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New Methods for the Diangnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals
Alfred Binet (19!"
First published in
L'Anne Psychologique,12, 191-244.
This translation by Elizabeth S. Kite first appeared in 1916 in The development ofintelligence in children. ineland, !"# $ubli%ations of the Trainin& S%hool at ineland.
'efore e(plainin& these )ethods let us re%all e(a%tly the %onditions of the proble) *hi%h
*e are atte)ptin& to sol+e. ur purpose is to be able to )easure the intelle%tual %apa%ity of
a %hild *ho is brou&ht to us in order to no* *hether he is nor)al or retarded. e should
therefore, study his %ondition at the ti)e and that only. e ha+e nothin& to do either *ith
his past history or *ith his future/ %onse0uently *e shall ne&le%t his etiolo&y, and *e shall
)ae no atte)pt to distin&uish bet*een a%0uired and %on&enital idio%y/ for a stron&er
reason *e shall set aside all %onsideration of patholo&i%al anato)y *hi%h )i&ht e(plain hisintelle%tual defi%ien%y. So )u%h for his past. s to that *hi%h %on%erns his future, *e shall
e(er%ise the sa)e abstinen%e/ *e do not atte)pt to establish or prepare a pro&nosis and *e
lea+e unans*ered the 0uestion of *hether this retardation is %urable, or e+en i)pro+able.
e shall li)it oursel+es to as%ertainin& the truth in re&ard to his present )ental state.
Further)ore, in the definition of this state, *e should )ae so)e restri%tions. ost
subnor)al %hildren, espe%ially those in the s%hools, are habitually &rouped in t*o
%ate&ories, those of ba%*ard intelli&en%e, and those *ho are unstable. This latter %lass,
*hi%h %ertain alienists%all )oral i)be%iles, do not ne%essarily )anifest inferiority of
intelli&en%e/ they are turbulent, +i%ious, rebellious to all dis%ipline/ they la% se0uen%e of
ideas, and probably po*er of attention. 3t is a )atter of &reat deli%a%y to )ae the
distin%tion bet*een %hildren *ho are unstable, and those *ho ha+e rebellious dispositions.
Else*here *e ha+e insisted upon the ne%essity of instru%tors not treatin& as unstable, that is
as patholo&i%al %ases, those %hildren *hose %hara%ter is not sy)patheti% *ith their o*n. 3t
*ould ne%essitate a lon& study, and probably a +ery diffi%ult one, to establish the distin%ti+e
si&ns *hi%h separate the unstable fro) the undis%iplined. For the present *e shall not tae
up this study. e shall set the unstable aside, and shall %onsider only that *hi%h bears upon
those *ho are ba%*ard in intelli&en%e.
This is not, ho*e+er, to be the only li)itation of our sube%t be%ause ba%*ard states of
intelli&en%e present se+eral different types. There is the insane type -- or the type ofintelle%tual de%ay -- *hi%h %onsists in a pro&ressi+e loss of for)er a%0uired intelli&en%e.
any epilepti%s, *ho suffer fro) fre0uent atta%s, pro&ress to*ard insanity. 3t *ould be
possible and probably +ery i)portant, to be able to )ae the distin%tion bet*een those *ith
de%ayin& intelli&en%e on the one hand, and those of inferior intelli&en%e on the other. 'ut as
*e ha+e deter)ined to li)it on this side also, the do)ain of our study, *e shall ri&orously
e(%lude all for)s of insanity and de%ay. oreo+er *e belie+e that these are rarely present
in the s%hools, and need not be taen into %onsideration in the operation of ne* %lasses for
subnor)als.
nother distin%tion is )ade bet*een those of inferior intelli&en%e and de&enerates. The
latter are sube%ts in *ho) o%%ur %learly defined, episodi%al pheno)ena, su%h asi)pulsions, obsessions, deliriu)s. e shall eli)inate the de&enerates as *ell as the insane.
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5astly, *e should say a *ord upon our )anner of studyin& those *ho) )ost alienists %all
idiots but *ho) *e here %all of inferior intelli&en%e. The e(a%t nature of this inferiority is
not no*n/ and today *ithout other proof, one +ery prudently refuses to lien this state to
that of an arrest of nor)al de+elop)ent. 3t %ertainly see)s that the intelli&en%e of these
bein&s has under&one a %ertain arrest/ but it does not follo* that the disproportion bet*een
the de&ree of intelli&en%e and the a&e is the only %hara%teristi% of their %ondition. There isalso in )any %ases, )ost probably a de+iation in the de+elop)ent, a per+ersion. The idiot
of fifteen years, *ho, lie a baby of three, is )ain& his first +erbal atte)pts, %an not be
%o)pletely liened to a three-year old %hild, be%ause the latter is nor)al, but the idiot is
not. There e(ists therefore bet*een the), ne%essarily, differen%es either apparent or hidden.
The %areful study of idiots sho*s, a)on& so)e of the) at least, that *hereas %ertain
fa%ulties are al)ost *antin&, others are better de+eloped. They ha+e therefore %ertain
aptitudes. So)e ha+e a &ood auditory or )usi%al )e)ory, and a *hole repertoire of son&s/
others ha+e )e%hani%al ability. 3f all *ere %arefully e(a)ined, )any e(a)ples of these
partial aptitudes *ould probably be found.
ur purpose is in no *ise to study, analyze, or set forth the aptitudes of those of inferiorintelli&en%e. That *ill be the obe%t of a later *or. ere *e shall li)it oursel+es to the
)easurin& of their &eneral intelli&en%e. e shall deter)ine their intelle%tual le+el, and, in
order the better to appre%iate this le+el, *e shall %o)pare it *ith that of nor)al %hildren of
the sa)e a&e or of an analo&ous le+el. The reser+ations pre+iously )ade as to the true
%on%eption of arrested de+elop)ent, *ill not pre+ent our findin& &reat ad+anta&e in a
)ethodi%al %o)parison bet*een those of inferior and those of nor)al intelli&en%e.
To *hat )ethod should *e ha+e re%ourse in )ain& our dia&nosis of the intelle%tual le+el7
!o one )ethod e(ists, but there are a nu)ber of different ones *hi%h should be used
%u)ulati+ely, be%ause the 0uestion is a +ery diffi%ult one to sol+e, and de)ands rather a
%ollaboration of )ethods. 3t is i)portant that the pra%titioner be e0uipped in su%h a )anner
that he shall use, only as a%%essory, the infor)ation &i+en by the parents of the %hild, so that
he )ay al*ays be able to +erify this infor)ation, or, *hen ne%essary, dispense *ith it. 3n
a%tual pra%ti%e 0uite the opposite o%%urs. hen the %hild is taen to the %lini% the physi%ian
listens a &reat deal to the parents and 0uestions the %hild +ery little, in fa%t s%ar%ely loos at
hi), allo*in& hi)self to be influen%ed by a +ery stron& presu)ption that the %hild is
intelle%tually inferior. 3f, by a %han%e not liely to o%%ur, but *hi%h *ould be )ost
interestin& so)e ti)e to brin& about, the physi%ian *ere sub)itted to the test of sele%tin&
the subnor)als fro) a )i(ed &roup of %hildren, he *ould %ertainly find hi)self in the
)idst of &ra+e diffi%ulties, and *ould %o))it )any errors espe%ially in %ases of sli&ht
defe%t.
The or&anization of )ethods is espe%ially i)portant be%ause, as soon as the s%hools for
subnor)als are in operation, one )ust be on his &uard a&ainst the attitude of the parents.
Their sin%erity *ill be *orth +ery little *hen it is in %onfli%t *ith their interests. 3f the
parents *ish the %hild to re)ain in the re&ular s%hool, they *ill not be silent %on%ernin& his
intelli&en%e. 8y %hild understands e+erythin&,8 they *ill say, and they *ill be +ery %areful
not to &i+e any si&nifi%ant infor)ation in re&ard to hi). 3f, on the %ontrary, they *ish hi)
to be ad)itted into an institution *here &ratuitous board and lod&in& are furnished, they
*ill %han&e %o)pletely. They *ill be %apable e+en of tea%hin& hi) ho* to si)ulate )ental
debility. ne should, therefore, be on his &uard a&ainst all possible frauds.
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3n order to re%o&nize the inferior states of intelli&en%e *e belie+e that three different
)ethods should be e)ployed. e ha+e arri+ed at this syntheti% +ie* only after )any years
of resear%h, but *e are no* %ertain that ea%h of these )ethods renders so)e ser+i%e. These
)ethods are#
1. The medical method, *hi%h ai)s to appre%iate the anato)i%al, physiolo&i%al, andpatholo&i%al si&ns of inferior intelli&en%e.
2. The pedagogical method, *hi%h ai)s to ud&e of the intelli&en%e a%%ordin& to the su) of
a%0uired no*led&e.
. The psychological method, *hi%h )aes dire%t obser+ations and )easure)ents of the
de&ree of intelli&en%e.
Fro) *hat has &one before it is easy to see the +alue of ea%h of these )ethods. The )edi%al
)ethod is indire%t be%ause it %one%tures the )ental fro) the physi%al. The peda&o&i%al
)ethod is )ore dire%t/ but the psy%holo&i%al is the )ost dire%t of all be%ause it ai)s to)easure the state of the intelli&en%e as it is at the present )o)ent. 3t does this by
e(peri)ents *hi%h obli&e the sube%t to )ae an effort *hi%h sho*s his %apability in the
*ay of %o)prehension, ud&)ent, reasonin&, and in+ention.
3. TE $S:;51? be%ause
intelle%tual 0ualities are not superposable, and therefore %annot be )easured as linear
surfa%es are )easured, but are on the %ontrary, a %lassifi%ation, a hierar%hy a)on& di+erse
intelli&en%es/ and for the ne%essities of pra%ti%e this %lassifi%ation is e0ui+alent to a
)easure. e shall therefore be able to no*, after studyin& t*o indi+iduals, if one rises
abo+e the other and to ho* )any de&rees, if one rises abo+e the a+era&e le+el of other
indi+iduals %onsidered as nor)al, or if he re)ains belo*. @nderstandin& the nor)al
pro&ress of intelle%tual de+elop)ent a)on& nor)als, *e shall be able to deter)ine ho*
)any years su%h an indi+idual is ad+an%ed or retarded. 3n a *ord *e shall be able todeter)ine to *hat de&rees of the s%ale idio%y, i)be%ility, and )oronity >2? %orrespond.
The s%ale that *e shall des%ribe is not a theoreti%al *or/ it is the result of lon&
in+esti&ations, first at the SalpAtriBre, and after*ards in the pri)ary s%hools of $aris, *ith
both nor)al and subnor)al %hildren. These short psy%holo&i%al 0uestions ha+e been &i+en
the na)e of tests. The use of tests is today +ery %o))on, and there are e+en %onte)porary
authors *ho ha+e )ade a spe%ialty of or&anizin& ne* tests a%%ordin& to theoreti%al +ie*s,
but *ho ha+e )ade no effort to patiently try the) out in the s%hools. Theirs is an a)usin&
o%%upation, %o)parable to a personCs )ain& a %olonizin& e(pedition into l&eria,
ad+an%in& al*ays only upon the )ap, *ithout tain& off his dressin& &o*n. e pla%e but
sli&ht %onfiden%e in the tests in+ented by these authors and *e ha+e borro*ed nothin& fro)the). ll the tests *hi%h *e propose ha+e been repeatedly tried, and ha+e been retained
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fro) a)on& )any, *hi%h after trial ha+e been dis%arded. e %an %ertify that those *hi%h
are here presented ha+e pro+ed the)sel+es +aluable.
e ha+e ai)ed to )ae all our tests si)ple, rapid, %on+enient, pre%ise, hetero&eneous,
holdin& the sube%t in %ontinued %onta%t *ith the e(peri)enter, and bearin& prin%ipally
upon the fa%ulty of ud&)ent. Dapidity is ne%essary for this sort of e(a)ination. 3t isi)possible to prolon& it beyond t*enty )inutes *ithout fati&uin& the sube%t. =urin& this
)a(i)u) of t*enty )inutes, it )ust be turned and turned about in e+ery sense, and at least
ten tests )ust be e(e%uted, so that not )ore than about t*o )inutes %an be &i+en to ea%h. 3n
spite of their interest, *e *ere obli&ed to pros%ribe lon& e(er%ises. For e(a)ple, it *ould be
+ery instru%ti+e to no* ho* a sube%t learns by heart a series of senten%es. e ha+e often
tested the ad+anta&e of lea+in& a person by hi)self *ith a lesson of prose or +erse after
ha+in& said to hi), 8Try to learn as )u%h as you %an of this in fi+e )inutes.8 Fi+e )inutes
is too lon& for our test, be%ause durin& that ti)e the sube%t es%apes us/ it )ay be that he
be%o)es distra%ted or thins of other thin&s/ the test loses its %lini%al %hara%ter and
be%o)es too s%holasti%. e ha+e therefore relu%tantly been obli&ed to renoun%e testin& the
rapidity and e(tent of the )e)ory by this )ethod. Se+eral other e0ui+alent e(a)ples ofeli)ination %ould be %ited. 3n order to %o+er rapidly a *ide field of obser+ation, it &oes
*ithout sayin& that the tests should be hetero&eneous.
nother %onsideration. ur purpose is to e+aluate a le+el of intelli&en%e. 3t is understood
that *e here separate natural intelli&en%e and instru%tion. 3t is the intelli&en%e alone that *e
see to )easure, by disre&ardin& inso far as possible, the de&ree of instru%tion *hi%h the
sube%t possesses. e should, indeed, be %onsidered by the e(a)iner as a %o)plete
i&nora)us no*in& neither ho* to read nor *rite. This ne%essity for%es us to fore&o a &reat
)any e(er%ises ha+in& a +erbal, literary or s%holasti% %hara%ter. These belon& to a
peda&o&i%al e(a)ination. e belie+e that *e ha+e su%%eeded in %o)pletely disre&ardin&
the a%0uired infor)ation of the sube%t. e &i+e hi) nothin& to read, nothin& to *rite, and
sub)it hi) to no test in *hi%h he )i&ht su%%eed by )eans of rote learnin&. 3n fa%t *e do
not e+en noti%e his inability to read if a %ase o%%urs. 3t is si)ply the le+el of his natural
intelli&en%e that is taen into a%%ount.
'ut here *e )ust %o)e to an understandin& of *hat )eanin& to &i+e to that *ord so +a&ue
and so %o)prehensi+e, 8the intelli&en%e.8 !early all the pheno)ena *ith *hi%h psy%holo&y
%on%erns itself are pheno)ena of intelli&en%e/ sensation, per%eption, are intelle%tual
)anifestations as )u%h as reasonin&. Should *e therefore brin& into our e(a)ination the
)easure of sensation after the )anner of the psy%ho-physi%ists7 Should *e put to the test
all of his psy%holo&i%al pro%esses7 sli&ht refle%tion has sho*n us that this *ould indeedbe *asted ti)e.
3t see)s to us that in intelli&en%e there is a funda)ental fa%ulty, the alteration or the la% of
*hi%h, is of the ut)ost i)portan%e for pra%ti%al life. This fa%ulty is ud&)ent, other*ise
%alled &ood sense, pra%ti%al sense, initiati+e, the fa%ulty of adaptin& oneCs self to
%ir%u)stan%es. To ud&e *ell, to %o)prehend *ell, to reason *ell, these are the essential
a%ti+ities of intelli&en%e. person )ay be a )oron or an i)be%ile if he is la%in& in
ud&)ent/ but *ith &ood ud&)ent he %an ne+er be either. 3ndeed the rest of the intelle%tual
fa%ulties see) of little i)portan%e in %o)parison *ith ud&)ent. hat does it )atter, for
e(a)ple, *hether the or&ans of sense fun%tion nor)ally7 f *hat i)port that %ertain ones
are hyperestheti%, or that others are anestheti% or are *eaened7 5aura 'rid&)an, elenKellerand their fello*-unfortunates *ere blind as *ell as deaf, but this did not pre+ent
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the) fro) bein& +ery intelli&ent. ;ertainly this is de)onstrati+e proof that the total or e+en
partial inte&rity of the senses does not for) a )ental fa%tor e0ual to ud&)ent. e )ay
)easure the a%uteness of the sensibility of sube%ts/ nothin& %ould be easier. 'ut *e should
do this, not so )u%h to find out the state of their sensibility as to learn the e(a%titude of
their ud&)ent.
The sa)e re)ar holds &ood for the study of the )e)ory. t first &lan%e, )e)ory bein& a
psy%holo&i%al pheno)enon of %apital i)portan%e, one *ould be te)pted to &i+e it a +ery
%onspi%uous part in an e(a)ination of intelli&en%e. 'ut )e)ory is distin%t fro) and
independent of ud&)ent. ne )ay ha+e &ood sense and la% )e)ory. The re+erse is also
%o))on. "ust at the present ti)e *e are obser+in& a ba%*ard &irl *ho is de+elopin&
before our astonished eyes a )e)ory +ery )u%h &reater than our o*n. e ha+e )easured
that )e)ory and *e are not de%ei+ed re&ardin& it. !e+ertheless that &irl presents a )ost
beautifully %lassi% type of i)be%ility.
s a result of all this in+esti&ation, in the s%ale *hi%h *e present *e a%%ord the first pla%e
to ud&)ent/ that *hi%h is of i)portan%e to us is not %ertain errors *hi%h the sube%t%o))its, but absurd errors, *hi%h pro+e that he la%s ud&)ent. e ha+e e+en )ade
spe%ial pro+ision to en%oura&e people to )ae absurd replies. 3n spite of the a%%ura%y of
this dire%tin& idea, it *ill be easily understood that it has been i)possible to per)it of its
re&ulatin& e(%lusi+ely our e(a)inations. For e(a)ple, one %an not )ae tests of ud&)ent
on %hildren of less than t*o years *hen one be&ins to *at%h their first &lea)s of
intelli&en%e. u%h is &ained *hen one %an dis%ern in the) tra%es of %ordination, the first
delineation of attention and )e)ory. e shall therefore brin& out in our lists so)e tests of
)e)ory/ but so far as *e are able, *e shall &i+e these tests su%h a turn as to in+ite the
sube%t to )ae absurd replies, and thus under %o+er of a test of )e)ory, *e shall ha+e an
appre%iation of their ud&)ent.
ES@D3!< S;5E F 3!TE553
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e(perien%e. a+in& )ade these reser+ations, let us point out the prin%ipal errors liely to be
%o))itted by ine(perien%ed persons. There are t*o# the first %onsists in re%ordin& the &ross
results *ithout )ain& psy%holo&i%al obser+ations, *ithout noti%in& su%h little fa%ts as
per)it one to &i+e to the &ross results their true +alue. The se%ond error, e0ually fre0uent, is
that of )ain& su&&estions. n ine(perien%ed e(a)iner has no idea of the influen%e of
*ords/ he tals too )u%h, he aids his sube%t, he puts hi) on the tra%, un%ons%ious of thehelp he is thus &i+in&. e plays the part of peda&o&ue, *hen he should re)ain
psy%holo&ist. Thus his e(a)ination is +itiated. 3t is a diffi%ult art to be able to en%oura&e a
sube%t, to hold his attention, to )ae hi) do his best *ithout &i+in& aid in any for) by an
unsillful su&&estion.>?
TE SED3ES F TESTS
1.8Le egard8 >4?
3n this test the e(a)iner sees to dis%o+er if there e(ists that %oordination in the )o+e)ent
of the head and the eyes *hi%h is asso%iated *ith the a%t of +ision. 3f su%h %oordination
does e(ist it pro+es that the sube%t not only sees but )ore than that he 8re&ards8 that is heis able to follo* *ith his eyes a )o+in& obe%tG.
Procedure. li&hted )at%h is slo*ly )o+ed before the eyes of the sube%t in su%h a *ay as
to pro+oe a )o+e)ent of the head or of the eyes to follo* the fla)e. 3f a first atte)pt does
not su%%eed the e(peri)ent should be tried a&ain after a little *hile. 3t is preferable to
operate in a 0uiet pla%e *here no ind of distra%tion is liely to o%%ur. 3t is not i)portant
that the sube%t follo* the )o+e)ents of the )at%h %onstantly for any len&th of ti)e or
persistently. The least si&n of %ordination of the )o+e)ents of +ision is suffi%ient, if it
lea+es no doubt in the )ind of the e(a)iner.
Additional remar!s. The obser+ation of a fe* spontaneous pheno)ena )ay *ell be noted.
Thus it is possible so)eti)es for the e(a)iner, by fi(in& his &aze steadily upon the %hild, to
satisfy hi)self that the %hild really %oordinates for a )o)ent. 3f the sube%t is affli%ted *ith
or suspe%ted of blindness, the +isual sti)ulus )ay be repla%ed by an auditory sti)ulus. For
e(a)ple, %all hi) loudly, or better, rin& a little bell behind his head and noti%e if he turns
his head to*ard the sound, or if he has any pe%uliar fa%ial e(pression *hi%h *ould indi%ate
that he hears. The rea%tion of attention to sound see)s to de+elop later than the rea%tion to
li&ht. e ha+e obser+ed %hildren *ho, *hen a bell *as run& behind the head, *ould not
)ae a sin&le )o+e)ent in order to hear better, and yet *ould follo* *ith their eyes the
li&hted )at%h. 3t is s%ar%ely ne%essary to add that the %hild *ho hides his fa%e behind his
hand *hen 0uestioned, or *ho replies to your s)ile by a s)ile, or *ho *als about theroo) *ithout no%in& a&ainst obsta%les, sto+e, %hairs, *all, table, pro+es by his beha+ior
that he %oordinates the )o+e)ents of +ision, arid thus he has passed the first test.
2. Prehension Provo!edby a Tactile "timulus
ere the purpose is to dis%o+er *hether the %oordination e(ists bet*een a ta%tile sti)ulus
of the hand, and the )o+e)ent of seizin& and %arryin& to the )outh.
Procedure. s)all obe%t, easily handled, for e(a)ple a pie%e of *ood, is pla%ed in %onta%t
*ith the hand of the %hild in order to deter)ine if he su%%eeds in seizin& the obe%t, holdin&
it in his hand *ithout lettin& it fall, and %arryin& it to his )outh. 3t is *ell to sti)ulate the%onta%t either on the ba% of the hand or on the pal), and note the results. 3t is possible that
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the sube%t, after ha+in& taen the little obe%t, loosens his fin&ers and lets it fall. 3t is
ne%essary in that %ase to try a&ain *ith a little patien%e, in order to learn if the lettin& &o
%a)e of a %han%e distra%tion, or if the sube%t is not %apable of perfor)in& the )us%ular a%t
*hi%h *ould %onsist in %arryin& it to his )outh.
#. Prehension Provo!edby a $isual Perception
ere the purpose is to find *hether %oordination e(ists bet*een the si&ht of an obe%t and
its prehension, *hen the obe%t is not pla%ed in %onta%t *ith the hand of the sube%t.
Procedure.The obe%t is presented to his +ie* and *ithin rea%h of his hand, in a )anner to
pro+oe an intentional )o+e)ent of his hand to tae it. This third test is passed *hen the
sube%t, follo*in& a +isual per%eption of the obe%t, )aes a )o+e)ent of the hand to*ards
the obe%t, rea%hes, seizes and %arries it to his )outh. s)all %ube of *hite *ood, easy to
handle is used. 3n these presentations it is not forbidden to spea and hen%e the obe%t is
offered to the %hild as follo*s# 8ere is a little obe%t, tae it, it is for you -- ;o)e no*, pay
attention, et%.8 3f the sube%t understands, so )u%h the better for hi)/ if he does notunderstand the sound of these *ords has the ad+anta&e of attra%tin&. his attention.
oreo+er the e(a)iner )aes &estures and )aes the) )ore naturally if he tals at the
sa)e ti)e.
%. ecognition of &ood
ere the purpose is to dis%o+er *hether the sube%t %an )ae the distin%tion by si&ht
bet*een fa)iliar food and *hat %an not be eaten.
Procedure. pie%e of %ho%olate half a barG and a little %ube of *hite *ood of si)ilar
di)ensions are su%%essi+ely presented. The test is to see if the sube%t, by si&ht alone,
)aes the distin%tion bet*een the t*o obe%ts before %arryin& the) to his )outh. =oes he
%arry only the %ho%olate to his )outh and be&in to eat it7 =oes he refuse to tae the pie%e of
*ood, or ha+in& taen it does he push it a*ay, or a&ain does he hold it in his hand *ithout
puttin& it to his )outh7
Tests and 4 %an be )ade rapidly as a sin&le e(peri)ent. pie%e of %ho%olate is first
sho*n to the %hild and his attention is dra*n to it. !ote *hether he tries to tae it or not. 3f
he )aes no effort to attain it, and is not distra%ted by anythin&, pla%e the %ho%olate in the
pal) of his hand, and note *hat happens. 3f on the %ontrary he taes the %ho%olate *hi%h is
sho*n hi) and %arries it to his )outh, the %ho%olate is taen fro) hi), and the pie%e of*ood put in its pla%e, to see if he %arries this ne* obe%t also to his )outh.
lthou&h these tests su%%eed *ith +ery )any %hildren by appealin& to their &reediness, it
often happens that a *illful %hild, or one fri&htened by the si&ht of the e(a)iner *ho) he
does not no*, turns a*ay fro) hi) and refuses to loo at *hat is sho*n hi). These
)o+e)ents of defense indi%ate already a )entality that %orresponds )ost liely to the
fourth de&ree. The e(peri)enter )ust be ar)ed *ith patien%e and &entleness. e )ay ha+e
a relati+e, an attendant, or any other person *ho no*s the %hild, present the %ho%olate, but
he )ust %arefully note the beha+ior of the %hild throu&hout the operation. 3f the atta% of
an&er, or tears, or fear lasts too lon&, the e(a)ination is ne%essarily suspended to be taen
up at a )ore fa+orable ti)e. These are the disappoint)ents to *hi%h alienistsarea%%usto)ed.
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. (uest of &ood )omplicated *y a "light +echanical ,ifficulty
This test is desi&ned to brin& into play a rudi)ent of )e)ory, an effort of *ill, and a
%oordination of )o+e)ents.
Procedure.First be sure that the %hild re%o&nizes the %andy or bonbon to be used in thise(peri)ent. Then *hile he is *at%hin& you, *rap the bonbon in a pie%e of paper. $resent it
to hi) and %arefully note his )o+e)ents. =oes he re)e)ber that the paper %ontains a
bonbon7 =oes he ree%t it as a useless obe%t, or does he try to pull it apart7 =oes he %arry
the %o+ered )orsel to his )outh7 =oes he eat the paper or does he )ae so)e effort to
unfold it7 =oes he %o)pletely su%%eed in unfoldin& it, or does he see) satisfied *ith one
atte)pt7 =oes he present the %o+ered )orsel to so)e one else as if to as his aid7
-. /ecution of "imple )ommands and 0mitationof "imple Gestures
This test in+ol+es +arious )otor %ordinations, and asso%iations bet*een %ertain
)o+e)ents, and the understandin& of the si&nifi%an%e of %ertain &estures. 3n these tests thesube%t enters for the first ti)e into so%ial relations *ith the e(peri)enter and it is therefore
ne%essary that he understand the *ill and desires of the latter. 3t is the be&innin& of inter-
psy%holo&y.
Procedure. s soon as the sube%t enters the roo) say &ood )ornin& to hi) *ith
e(pression, &i+e hi) your hand *ith a%%entuated &esture to see if he understands the
salutation and if he no*s ho* to shae hands. 3n %ases *here the sube%t *als in, as hi)
to be seated/ this per)its one to see *hether he understands the )eanin& of the in+itation
and if he no*s the use of a %hair. Thro* so)e obe%t on the. floor and re0uest hi) by
&estures as *ell as by spee%h to pi% it up and &i+e it ba%. ae hi) &et up, shut the door,
send hi) a*ay, %all hi) ba%. So )u%h for %o))ands. 3)itation of si)ple &estures is
a%%o)plished by fi(in& his attention by repeatin& se+eral ti)es, 85oo at )e %arefully,8 and
*hen his attention is &ained, by sayin& 8=o as 3 do.8 The e(a)iner then %laps his hands
toðer, puts the) in the air, on the shoulders, behind the ba%/ he turns the thu)bs one
about the other, raises the foot, et%. ll this )i)i%ry )ust be %ondu%ted &aily *ith the air of
play. 3t is suffi%ient if a sin&le *ell )ared i)itation is pro+oed/ the rest is unne%essary.
=o not %onfound the inaptitude for i)itation, *ith bad hu)or, ill-*ill, or ti)idity.
H. $er*al noledge of 3*4ects
The obe%t of this test is to dis%o+er if asso%iations e(ist bet*een thin&s and their na)es.;o)prehension and the first possibilities of lan&ua&e are here studied. This test is a
%ontinuation of the pre+ious one and represents the se%ond de&ree of %o))uni%ation
bet*een indi+iduals/ the first de&ree is )ade throu&h i)itation, the se%ond throu&h *ords.
Procedure. This test is %o)posed of t*o parts. 3n the first pla%e the e(a)iner na)es a part
of the body and ass the %hild to point to it. The. 0uestions )ay relate to the head, the hair,
the eyes, the feet, the hands, the nose, the ears, the )outh. s the %hild *ith a s)ile
8here is your head78 3f he see)s e)barrassed or ti)id, en%oura&e hi) by aidin& hi) a
little. 8There is your head,8 pointin& it out and tou%hin& it if the %hild does not see) to
understand *hat is *anted of hi). n the other hand if he replies by a %orre%t desi&nation
to the first 0uestion &o no further, be%ause if he no*s *here his head is he should no*
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e0ually *ell *here are his ears and his )outh.
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is pla%ed haphazard upon the pi%ture. Su%h as these do not hunt *ith %are and are in%apable
of suspendin& their ud&)ent. This is, it see)s to us, a striin& %hara%teristi% of a *ea
)ind. The %hild )ust be %losely studied in order to find if, in spite of this spe%ial )anner,
he really no*s the na)es of the obe%ts. repri)and &ently &i+en *ill so)eti)es put hi)
on his &uard, 8!o, no, pay attention, you &o too fast,8 and if the 0uestion is repeated he *ill
often &i+e a %orre%t ans*er.
3n other %ases, errors are so)eti)es )ade throu&h su&&estibility. The sube%t see)s to
i)a&ine that he *ill %o))it a fault if he does not desi&nate so)e obe%t *hen the 0uestion
is ased, and out of %o)plian%e or of ti)idity, he )aes an erroneous desi&nation for an
obe%t *hose na)e he does not no*, or *hi%h he does not su%%eed in findin&. !oti%e
a&ain, the )ore reasonable attitude of those *ho, not no*in& the na)e of the obe%t,
refrain fro) pointin& it out but %ontinue the sear%h or reply distin%tly, 83 do not no*.8 3t is
rare that an i)be%ile uses that little phrase. The a+o*al of i&noran%e is a proof of ud&)ent
and is al*ays a &ood indi%ation.
6. 7aming of ,esignated 3*4ects
This test is the opposite of the pre%edin& one. 3t sho*s the passin& fro) the thin& to the
*ord. 3t also is e(e%uted by the use of pi%tures.
Procedure. ere *e )ae use of another %olored print borro*ed fro) the sa)e %olle%tion
as the pre%edin&. e pla%e it before the eyes of the %hild and desi&nate *ith a pen%il
different obe%ts *hile asin& ea%h ti)e, 8hat is this78 The obe%ts upon *hi%h *e pla%e
the pen%il are the little &irl, the do&, the boy, the father, the la)p-li&hter, the sy, the
ad+ertise)ent. For the la)p-li&hter *e as *hat he does. ere as else*here it is
unne%essary to e(haust the %o)plete series of 0uestions unless the sube%t fails. ne or t*o
positi+e replies are suffi%ient to satisfy the re0uire)ents of the test. This test per)its us to
no* the +o%abulary and the pronun%iation of the %hild. =efe%ts of pronun%iation, so
fre0uent in the youn&, are a serious sour%e of e)barrass)ent. 3t often re0uires a +ery
indul&ent ear to re%o&nize the ri&ht *ord in an indistin%t and +ery brief )ur)ur, and in a
%ase of this sort the e(a)iner *ill do *ell to use an interro&ation point. dded to the
diffi%ulties *hi%h pro%eed fro) faulty pronun%iation, are those brou&ht about by a spe%ial
+o%abulary. any little %hildren thou&h nor)al use a +o%abulary in+ented or defor)ed by
the), *hi%h is understood only by the)sel+es and their parents.
Additional remar!s. Tests H, I, and 9 do not %onstitute differin& de&rees in the ri&orous
sense of the *ord, that is to say they are not tests %orrespondin& to different le+els ofintelli&en%e. e ha+e as%ertained that &enerally *ith subnor)als those *ho %an pass test H,
pass I and also 9. These *ould therefore be tests of e0ual ran. e ha+e ept the),
ho*e+er, be%ause these tests o%%upy an i)portant pla%e in our )easurin& s%ale of
intelli&en%e, as they %onstitute a borderline test bet*een i)be%ility and idio%y. 3t is useful to
ha+e this borderline solidly pla%ed and all these tests *ill ser+e as buttresses.
bser+ations, su%h as one )ay )ae e+ery day on those affli%ted *ith &eneral paralysis,
aphasia, or si)ply people +ery )u%h fati&ued, sho* that it is )u%h )ore diffi%ult to pass
fro) the obe%t to the *ord than it is to pass fro) the *ord to the obe%t, or *e )ay say,
that one re%o&nizes a *ord )ore easily than one finds it. 3t does not see) %lear up to the
present that this obser+ation is also appli%able to inferior states of intelli&en%e.
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18. 0mmediate )omparison of To Lines of 9nequal Lengths>J?
s *e enter the field of *hat )ay properly be %alled psy%holo&i%al e(peri)entation, *e
shall find it diffi%ult to define *hi%h )ental fun%tions are bein& e(er%ised be%ause they are
+ery nu)erous. ere the %hild )ust understand that it is a 0uestion of %o)parison, that the
%o)parison is bet*een t*o lines that are sho*n to hi)/ he )ust understand the )eanin& ofthe *ords, 8Sho* )e the lon&er.8 e )ust be %apable of %o)parin&, that is of brin&in&
toðer a %on%eption and an i)a&e, and of turnin& his )ind in the dire%tion of sear%hin&
for a differen%e. e often ha+e illusions as to the si)pli%ity of psy%hi%al pro%esses, be%ause
*e ud&e the) in relation to others, still )ore %o)ple(. 3n fa%t here is a test *hi%h *ill
see) to sho* but little )entality in those *ho are able to e(e%ute it/ ne+ertheless *hen
analyzed it re+eals a &reat %o)ple(ity.
Procedure. The sube%t is presented su%%essi+ely *ith three pie%es of paper upon ea%h of
*hi%h t*o lines, dra*n in in, are to be %o)pared. Ea%h pie%e of paper )easures 1J by 2
%)./ the lines are dra*n len&th*ise of the paper, on the sa)e le+el, and separated by a
spa%e of J )). The lines are respe%ti+ely 4 and %). in len&th and one-half of a )illi)eterin *idth. n the first sheet the lon&er line is at the ri&ht and on the other t*o at the left.
Ea%h sheet is sho*n to the sube%t *hile sayin& to hi), 8hi%h is the lon&er line78 !ote if
his reply is %orre%t but do not tell hi). 3n order to eli)inate haphazard replies, it is *ell to
repeat the *hole series at least t*i%e. The end is not to dis%o+er ust ho* far the a%%ura%y of
the %hildCs &lan%e )ay &o, but si)ply to find if he is %apable of )ain& a %orre%t
%o)parison bet*een t*o lines. any subnor)als are in%apable of this/ but they a%t as
thou&h they *ere %apable/ they see) to understand *hat is said to the) and ea%h ti)e put
the fin&er upon one of the lines sayin&, 8This one.8 3t is ne%essary to re%o&nize those
sube%ts *hose errors are not, stri%tly speain&, faults of %o)parison but absen%e of
%o)parison. 3t often happens that the sube%t %onstantly %hooses the line on the sa)e side
for the lon&er, for e(a)ple al*ays the one on the ri&ht side. This )anner of rea%tin& *ould
be a si&n of defe%t *ere it not that one en%ounters the sa)e thin& *ith so)e nor)als.
11. epetition of Three &igures >6?
This is a test of i))ediate )e)ory and +oluntary attention.
Procedure.5ooin& the sube%t s0uarely in the eye to be sure his attention is fi(ed, one
pronoun%es three fi&ures, after ha+in& told hi) to repeat the). ;hoose fi&ures that do not
follo* ea%h other, as for instan%e , , I, or J, 9, H, $ronoun%e the three fi&ures in the sa)e
+oi%e *ithout a%%entuatin& one )ore than the others and *ithout rhyth), but *ith a %ertainener&y. The rapidity to be obser+ed is t*o fi&ures per se%ond. 5isten %arefully and re%ord
the repetition *hi%h is )ade. ften the first atte)pt is unsu%%essful be%ause the sube%t has
not %learly understood and %o))en%es to repeat the first fi&ure the )o)ent he hears it/ he
)ust be )ade to be 0uiet, rene* the e(planation and %o))en%e the pronun%iation of
another series of fi&ures. There are %ertain sube%ts *ho %an not repeat a sin&le fi&ure/ in
&eneral these are the ones *hose )ental %ondition is su%h that they ha+e not understood
anythin& at all of *hat is ased of the). thers repeat only a sin&le fi&ure, the first or the
last/ others pronoun%e )ore than three. Spe%ial attention )ust be &i+en to those *hose error
%onsists in pronoun%in& a &reater nu)ber of fi&ures than that *hi%h is said, or in
pronoun%in& a series of fi&ures in their natural order. n indi+idual *ho, *hen ased to
repeat , , I, replies 2, , 4, J, %o))its a serious error, *hi%h *ould %ause one to suspe%t)ental debility. 'ut on the other hand it is true that all feeble-)inded and all i)be%iles do
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not %o))it this error, and that )any youn& nor)als )ay %o))it it. 'e %areful to noti%e
also if the sube%t see)s satisfied *ith his reply *hen this is ob+iously and &rossly false/
this indi%ates an absen%e of ud&)ent *hi%h %onstitutes an a&&ra+ated %ondition.
5et us say, apropos of this test, that it is i)portant to )ae a distin%tion bet*een errors of
attention and of adaptation on the one hand, and errors of ud&)ent on the other. hen afailure is produ%ed by distra%tion it is not +ery i)portant. Thus it )ay happen that a sube%t
does not repeat the three fi&ures the first ti)e. 'e&in a&ain and if he su%%eeds the se%ond
ti)e in retainin& the) he should be %onsidered as ha+in& passed the test. little farther on
*e shall ha+e to deal *ith tests of ud&)ent properly so-%alled, and three or four diffi%ulties
*ill be presented for solution. 3n this last %ase, failure *ill be )u%h )ore serious, be%ause it
%an not be due to inattention and the test %annot be %onsidered as passed unless the
solutions are &i+en %o)plete.
12. )omparison of To :eights>H?
This is a test of attention, of %o)parison and of the )us%ular sense.
Procedure. $la%e side by side on the table before the sube%t t*o s)all %ubi%al bo(es
ha+in& the sa)e di)ensions, 2 )). on a sideG and the sa)e %olor, but of different
*ei&hts. The bo(es, *ei&hted by &rains of lead rolled in %otton and not per%eptible by
shain&, *ei&h &ra)s and 12 &ra)s respe%ti+ely. The sube%t is ased to find out *hi%h is
the hea+ier. The operation ter)inated, t*o other %ubes of 6 and 1J &ra)s respe%ti+ely are
&i+en hi) to %o)pare, and a&ain &ra)s and 1J &ra)s. 3f the sube%t hesitates or see)s to
be &oin& haphazard, start o+er a&ain )i(in& the %ubes in order to be sure that he really
%o)pares the *ei&hts.
t the inun%tion, 8See the t*o bo(es, no* tell )e *hi%h is the hea+ier,8 )any youn&
sube%ts desi&nate haphazard one of the t*o bo(es *ithout testin& the *ei&hts. This error,
all the )ore nai+e sin%e the t*o are e(a%tly alie in appearan%e, does not pro+e that the
sube%t is in%apable of *ei&hin& the) in his hand and of ud&in& of the *ei&hts *hile
e(er%isin& )us%ular sense. ne )ust then order hi) to tae the bo(es in his hand and
*ei&h the). So)e are +ery a**ard, and put the t*o bo(es into one hand at the sa)e ti)e
to *ei&h the). ne )ust a&ain interfere and tea%h hi) ho* to put a bo( in ea%h hand and
*ei&h the t*o si)ultaneously.
Additional remar!s. Follo*in& this *ei&hin& of t*o bo(es of different *ei&ht and e0ual
+olu)e, one %an propose to *ei&h t*o bo(es of e0ual *ei&ht but different +olu)e. Theillusion *hi%h is produ%ed under these %ir%u)stan%es is *ell no*n. ith the *ei&hts
e0ual, the lar&er bo( *ill appear li&hter/ and the apparent differen%e of *ei&ht in%reases
*ith the differen%e of +olu)e. 3n+esti&ations ha+e been )ade to deter)ine *hether this
illusion taes pla%e *ith ba%*ard %hildren, and it has been obser+ed by =e)oor that there
are %ertain ones *ho are not affe%ted by it, so)ethin& *hi%h *e oursel+es ha+e re%ently
+erified. e put before the defe%ti+e %hildren lon& bo(es of *hite *ood, of the sa)e
*ei&ht, the lar&est one 24 ( 4 ( 4 %)., the s)allest 12 ( 2 ( 2 %)., the )ediu) one 1I ( (
%). 5ie )any nor)al %hildren our subnor)als, *hen &i+en t*o for %o)parison and
ased 8hi%h is the hea+ier,8 pointed out the lar&er. The first nai+e response has but little
si&nifi%an%e. 3f one insists, if one tells the sube%t to *ei&h the) in his hand, it so)eti)es
happens that subnor)als either %lin& to their first desi&nation, or abandon it altoðer andfind the s)aller one the hea+ier/ in the latter %ase they are sensiti+e to the illusion. 3t see)s
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to us that before de%larin& that a subnor)al is not sensiti+e, one )ust first find if he %an
%o)pare t*o *ei&hts, and *hether he is able to ud&e *hi%h is the hea+ier of t*o *ei&hts
ha+in& the sa)e +olu)e. a+in& )ade this preli)inary test, one *ill per%ei+e that +ery
)any subnor)als are insensible to the illusion be%ause they are in%apable of %o)parin&
*ei&hts. hat they la% therefore is a )ore ele)entary aptitude.
1#. "uggesti*ility
Su&&estibilityis by no )eans a test of intelli&en%e, be%ause +ery )any persons of superior
intelli&en%e are sus%eptible to su&&estion, throu&h distra%tion, ti)idity, fear of doin& *ron&,
or so)e pre%on%ei+ed idea. Su&&estion produ%es effe%ts *hi%h fro) %ertain points of +ie*
%losely rese)ble the natural )anifestations of feeble-)indedness/ in fa%t su&&estion
disturbs the ud&)ent, paralyzes the %riti%al sense, and for%es us to atte)pt unreasonable or
unfittin& a%ts *orthy of a defe%ti+e. 3t is therefore ne%essary, *hen e(a)inin& a %hild
suspe%ted of retardation, not to &i+e a su&&estion un%ons%iously, for thus artifi%ial debility
is produ%ed *hi%h )i&ht )ae the dia&nosis de%epti+e. 3f a person is for%ed to &i+e an
absurd reply by )ain& use of an alternati+e pronoun%ed in an authoritati+e +oi%e, it doesnot in the least pro+e that he is la%in& in ud&)ent. 'ut this sour%e of error bein& on%e
re%o&nized and set aside, it is none the less interestin& to brin& into the e(a)ination a
pre%ise atte)pt at su&&estion, and note *hat happens. 3t is a )eans of testin& the for%e of
ud&)ent of a sube%t and his po*er of resistan%e. >I?
Procedure. The proof of su&&estibility *hi%h *e ha+e de+ised does not &i+e rise to a
spe%ial e(peri)ent# it %o)pli%ates by a sli&ht addition other e(er%ises *hi%h *e ha+e
already des%ribed.
aG,esignation of o*4ects named *y the e/perimenter. hen *e #as the %hild test HG to
sho* us the thread, the %up, the thi)ble, *e add, 8Sho* )e the button.8 n the e)pty table
there is no button, there are only the three pre%edin& obe%ts and yet by &esture and loo *e
in+ite the sube%t to sear%h for the button on the table. 3t is a su&&estion by personal a%tion,
de+elopin& obedien%e. ;ertain ones obey 0ui%ly and easily, presentin& to us a&ain the %up
or no )atter *hat other obe%ts. Their su&&estibility is %o)plete. thers resist a little, pout,
*hile fei&nin& to hunt for it on the table, or in the %up/ they do not reply, but %o+er their
e)barrass)ent by a sear%h *hi%h they %ontinue indefinitely if not interrupted. ne should
%onsider this attitude as a suffi%ient e(pression of resistan%e, and &o no further. 3t *ould be
unne%essary as *e are not seein& a +i%tory o+er the). 5astly, those least affe%ted by
su&&estion, reply %learly, 83 do not no*,8 or 8There is no button.8 So)e lau&h.
bG,esignation of parts of a picture named *y the e/perimenter. hen the %hild has looed
at the pi%ture and *e ha+e ased hi) to point out the *indo*, et%., at the +ery last say,
8here is the patapou)78 and then 8here is the nit%he+o78 *ords that ha+e no sense for
hi). These de)ands are )ade in the sa)e )anner as the pre%edin& ones. ere a&ain *e
find the three types, %hildren *ho do%ilely desi&nate any obe%t *hate+er, others *ho
sear%h indefinitely *ithout findin& anythin&, and a&ain others *ho de%lare, 8There is none.8
%G "nare of lines. Follo*in& the three pairs of une0ual lines, *hi%h ser+e to sho* the
%orre%tness of %o)parison, *e pla%e before the sube%t three other si)ilar sheets ea%h
%ontainin& t*o e0ual lines. e present the) sayin&, 8nd here78 5ed on by the for)er
replies he has a tenden%y, an a%0uired for%e, for a&ain findin& one line lon&er than the other.So)e su%%u)b to the snare %o)pletely. thers stop at the first pair and de%lare, 8They are
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e0ual,8 but at the se%ond and third they say one of the lines is lon&er than the other. thers
find the) all e0ual but hesitate. thers a&ain fall into the snare *ithout a shado* of
hesitation.
1%. $er*al ,efinition of non 3*4ects
o%abulary, so)e &eneral notions, ability to put a si)ple idea into *ords, are all brou&ht to
li&ht by )eans of this test.
Procedure. s the %hild *hat is a house, a horse, a for, a )a))a. This is the
%on+ersation that taes pla%e# 8=o you no* *hat a ------ is78 3f the %hild ans*ers yes then
as hi)# 8ery *ell, then tell )e *hat it is.8 Try to o+er%o)e his silen%e a little and his
ti)idity. id hi), only *hen ne%essary, by &i+in& hi) an e(a)ple# 8 do&, it bars,8 and
then see if the %hild understands and appro+es that definition.
ery youn& nor)al %hildren of t*o or three years, reply to 0uestions of this ind *ith
enthusias). They ordinarily reply in ter)s of use, 8 for is to eat *ith.8 This is typi%al.De%ord the ans*er +erbati). So)e *ill eep silent, so)e &i+e absurd, in%o)prehensible
replies, or a&ain *ill repeat the *ord, 8 house, it is a house.8
1. epetition of "entences of &ifteen :ords>9?
This is a test of i))ediate )e)ory, so far as it %on%erns the re%olle%tion of *ords/ a proof
of +oluntary attention, naturally be%ause +oluntary attention )ust a%%o)pany all
psy%holo&i%al e(peri)ents/ lastly it is a test of lan&ua&e.
Procedure. First be sure that the %hild is listenin& %arefully, then, after ha+in& *arned hi)
that he *ill ha+e to repeat *hat is said to hi), pronoun%e slo*ly, intelli&ibly, the follo*in&
senten%e#0 get up in the morning; 0 dine at noon; 0 go to *ed at night. Then )ae a si&n for
hi) to repeat. ften the %hild, still not +ery *ell adapted, has not fully understood. !e+er
repeat a senten%e but &o on to another. hen the sube%t repeats it *rite do*n +erbati)
*hat he says. any e+en a)on& nor)als )ae absurd repetitions, for e(a)ple# 83 &o to
bed at noon.8 ften the %hild repla%es the %ultured e(pression 83 dine8 for a )ore fa)iliar
for), 83 eat.8 The fa%t of bein& able to repeat the senten%e %orre%tly after the first hearin& is
a &ood si&n. The se%ond senten%e is easier than the first, 0n the summer the eather is
*eautiful< in inter sno falls. ere is the third, Germaine has *een *ad; she has not
or!ed; she ill *e scolded.!o* *e &i+e fi+e senten%es 0uite diffi%ult to understand#
The horse=chestnut tree in the garden thros upon the ground thefaint shade of its ne
young leaves
The horse dras the carriage; the road is steep and the carriageis heavy.
0t is one o'cloc! in the afternoon; the house is silent; the cat sleepsin the shade.
3ne should not say all that he thin!s; *ut he must thin! all that hesays.
The spirit of criticism must not *e confounded ith the spirit ofcontradiction.
1-. )omparison of non 3*4ects from +emory
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This is an e(er%ise in ideation, in the notion of differen%es, and so)e*hat in po*ers of
obser+ation.
Procedure. ne ass *hat differen%e there is bet*een paper and %ardboard, bet*een a fly
and a butterfly, bet*een a pie%e of *ood and a pie%e of &lass. First be sure that the sube%t
no*s these obe%ts. s hi), 8a+e you seen paper78 8=o you no* *hat %ardboard is78Thus as hi) about all the obe%ts before dra*in& his attention to the differen%e bet*een
the). 3t )ay happen that little $arisians, e+en thou&h nor)al, and ei&ht or nine years old,
ha+e ne+er seen a butterfly. These are e(a)ples of astoundin& i&noran%e, but *e ha+e
found, *hat is still )ore e(traordinary, $arisians of ten years *ho ha+e ne+er seen the
Seine.
fter bein& assured that the t*o obe%ts to be %o)pared are no*n, de)and their
differen%e. 3f the *ord is not understood, tae noti%e and after*ard %hoose )ore fa)iliar
lan&ua&e. 83n *hat are they not alie7 o* are they not alie78 Three %lasses of replies
)ay be e(pe%ted. First, that of the %hildren *ho ha+e no %o)prehension of *hat is desired
of the). hen ased the differen%e bet*een %ardboard and paper, they reply, 8The%ardboard.8 hen one has pro+oed replies of this ind, the e(planation )ust be rene*ed
*ith patien%e to see if there is not so)e )eans of )ain& oneself understood. Se%ond, the
absurd replies, su%h as, 8The fly is lar&er than the butterfly,8 8The *ood is thi%er than the
&lass,8 or 8The butterfly flies and so does the fly.8 Third, the %orre%t reply.
1>. /ercise of +emory on Pictures
This is a test of attention and +isual )e)ory.
Procedure. The sube%t is told that se+eral pi%tures *ill be sho*n to hi), *hi%h he *ill be
allo*ed to loo at for thirty se%onds, and that he )ust then repeat the na)es of the obe%ts
seen, fro) )e)ory. There are thirteen pi%tures, ea%h 6 by 6 %enti)eters, representin& the
follo*in& obe%ts# %lo%, ey, nail, o)nibus, barrel, bed, %herry, rose, )outh of a beast,
nose, head of a %hild, e&&s, lands%ape. These pi%tures are pasted on t*o %ardboards and are
sho*n si)ultaneously. easure the ti)e of e(posure *ith the se%ond hand of the *at%h. 3n
order that the sube%t shall not be%o)e absorbed in one pi%ture, say to hi), 8ae haste.
5oo at all.8 The thirty se%onds passed, the e(a)iner *rites fro) di%tation the na)es of the
pi%tures the sube%t re%alls.
This test does indeed &i+e an idea of the )e)ory of a person, but t*o sube%ts )ay ha+e
+ery une0ual )e)ories of the sa)e pi%ture/ one of the) )ay re%all only one detail *hileanother re%alls the *hole. oreo+er there is a *ea point in this test in that it )ay be
affe%ted by failure of attention. 3t is suffi%ient that a fly should ali&ht, a door should open, a
%o% should %ro*, or for the sube%t to ha+e a desire to use his hander%hief durin& the
thirty se%onds, to disturb the *or of )e)orizin&. 3f the result is altoðer la%in&, the test
should be repeated *ith another %olle%tion of pi%tures to find *hether the first error *as the
result of distra%tion.
15. ,raing a ,esign from +emory
This is a test of attention, +isual )e)ory, and a little analysis.
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=ES3
Procedure. The sube%t is told that t*o desi&ns *ill be sho*n to hi), *hi%h he *ill be
allo*ed to loo at for ten se%onds, and *hi%h he )ust then dra* fro) )e)ory. E(%ite his
e)ulation. The t*o desi&ns *hi%h *e reprodu%e here, are sho*n to hi) and left e(posed
for ten se%onds. De&ulate the ti)e by the se%ond hand of a *at%h/ the ti)e )ust be e(a%t
*ithin one or t*o se%onds.G Then see that the sube%t %o))en%es the reprodu%tion of thedesi&n *ithout loss of ti)e.
arin& the results of this test, that is the errors %o))itted, is a deli%ate operation. Si)ply
note if the reprodu%tion is absolutely %orre%t/ or if *ithout bein& %orre%t it rese)bles the
)odel/ or if, on the %ontrary, it bears no rese)blan%e *hate+er to it.
16. 0mmediate epetition of &igures
This is a test of i))ediate )e)ory and i))ediate attention.
$ro%edure. This is the sa)e as for the three fi&ures, see abo+e ere the errors noted for thethree fi&ures tae on &reater proportions. ne )ust be on the *at%h for errors of ud&)ent.
nor)al )ay fail but the )anner is different.
28. esem*lances of "everal non 3*4ects Given from +emory
This is a test of )e)ory, %ons%ious re%o&nition of rese)blan%es, po*er of obser+ation.
Procedure. This test %losely rese)bles test 16, e(%ept that here rese)blan%es are to be
indi%ated instead of differen%es. 3t )ay be surprisin& to learn that %hildren ha+e a &ood deal
of trouble notin& rese)blan%es/ they )u%h )ore *illin&ly find differen%es in the obe%ts
&i+en the) to %o)pare. ne )ust insist a &ood deal and sho* the) that althou&h unlie
t*o obe%ts )ay be so)e*hat si)ilar. ere are the 0uestions to be ased#
3n *hat are a poppy and blood alie7
o* are a fly, an ant, a butterfly, a flea alie7
3n *hat *ay are a ne*spaper, a label, a pi%ture alie7
@nder test 16 *e ha+e indi%ated the pre%autions that )ust be taen, notably that of assurin&
oneself that the %hild no*s the obe%ts to be %o)pared. There are little $arisians *ho ha+e
ne+er seen poppies or ants.
21. )omparison of Lengths
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This is a test in e(a%tness of &lan%e in rapid %o)parison.
Procedure. 3n this test one presents a series of pairs of lines. ne line of ea%h pair is
)). lon& and the other +aries fro) 1 to J )). These lines are dra*n on the pa&es of a
blan boo,1J by %)./ there are only t*o lines on a pa&e. They e(tend in the sa)e
dire%tion, end to end, separated by J )). The lon&er o%%upies first the ri&ht then the left ofthe pa&e. There are fifteen pairs. fter pla%in& the) in order one be&ins by sho*in& the pair
*here the differen%e is &reatest. The sube%t is ased to point out the lon&er of the t*o
lines.
e then present, in another blan boo, a series of pairs of lines +ery )u%h )ore diffi%ult
to esti)ate. The pa&es of this boo are 2 by %)./ the %onstant line is 1 )). lon&, the
+ariable ran&in& fro) 11 to 1 )). The e(a%t %o)parison of su%h lon& lines is beyond
the ability of )any adults. The nu)ber of pairs is t*el+e.
22. &ive :eights to *e Placed in 3rder>1?
This test re0uires a dire%t %on%entration of attention, an appre%iation of *ei&ht, and the
)e)ory of ud&)ent.
Procedure. Fi+e little bo(es of the sa)e %olor and +olu)e are pla%ed in a &roup on the
table. They *ei&h respe%ti+ely , 6, 9, 12, and 1J &ra)s. They are sho*n to the sube%t
*hile sayin& to hi)# 85oo at these little bo(es, they ha+e not the sa)e *ei&ht/ you are
&oin& to arran&e the) here in their ri&ht order. ere to the left first the hea+iest *ei&ht/
ne(t, the one a little less hea+y/ here one a little less hea+y/ here one a little less hea+y, and
here the li&htest one.8 This e(planation is diffi%ult to &i+e in %hildish ter)s. 3t )ust be
atte)pted, ho*e+er, and repeated if one per%ei+es that it is not understood.
The e(planation ter)inated, one )ust obser+e *ith attention the attitude of the %hild. ne
%hild does not understand, puts nothin& in order/ another arran&es the *ei&hts +ery *ell but
does not %o)pare the)/ he taes one at rando) and puts it at the left as the hea+iest,
*ithout %o)parin& it *ith the others, and pla%es those re)ainin& *ithout *ei&hin& the).
third tries the) a little, but noti%eably &oes at it blindly. The readin& of the *ei&hts *hi%h is
ins%ribed on ea%h, sho*s us the errors.
There are three %lasses to distin&uish. First, the sube%t *ho &oes at rando) *ithout
%o)parin&, often %o))ittin& a serious error, four de&rees for e(a)ple. Se%ond, the sube%t
*ho %o)pares, but )aes a sli&ht error of one or t*o de&rees. Third, the one *ho has theorder e(a%t. e propose to esti)ate the errors in this test by tain& a%%ount of the
displa%e)ent that )ust be )ade to re-establish the %orre%t order. Thus in the follo*in&
e(a)ple# 12, 9, 6, , 1J, -- 1J is not in its pla%e, and the error is of four de&rees be%ause it
)ust )ae four )o+es to find the pla%e *here it belon&s. ll the others )ust be %han&ed
one de&ree. The su) of the %han&es indi%ates the total error *hi%h is of ei&ht de&rees. 3t is
ne%essary to )ae a distin%tion bet*een those *ho %o))it sli&ht errors of inattention, and
those *ho by the enor)ity of an error of 6 or I pro+e that they a%t at rando).
2#. Gap in :eights
s soon as the sube%t has %orre%tly arran&ed the *ei&hts and only then, tell hi) that one ofthe *ei&hts is to be taen a*ay *hile he %loses his eyes, and that he is to dis%o+er *hi%h
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has been taen a*ay by *ei&hin& the) in his hand. The operation de)anded of hi) is
deli%ate. ne )ust note that he does not %heat by readin& the )arin& on the bo(. 3f there is
any fear of this, *rap the bo(es in paper.
2%. /ercise upon hymes>11?
This e(er%ise re0uires an a)ple +o%abulary, suppleness of )ind, spontaneity, intelle%tual
a%ti+ity.
Procedure. 'e&in by asin& the sube%t if he no*s *hat a rhy)e is. Then e(plain by
)eans of e(a)ples# 8Dhy)es are *ords that end in the sa)e *ay. Thus C&renouilleC
>fro&?rhy)es *ith C%itrouille,C >pu)pin? be%ause it is the sa)e sound Couille.C C;o)poteC
>%o)pote? rhy)es *ith C%arotte,C >%arrot? they both end *ith Cote.C C'atonC >sti%? rhy)es
*ith C)a%aron,C >)a%aroon, or a round bad&e or )edal? and *ith C%itronC >le)on?. ere the
rhy)e is on Con.C >12? =o you no* understand *hat a rhy)e is7 ery *ell, you )ust find all
the rhy)es you %an. The *ord *ith *hi%h you )ust find rhy)es is CobLissan%eC
>obedien%e?. >1? ;o)e, be&in, find so)e.8 3n order to a%%o)plish this test, the sube%t)ust not only find rhy)es, *hi%h is partly a )atter of i)a&ination, but he )ust understand
the pre%edin& e(planation, *hi%h is a )atter of ud&)ent. There are sube%ts *ho re)ain
silent *ho either ha+e not understood or are unable to find rhy)es. thers are )ore
lo0ua%ious but the false rhy)es they %ite pro+e that they ha+e not %o)prehended. The
)inute ha+in& elapsed, rene* the e(planation and try the test a&ain.
2. $er*al Gaps to *e &illed
This test thou&ht out and proposed by $rofessor Ebbin&hausof 'erlin, +aries in
si&nifi%an%e a%%ordin& to its )ode of use. 3t %onsists essentially in this# a *ord of a te(t is
o)itted and the sube%t is ased to repla%e it. The nature of the intelle%tual *or by *hi%h
the &ap is filled, +aries a%%ordin& to the %ase. This )ay be a test of )e)ory, a test of style,
or a test of ud&)ent. 3n the senten%e# 85ouis 3M *as born in ------8 the &ap is filled by
)e)ory. 8The %ro* ----- his feathers *ith his bea/8 in this the idea of the suppressed *ord
is not at all obs%ure, and the tas %onsists in findin& the proper *ord. e )ay say in
passin&, that a%%ordin& to the opinion of se+eral tea%hers before *ho) *e ha+e tried it, this
ind of e(er%ise furnishes e(%ellent s%holasti% trainin&. 5astly, in senten%es of the nature of
those *e ha+e %hosen, the fillin& of the &aps re0uires an attenti+e e(a)ination and an
appre%iation of the fa%ts set forth by the senten%e. 3t is therefore an e(er%ise of ud&)ent.
Procedure. e ha+e si)plified it by suppressin& all e(planations. The *ords for)in& the&ap are intentionally pla%ed at the end of the senten%e. 3t is suffi%ient to read the te(t *ith
e(pression, then suspend the +oi%e *ith the tone of interro&ation *hen one arri+es at the
&ap. The sube%t naturally fills in the &ap. 3f he does not do so spontaneously, ur&e hi) a
little by sayin&, 8Finish. hat )ust one say78 n%e the operation is set &oin& it %ontinues
easily.
The operator no*s the true *ords of the te(t *hi%h ha+e been suppressed. e should not
yield to the te)ptation of %onsiderin& those the only %orre%t ones. e )ust e(a)ine and
*ei&h *ith %are all the *ords that are &i+en hi). So)e are &ood, others altoðer bad,
nonsensi%al or absurd. There *ill be all de&rees.
ere is the te(t *ith the &aps. The *ords to be suppressed are in itali%s.
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The *eather is %lear, the sy is 1G *lue. The sun has 0ui%ly dried the linen *hi%h the
*o)en ha+e spread on the line. The %loth, *hite as sno*, dazzles the 2G eyes.>N? The
*o)en &ather up the lar&e sheets *hi%h are as stiff as thou&h they had been G starched.
They shae the) and hold the) by the four 4G corners. Then they snap the sheets *ith a
JG noise. ean*hile the house*ife irons the fine linen. She taes the irons one after the
other and pla%es the) on the 6Gstove. 5ittle ary *ho is dressin& her doll *ould lie todo so)e HG ironing, but she has not had per)ission to tou%h the IG irons.
2-. "ynthesis of Three :ords in 3ne "entence>14?
This e(er%ise is a test in spontaneity, fa%ility of in+ention and %o)bination, aptitude to
%onstru%t senten%es.
Procedure. Three *ords are proposed# $aris, ri+er, fortune. s that a senten%e be )ade
usin& those three *ords. 3t is ne%essary to be +ery %lear, and to e(plain to those *ho )ay
not %han%e to no* *hat a senten%e is. any sube%ts re)ain po*erless before this
diffi%ulty, *hi%h is beyond their %apa%ity. thers %an )ae a senten%e *ith a &i+en *ordbut they %annot attain to the puttin& of three *ords in a sin&le senten%e.
2>. eply to an A*stract (uestion >1J?
This test is one of the )ost i)portant of all, for the dia&nosis of )ental debility. 3t is rapid,
easily &i+en, suffi%iently pre%ise. 3t %onsists in pla%in& the sube%t in a situation presentin& a
diffi%ulty of an abstra%t nature. ny )ind *hi%h is not apt in abstra%tion su%%u)bs here.
Procedure. This %onsists in readin& the be&innin& of a senten%e and suspendin& the +oi%e
*hen one arri+es at the point, and repeatin&, 8hat ou&ht one to do78 The senten%es are
%onstru%ted in su%h a )anner that the sli&ht diffi%ulty of %o)prehension *hi%h they present,
%o)es fro) the ideas rather than fro) the *ords. The %hild *ho does not understand, is
hindered less by his i&noran%e of the lan&ua&e than by his la% of ability to seize an abstra%t
idea. There are t*enty-fi+e 0uestions. The first are +ery easy and tend to put the sube%t at
his ease. e do not reprodu%e the) here as they *ill be found farther on *ith the results.
ere are only four of the senten%es. They are a)on& those of )ediu) diffi%ulty.
1. hen one has need of &ood ad+i%e -- *hat )ust one do7
2. 'efore )ain& a de%ision about a +ery i)portant affair -- *hat )ust one do7
. hen anyone has offended you and ass you to e(%use hi) -- *hat ou&ht you to do7
4. hen one ass your opinion of so)eone *ho) you no* only a little -- *hat ou&ht you
to say7
3t is often a deli%ate )atter to esti)ate the +alue of a reply. So)eti)es the sube%t does not
&ather all the shades of the 0uestion and the reply is too si)ple, not absolutely ade0uate to
the de)and. !e+ertheless one )ust be satisfied if it e(presses sense, if it pro+es that the
&eneral bearin& of the 0uestion has been &rasped.
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3n other %ases the reply is e0ui+o%al/ it *ould be e(%ellent if it %a)e fro) a dilletante >si%?,
or a de%adent, be%ause of the double )eanin& *hi%h is ironi%ally e+oed. 3t is of no +alue in
the )outh of a s%hool %hild. Thus to the first 0uestion, 8hen one has need of &ood ad+i%e
--8 a %hild replied, 8one says nothin&.8 e suppose he has not understood but if this had
been an ironi%al reply, one )i&ht ha+e found in it a %urious )eanin&. s a )atter of fa%t,
these un%ertainties, *hi%h are truly )atters of %ons%ien%e *ith the e(a)iner, presentthe)sel+es but rarely. rdinarily the interpretation is easy be%ause one no*s already about
*hat to e(pe%t fro) his sube%t.
25. eversal of the ?ands of a )loc!
This is a test of reasonin&, attention, +isual i)a&ery.
Procedure. First as the sube%t if he no*s ho* to tell ti)e. 3n %ase his ans*er is in the
affir)ati+e, put hi) to the test be%ause it is not best to trust his *ord. There are i)be%iles
*ho say they no* ho* to tell ti)e and &i+e e(tra+a&ant ans*ers *hen a *at%h is &i+en
the) to read. 3t is i)portant to note this error in ud&)ent. a+in& found that the sube%tno*s ho* to tell ti)e, re)ind hi) that the lon& hand indi%ates the )inutes and the short
hand the hours. Then say to hi), 8 Suppose that it is a 0uarter of three, do you %learly see
*here the lon& hand is, and the short hand7 ery *ell, no* suppose the lon& hand is
%han&ed to the pla%e *here the short hand is, and the short hand to the pla%e of the lon&,
*hat ti)e is it78 De+erse the hands for the follo*in& hours# t*enty )inutes past si(/ four
)inutes of three. The %orre%t solutions are, half past four, and a 0uarter past ele+en.
The sube%t )ust not see the fa%e of a *at%h nor )ae the desi&n upon paper, or his %uff or
his nail to aid his i)a&ination. s the e(peri)ent is )ade indi+idually, super+ision is easy.
hen the sube%t &i+es the t*o solutions %orre%tly, one %an push hi) a little further,
i)posin& a 0uestion )u%h )ore diffi%ult. Say to hi), 8For ea%h of the hours that you ha+e
indi%ated, the re+ersal of the hands brin&s about the result that you ha+e found/ ne+ertheless
this result is not altoðer %orre%t. The transposition indi%ated is not altoðer possible.
'y analyzin& the %ase *ith %are, tell )e *hy.8
This test per)its of +aryin& de&rees of a%%ura%y in the replies. First, %ertain ones are not
able to )ae any transposition/ they &i+e no solution, or else it is absolutely in%orre%t.
thers *ho %o)e nearer the truth &i+e a solution *hi%h is partially %orre%t/ for e(a)ple,
only one of the hands is ri&htly pla%ed, or perhaps an error of sy))etry has been
%o))itted, one has put to the ri&ht *hat ou&ht to ha+e been at the left or in+ersely. Thethird %ate&ory is that of sube%ts *ho &i+e %orre%t solutions. Finally the fourth is %o)posed
of those *ho &i+e a %orre%t solution and are %apable of %riti%izin& the sli&ht ina%%ura%ies.
26. Paper )utting>16?
This e(er%ise %alls for +oluntary attention, reasonin&, +isual i)a&ery, but not for
+o%abulary.
Procedure. Tae t*o sheets of *hite paper of the sa)e di)ensions. ;all the attention of the
sube%t to their e0uality. 8:ou see they are alie.8 5ay the first one on the table, fold the
other into t*o e0ual parts slo*ly before the sube%t, then fold a&ain into t*o e0ual parts atri&ht an&les to the first fold. The sheet is no* folded in four e0ual di+isions. n the ed&e
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that presents a sin&le fold, %ut out *ith the s%issors, a trian&le. Tae a*ay the trian&ular
pie%e of paper *ithout allo*in& the sube%t to study it, but sho* hi) the folded paper, and
say to hi)# 8The sheet of paper is no* %ut. 3f 3 *ere to open it, it *ould no lon&er rese)ble
the first sheet of paper here on the table/ there *ill be a hole in it. =ra* on this first sheet of
paper *hat 3 shall see *hen 3 unfold this one.8 3t is i)portant that the e(peri)enter say
neither )ore nor less than our te(t, and that he %o)pel hi)self to e)ploy the *ords %hosenby us althou&h s%ar%ely e(a%t and a%%urate. The sube%t no* dra*s upon the first sheet the
result of the %uttin& *hi%h he has ust *itnessed. e should not be allo*ed to handle the
perforated sheet. So)e sube%ts loo a little at the perforation, others rely upon their
i)a&ination and be&in at on%e to dra*. The less intelli&ent si)ply dra* an an&le pla%ed no
)atter *here on the *hite pa&e, or perhaps a trian&le *hose for) and di)ensions are not
those of the %ut. little %loser obser+ation %auses so)e to %onsider the for) and
di)ensions. So)e*hat better is the trian&le repla%ed by a dia)ond dra*n in the %enter of
the pa&e. lthou&h better, it is still not the %orre%t result, for to be %orre%t t*o dia)onds
)ust be dra*n, one in the %enter of ea%h half of the paper. This test interests e+erybody. 3t
re0uires no de+elop)ent of style. 3t has nothin& literary, and rests upon entirely different
fa%ulties than those re0uired by pre%edin& tests. oreo+er the %orre%tness of the result iseasy to &rade.
#8. ,efinitions of A*stract Terms>1H?
This test rese)bles %losely those *hi%h %onsist in replyin& to an abstra%t 0uestion. 3t differs
espe%ially in that it re0uires a no*led&e of +o%abulary.
Procedure. ithout preli)inaries, one ass of the sube%t, 8hat differen%e is there
bet*een estee) and affe%tion7 hat differen%e is there bet*een *eariness and sadness78
ften the sube%t does not reply. e so)eti)es &i+es an absurd or non-sensi%al ans*er.
e %on%lude here the list of tests *e ha+e used. 3t *ould ha+e been easy to %ontinue the)
by renderin& the) )ore %o)pli%ated, if one had *ished to for) a hierar%hy a)on& nor)al
%hildren. ne %ould e+en e(tend the s%ale up to the adult nor)al, the a+era&e intelli&ent,
the +ery intelli&ent, the hyper-intelli&ent and )easure, or try to )easure, talent and &enius.
e shall postpone for another ti)e this diffi%ult study.
hen a subnor)al, or a %hild suspe%ted of bein& su%h, is 0uestioned, it is not ne%essary to
follo* the e(a%t order of tests. little pra%ti%e enables one to %ut short, and put the fin&er
upon the de%isi+e test.
The solutions &i+en by the sube%ts %an be put into four %ate&ories#
1. A*sence of solution. This is either a %ase of )utis), or refrainin& fro) )ain& an
atte)pt, or an error so &reat that there is nothin& satisfa%tory in the result. e indi%ate the
absen%e of result by the al&ebrai% si&n )inus -G.
2. Partial solutions. part of the truth has been dis%o+ered. The reply is passable. This is
indi%ated by a fra%tion/ the fra%tion in use is O. hen the test per)its se+eral de&rees one
%an ha+e P, or Q et%.
#. )omplete solution. This does not ad)it of definition. 3t is indi%ated by the al&ebrai% si&nplus RG.
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%. A*surdities. e ha+e %ited a &reat nu)ber of e(a)ples and insist upon their i)portan%e/
they are indi%ated by the e(%la)ation si&n G.
The %ause for %ertain defe%ti+e replies %an so)eti)es be &rasped *ith suffi%ient %learness
to ad)it of %lassifi%ation.
'esides the failure to %o)prehend the tests as a *hole, *e en%ounter#
1. 3&noran%e/ the sube%t does not no* the sense of a *ord or has ne+er seen the obe%t of
*hi%h one speas. Thus a %hild does not no* a poppy. e *rite an 3.
2. Desistan%e to the e(a)ination be%ause of bad hu)or, un*illin&ness, state of ner+es, et%.
e *rite an D.
. %%entuated ti)idity. e *rite a T.
4. The failure of attention, distra%tion. e *rite a =. The distra%tion )ay be of differentinds. There is an a%%idental distra%tion, produ%ed by an e(terior e(%itant >si%? or an
o%%asional %ause. For e(a)ple, the %ase of a nor)al *ho spoils a )e)ory test be%ause he
)ust use his hander%hief. There is %onstitutional distra%tion fre0uent a)on& subnor)als.
e ha+e as%ertained a)on& the) the follo*in& types# =istra%tion fro) s%attered
per%eptions. =istra%tion fro) preo%%upation. =istra%tion fro) inability to fi( the attention.
> 'inet then &oes on to des%ribe the peda&o&i%al and )edi%al )ethods - %d&?
Footnotes
>1? ne ofus 'inetG has else*here insisted that a distin%tion be )ade bet*eenthe )easure
and the %lassifi%ation. See 8Su&&estibilite,8 p. 1, ol. 11,L'Anne Psychologique.
>2?ditor's @ite's note# 'inetCs %lassifi%ation of defe%ti+es is idiot, i)be%ile, and 8d6bile.8
This see)s to %orrespond %losely to our )eri%an ter)inolo&y of idiot, i)be%ile, and
)oron. e ha+e a%%ordin&ly translated 8dLbile8 as )oron and 8dLbilitL8 as )oronity.
>? ne of us 'inetG has been for so)e years the president of 8So%iLtL libre pour 1CLtude de
1Cenfant,8 and he has stri+en to spread a)on& his %ollea&ues, )ostly tea%hers, the taste for
s%ientifi% resear%h. e has found that the t*o errors )entioned in the te(t are those *hi%happear )ost fre0uently a)on& be&inners.
>4?ditor's >KiteCs?note# e ha+e here retained the *ord used by 'inet, be%ause in the
En&lish there is no one *ord e(a%tly synony)ous *ith it. The *ord literally translated
)eans 8the ability to follo* *ith the eyes a )o+in& obe%t.8
>J? ;f. p. 196 >of The development of intelligence in )hildren, E. S. KiteCs %olle%tion of
'inetCs papers?.
>6? ;f. p. 1IH >ditto?.
>H? ;f. $. 1I6 >ditto?.
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>I? 3n a boo spe%ially de+oted to "uggesti*ility $aris, S%hlei%her, 19G -- one of us
'inetG has des%ribed se+eral )ethods of testin& for su&&estibility *hi%h are +aluable for
appli%ation in the s%hools.
>9?ditor's >KiteCs?note# 'inetCs senten%es +ary in len&th fro) thirteen to ei&hteen *ords.
e has %orre%ted this dis%repan%y in the 19I edition by %ountin& the nu)ber of syllables&i+en in this and indred tests. literal translation of his senten%es ob+iously )ay not
%ontain the sa)e nu)ber of *ords in En&lish as in Fren%h.
>1? ;f. p. 22 >of The development of intelligence in )hildren, E. S. KiteCs %olle%tion of
'inetCs papers?.
>11? ;f. p. 22.
>12?ditor's >KiteCs?noteB e ha+e here retained the Fren%h *ords be%ause it is ob+ious
that the En&lish e0ui+alents *ould not rhy)e. 3n usin& the test one )ust of %ourse use
suitable En&lish rhy)es.
>1?ditor's >KiteCs?note# There are )any *ords in the Fren%h *hi%h rhy)e *ith
8obLissan%e8 and *hi%h are perfe%tly fa)iliar to a Fren%h %hild. This is not true of its
En&lish e0ui+alent. ne *ould not thin of asin& a %hild to )ae rhy)es *ith
8obedien%e.8
>N?)lassicsEditorCs note# The *ord 8eyes8 should probably be itali%ized here, but is not in
the KiteCs te(t. The *ord 8yeu/8 is in 'inetCs ori&inal Fren%h +ersion.
>14? ;f. p. 222.
>1J? ;f. p. 224.
>16? ;f. p.24.
>1H? ;f. p. 2.
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