inconsistencies



Methods of Representing the ProblemMethods of Representing the ProblemSymbols

translating words into symbolsoversimplificationmisremembering the problem

Matricesmatrix—chart showing all possible combinations of

itemsmost useful for complex, stable, categorical

information



Methods of Representing the ProblemMethods of Representing the ProblemDiagrams

instructions for assembling objectshierarchical tree diagramgraphs

Visual Images



Situated Cognition: The Importance of Situated Cognition: The Importance of ContextContext

situated-cognition approach—our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific context in which we learned to solve that problem

abstract intelligence or aptitude tests often fail to measure real-life problem solving



Situated Cognition: The Importance of Situated Cognition: The Importance of ContextContext

real-life cognition more complex than traditional cognitive approach

information-rich environmentssocial informationecological validitytransfer failure


Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies

algorithm• always produces a solution• sometimes inefficient• exhaustive search—try all possible answers

heuristic• general rule• strategy in which you ignore some alternatives and

explore only those alternatives that seem especially likely to produce a solution

• costs and benefits of using heuristics



The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy Approachanalogy approach—using a solution to a similar,

earlier problem to help in solving a new problem

cross-cultural research

creative breakthroughs



The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy ApproachThe Structure of the Analogy Approach

determining the real problemproblem isomorphssurface featuresstructural featuresfailure to see analogies



The Analogy ApproachThe Analogy ApproachFactors Encouraging Appropriate Use of Analogies

• hints on comparing problems can reveal structural similarities

• trying several structurally similar problems before the target problem

• training to sort problems into categories



The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends Heuristicmeans-ends heuristic• identify the "ends" you want and then figure out the

"means" to reach them• divide into subproblems• reducing the difference between the initial state and

the goal state for each subproblem• can be used in either forward or backward direction



The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends HeuristicResearch on the Means-Ends Heuristic

Greeno (1974)—Hobbits-and-Orcs problemorganizing a sequence of moves to solve a

subproblem

sometimes the solution requires temporarily increasing the distance to the goal



The Means-Ends HeuristicThe Means-Ends HeuristicComputer Simulation

computer simulation—computer program that will perform a task the same way that a human would

Newell and Simon's General Problem Solverdifficulties with ill-defined problems—problems

where the goal is not obviousAnderson's ACT model and "cognitive tutors"



The Hill-Climbing HeuristicThe Hill-Climbing Heuristichill-climbing heuristic—when you reach a choice point, choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal state

• useful when only the immediate next step can be seen

• less direct alternative may have greater long-term benefits

• encourages short-term goals, rather than long-term solutions



Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving Comparisons in Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies

Güss and Wiley (2007)students in U.S., Brazil, Indiaquestionnaire on preferences in problem-

solving strategiesfrequency of useeffectivenessease of use


Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving StrategiesProblem-Solving Strategies


Factors That Influence Factors That Influence Problem SolvingProblem Solving

bottom-up processing

top-down processing

ExpertiseExpertiseexpertise—consistent exceptional performance on

representative tasks for a particular areaKnowledge BaseMemory

memory skills of experts tend to be very specificchess experts' memory is better only if the information

fits a particular schema



ExpertiseExpertiseProblem-Solving Strategies

experts more likely to use the means-ends heuristic effectively

experts more likely to emphasize structural features when using the analogy approach

Speed and Accuracyparallel processingserial processing



ExpertiseExpertiseMetacognitive Skills

experts better than novices at monitoring their own problem solving

experts better at judging the difficulty of the problem, allocating time, recovering from errors

experts underestimate the amount of time novices will require to solve a problem in the experts' area of specialization



Mental SetMental Setmental set—using the same solution from previous

problems, even though the problem could be solved by a different, easier method

overactive top-down processing

Luchin's water-jar problem

fixed mindset

growth mindset



Functional FixednessFunctional Fixednessfunctional fixedness—assign stable uses to an

object and fail to think about the features of the object that might be useful in helping solve a problem

Duncker's candle problem

emergencies

cross-cultural studies



In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem SolvingSolving

our stereotypes can influence our beliefs about our own abilities

gender stereotypes




The Nature of Stereotype Threatstruggling with a popular stereotype may cause

additional anxiety that may lead to less effective problem solving

stereotype threat—if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer




Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999)

compare the effects of two competing stereotypes using three groups of Asian American women




Research with Asian American FemalesShih and coauthors (1999) (continued)

1. Ethnicity-emphasis condition: One group of participants were asked to indicate their ethnicity and then answer several questions about their ethnic identity. Then they took a challenging math test. These women answered 54% of the questions correctly.





2. Control-group condition: A second group of participants did not answer any questions beforehand. They simply took the challenging math test. These women answered 49% of the questions correctly.





3. Gender-emphasis condition: A third group of participants were asked to indicate their gender and then answer several questions about their gender identity. Then they took the challenging math test. These women answered only 43% of the questions correctly.




Research with Asian American FemalesAmbady and coauthors (2001)

• found similar pattern among Asian American girls• reminding them of their gender resulted in a decline in

problem-solving scores• reminding them of their ethnicity did not




Research with European American FemalesO'Brien and Crandall (2003)

math test identified as "known to show gender differences" vs. "known to show no gender differences"

Johns and coauthors (2005)providing a brief description of stereotype threat greatly reduced gender differences in math-test scores




Potential Explanations• arousal/anxiety and working memory• thought suppression reduces working memory

capacity• interfere with the ability to construct problem-

solving strategies


Stereotypes and Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingProblem-Solving



Insight Versus Noninsight ProblemsInsight Versus Noninsight Problemsinsight problem—seems impossible until sudden

solution appearsnoninsight problem—gradual solution

The Nature of Insightgestalt psychologists vs. behavioristsbegin with inappropriate assumptions that need to be

discardedincubation



Insight Versus Noninsight ProblemsInsight Versus Noninsight ProblemsMetacognition During Problem Solving

Janet Metcalfe (1986)—people's confidence builds gradually for noninsight problems, but shows a sudden leap in solving insight problems

"feeling-of-warmth" scaleconsidering previous similar problems as well as the

possibility that a different approach might be required

thinking "outside the box"


Metacognition During Metacognition During Problem-SolvingProblem-Solving

Figure 11.4 “Warmth Ratings” for Answers That Were Correct, as a Function of Time of Rating Prior to Answering.


CreativityCreativity

similarities to and differences from other forms of problem solving

DefinitionsDefinitionsnovelty, originality

need to reach some goal

useful and appropriate

creativity—finding solutions that are novel, high quality, and useful

ordinary vs. exceptional thinking



Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityDivergent Production

• measure creativity in terms of the number of different responses made

• moderate correlations between divergent production and other judgments of creativity



Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityInvestment Theory of Creativity

• "buy low and sell high”• produce a creative idea when no one else is

interested, then once the idea is popular, move on to a new creative project



Approaches to CreativityApproaches to CreativityInvestment Theory of Creativity (continued)

Characteristics of “Wise Creative Investors”• intelligence• knowledge• motivation• encouraging environment• appropriate thinking style• appropriate personality



Task Motivation and CreativityTask Motivation and Creativitycuriosityintrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task for its

own sakeextrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task to

earn a promised rewardThe Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity

people are most likely to be creative when they are working on a task that they truly enjoy



Task Motivation and CreativityTask Motivation and CreativityThe Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity

• students tend to produce less creative projects if they are working on these projects for external reasons

• extrinsic motivation reduces creativity when it controls you or limits your options

• extrinsic factors that provide useful information can enhance creativity

Algorithms vs Experts - Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-SolvingStereotypes and Problem-Solving

U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – Liebhaber & Liebhaber & Feher, 2002Feher, 2002



Information to Consider1.Origin 10. Coordinated

2.IFF mode 11. Maneuvers

3.Intelligence 12. Wings clean

4.Airlane 13. Range

5.Altitude 14. Course

6.ES 15. Own Support

7.Speed 16. Visibility

8.CPA 17. Weapon envelope

9.Feet wet


Algorithm -

Weigh all of the data.


What Experts Consider

1.Origin

2.IFF Mode

3.Intelligence

4.Altitude

5.Airlane

6.ES


Heuristic -

Evaluate “important” data.

Experts have schemas for types of aircraft they are likely to encounter.

Very efficient and effective, but prone to many biases. See Ch. 12.

Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 11 Cognition Problem Solving and Creativity Chapter 11.

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