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Chapter II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1: Hydrobiology
Ali and Jain (2001) investigated pollution potential of pesticides in the
Hindon river, India for pre- and post- monsoon seasons. Pesticides like lindane,
malathion, methoxychlor, BHC, pap’-DDD and imp’- DDT were studied. It was
observed from recorded results that concentrations of pesticides were high in
sediments sample as compared to water samples. Agricultural runoff seems to
be the main source of pesticide contamination.
Presence of nitrates and phosphates in excessive quantities stimulate the
growth of blue green algae which leads to eutrophication was concluded by
Nash Linda. (1993) and Maywald. (1988). According to them the high levels of
nitrates in drinking water can cause health problems. These high levels of
nitrates are usually due to leakage of fertiliser water runoff to well water, lakes
and rivers which degrades drinking water. Diseases like, mathaemoglobinemia
(blue baby disease) by depriving the infants of oxygen occur due to high
quantum of nitrates in drinking water.
The authors observed that the values of certain parameters were higher
than standard acceptable limits, indicating that the water was unfit for drinking
and other uses, when a review of inorganic nutrients present in the Osun River
water samples and the neighboring groundwater samples was carried out by
Olajire et al., (2001). They drawn the samples over a period of four months
commencing from May 1998 for the study. For the examination they selected8
sampling locations. They verified the concentrations of ions like Na+, Ca2+, NH4+,
Cl-, NO3-, CN- and PO43- and the standards of parameters like pH, temperature,
electrical conductivity, etc in their study.
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The surface water in the Amirgadh taluka in the Northern part of Gujarat
was analyzed by Patel et al. (2003). They checked the physicochemical
properties of the water for this purpose. A variety of parameters, such as, pH, EC
(electrical conductivity), TDS (total dissolved 51 solids), and TH (Total hardness)
were examined. The levels of chlorine and different metals were also
investigated. The study discovered that the standards of certain parameters were
more than the permissible limits.
Moundiotiya et al. (2004) carried out study of the Jamwa Ramgarh
Wetland. They observed the water for thephysical and chemical properties and
the environment of wetland. They assessed physical characters like temperature,
pH, electrical conductivity, and chemical characters like alkalinity, hardness, total
dissolved solids, chloride ion and dissolved oxygen. During the study period they
observed a noteworthy difference in these parameters. In the observation, due to
the elevated buffering ability of the lake they found the pH in the range from 6.8
to 8.5.The EC value was 500 micromhos/ cm minimum in the monsoon season
and 700 micromhos/ cm maximum in summer. Total alkalinity values were also
high during the summer season but were lower in lake the monsoon. Alkalinity
indicated that the water was hard. The authors pointed out that the lake water
quality would deteriorate with those condition.
An experimental study was undertaken by Nhapi et al., (2004) to
determine the relationship between sewage discharges and nutrient levels in the
“Marimba River”, of Zimbabwe. The “Lake Chivero” is the main source of water
supply to “Harare City” and The “Marimba River” ends in “Lake Chivero” and is
one of its major sources. For this study they selected 14 locations along the
course of “Miramba and Little Miramba River”. They collected samples for 20
months starting with June 2000 for the determination of the seasonal differences
in water quality. It was observed that the of release of domestic wastes, sewage,
manufacturing waste matters and fertilizer and pesticides from agricultural use
near the origin of the river added to the increase in levels of nutrients – like
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nitrogen and phosphorus, this provide nutrients to microorganisms. because of
this A elevated level of pollution was observed, pollution level was observed to
be quite high in nitrogen and phosphorus, which were more than the limits set by
Authorities, such as, WHO. The unfavorable effects felt upstream were worse as
the river flowed over to its end.
The adverse effects of the heavy metal contamination of Hoogaly river at
Haldi on the fishes and aquatic life was confirmed in the review study by
Samanta et al., (2005). They carried out study to determine the levels of toxic
heavy metals and study the impact such enhanced levels (of toxic metals) have
on fish life. They examined the water for the period of three years from Jun99 to
October 2002.The samples were drawn from several points including Patikhali-
where there is heavy industrial discharge.the study revealed existence of five
heavy metals like lead, copper, zinc and magnesium and cadmium. During the
investigation it was noted that the river before the above industrial area shown
least concentration of these metals. The value of various metals obtained from
sample data was compared with “the Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC)”
of USA. The levels of Cd, Cu and Pb were observed to be quite high.
Bhardwaj (2005) monitored water quality of freshwater in India . He
studied 218 Wells, 4 Tanks, 2 Ponds, 3 Canals, 189 Rivers, 53 Lakes, 3 Creeks,
9 Drains. For the study he performed analysis of water samples for 28 physico-
chemical and bacteriological parameters. He analyzed 15 pesticides and 9 trace
metals in selected samples. At specific locations biomonitoring was carried out.
In the results it was found that Coliform Group of Bacteria were sources of
contamination that created organic pollution in almost all the surface water. It
was evident from the monitoring of water feature of major rivers that they are
contaminated and are not appropriate for the human use. The rivers Krishna,
Tapi, Mahanadi and Brahmani Sabarmati, Godavari, Satluj, Yamuna, Cauvery,
Ganga, were grossly polluted rivers on specific stretches. The relatively clean
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rivers with respect to organic and bacterial pollution were Mahi, Narmada,
Brahmaputra and Beas .
Bilgrami et al., (1998) performed a research on the contamination of the
water of the Ganga River by bacteria. ‘Bacterial analysis’ of water was done to
assess the water quality. Three points in ‘Bhagalpur’, were selected in order to
collect samples. The points were selected near the discharges of untreated
domestic wastes as well as manufacturing effluents near these points. The
experimental data was compared with the limits prescribed by ISI and WHO. It
was pragmatic that Total Bacterial Density (TBD), Fecal Coliform (FC), Fecal
Streptococci (FS), Total Coliform (TC), Escherichia coli and Clostridium
perfringens were in excess of the limits. It was stated that the river water was
unsuitable for domestic purposes - drinking and other uses.
The water of Cross River basin the region of Akpabuyo, in the Southern
part of Eastern Nigeria was considered to be of a quality adequate for drinking,
recreational, household, agricultural and other allied purposes when it was
studied to check the pollution levels by Offiong et al., (1998). They selected an
aggregate of twenty one sampling points, in order to achieve this, they reviewed
each sample for physicochemical, organoleptic and the biological parameters. It
was detected that the river waters were soft, fresh, an acidic to an extent and
were marked by a low ‘Sodium absorption rate’ (SAR). The levels of major cat
ions and anions were detected to be within the limits set down by Authorities viz.
the World Health Organisation. Since, all parameters except pH were within the
limits prescribed by the relevant authorities, such as, WHO.
Charkhabi et al., (2005) analysed the season wise variations in heavy
metal concentration in Siahroud River, Iran. The study assessed seven toxic
heavy metals like zinc, lead, cadmium, copper, managanese, iron and nickel,
which were analyzed for five consecutive seasons. The results stated that four
heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Fe and Mn) the concentration levels were in surplus of
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limits given by the USPH. It was found out that use of fertilizers and pesticides for
agricultural activities, manufacturing land-use, in the watershed area and other
anthropogenic activities were the major causes for the elevated concentrations of
the metals.
Anand et. al. (2006) carried out study on bacteriological water feature
aspect of River Yamuna in Delhi .Both the east and west banks were studied. It
was found in the study that there adverse effect of the monsoon effect as well as
diverse anthropogenic activities on the bacterial population. Mainly the human
activities contributed microbial population prevalence in the complete flow of
Yamuna river. There was decrease in bacterial calculations in the heavy rain
period owing to flushing effect. As this parameter is time and area specific it does
not provide accurate overall effect .
The surface water of Tunga river water is fit for domestic use but a check
needs to be maintained to prevent contamination in future was suggested by
Kumar et al., (2006). The experiments were conducted by for the assessment of
the water quality of the Tunga River in Karnataka. They collected water samples
of surface water of Tunga River by sampling at different stations during March to
February 2005 for the hydro-chemical analysis to measure the seasonal variation
in different variables. They revealed the high saturation levels of dissolved
oxygen and observed lower concentrations of phosphates nitrate, sodium and
potassium in the subyerrain waters of that region. The computed values were
found to be within the range in case of all parameters specified by Authorities
such as WHO.
The need of a suitable legislation, installation – operation and
maintenance of a waste water treatment plant and a programme for continuous
monitoring of the pollution levels in the river is suggested by Karaer et al., (2006)
. They reviewed the effects of organic substances causing pollution in the stream
Nilufer of Turkey. The consequences of the discharge of these substances at
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specific locations and their general effect as a result of their accumulation was
studied. Their observation put forth the water quality was below the standards of
use. the cause of contamination of water source was the release of domestic
wastes, sewage, manufacturing effluents, solid & liquid wastes, pesticides and
fertilizers from nearby agricultural lands.
Sachidanandamurthy and Yajurvedi (2006) investigated physico-
chemical properties of aquaculture body of Mysore city, India, at Bilikere lake for
two calendar years to know its suitability for pisciculture. Examination revealed
that there were ups and downs in water temperature, TSS, dissolved oxygen,
nitrite and NH3 within limits. Whereas total alkalinity, and H2S all through the
observation period and pH for a chief part were elevated than the desired limit.
Turbidity, BOD, phosphate, and nitrate were found higher in few months as
compared to desired limit for fish culture. These higher levels of certain factors
are due to access of agricultural runoff and infrequent input of sewage flow.
Since, the lake has a great aqua cultural impending, it is recommended that
organize of nutrient load that enters the lake infrequently, may assist the lake to
maintain its mesotrophic condition .
Jafari, N. G. & Gunwale V. R. 2006 carried out research of algae and
hydrobiology of an urban freshwater river Mutha of Pune city(M.S.) According to
them the biological assessment of ecological quality of aquatic ecosystems is a
useful alternative for assessment as biological populations incorporate with the
environmental effects of water chemical properties. They used biotic indices of
Nygaard and, Palmer and carried out assessment of quality of the river. They
collected water samples containing algae periodically. In their study they
recorded genera and species of four groups of algae which were pollution
tolerant. According to them Phytoplankton of the river water may be used as
pointer of water quality as they reflects the average ecological condition .
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Alam et al., (2007) conducted a study to evaluate the increasing levels of
pollution in Surma River of Bangladesh. The process of sample collection was
done In order to evaluate the quality of Water in both rainy season and in
summer. The total of one sixty seven samples were taken out. These samples
were then tested for different types of criteria viz.–physical, physicochemical, and
bacteriological. For each of the sampling point a fixed distance of two fifty m. was
kept. The high value of BOD and Coliform count in dry season shown
deteriorated the water quality which is due to the effluents of paper mills and
cement factory. The study draws conclusion that for drinking purposes the water
is not of an ample quality in the absence of any purification; but for other leisure
activities like swimming, industrial use etc. the ‘River Water’ was still of an
adequate quality.
Ayas et. al.(2007) collected samples for determining increase of heavy
metals in water, residues and fish samples(Alburnus escherichii, cypnnus carpio)
from Nalihanbird paradise and its vicinity (Sariyar dam), Turky. They found that
metal concentration in sediment was higher than in water and fish (below
detection limit). The highest amount of metal concentrations in sediment samples
among seven locations. In Usakbuku the Pb is 0.49 ppm, and Sariyar the Ni is
0.77 ppm and in Sakarya river the amount of Cu is 1.12 ppm. Other locations no
metal residue was determined.
Bhandari et al., (2007) carried out analysis for the physiochemical
characterics of Kosi River system, in North India. They collected samples in the
year 2004-05 during all three seasons as summer winter and monsoon. It was
found that, the selected parameters were within the prescribed limits set by
WHO, except in a few cases. Only two parameters, Turbidity and BOD showed
elevated values compared to limits. Maximum values of magnesium and calcium
may be credited to the mining of Dolomite and soil wearing away.
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Bhuiyan J.R. and Gupta S. (2007) conducted a study of hydrobiology of
a rural area of Barak Valley, Assam in nine different ponds. They found that the
iron substance was higher in most of the ponds. However, concentrations of
chemical parameters like pH, conductivity, magnesium, calcium, copper, zinc,
alkalinity, nitrate, phosphate, free carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen, are
contained by the permissible levels of quality of drinking water standard of WHO
and ISI. Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Euglenophyceae
were major phytoplankton taxa present in the ponds. An indirect relationship
between iron concentration and euglenoids was observed. From the study of
rural ponds it was revealed that they were good source of water for drinking,
domestic use and fishery.
Jaji et al., (2007) reviewed the water pollution levels in Ogun River, South
West Nigeria. They fixed thirteen different locations In order to draw samples .
The selected samples were analyzed over a period of one year against various
types of parameters viz. bacteriological &Physicochemical. It was observed that
in case of (i) Fecal Coliform bacteria, in the satisfactory limit set by the World
Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water (ii) metals such as lead and iron,
and (iii) physical characteristics such as turbidity and Oil & Grease, had been
surpassed at all the sites. The manganese and cadmium concentrations from the
study were above the WHO limit. It was reported that the river water is extremely
contaminated and in poor condition for drinking or domestic use.
Water samples from six different sites of Mouri River at Khulna, in
Bangladesh were analyzed for the purposes of the study physicochemical
properties of water by Kamal et al. (2007) . They studied twenty two
physicochemical parameters regularly over the interval January-March 2002.The
major indicators like Temperature, pH, BOD, COD, Sulphate, Phosphate, Nitrate,
Sodium, Iron were measured. They revealed from the statistical analysis that
there is positive co-relation of water with pH, Hardness, Total alkalinity, D.O, free
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CO2 , and sulphate. the findings also indicated an inverse relationship of the
dissolved oxygen with the Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen
demand.
The poor quality of the river water of Chittar River in the region of
Courtallam, of Tamil Nadu was assessed by Murugesan et al., (2007). They
studied both physicochemical and biological properties of the water samples to
study the levels of pollution. Courtallam Falls of the Chittar River is a place of
tourist attraction during the southwest rainy season. In this period elevated
contribution of detergents and other anthropogenic activities is observed to
pollute the water. This study was carried out during peak tourist season to
evaluate physicochemical and biological properties of the water of the river. All
physical and chemical parameters except SO4were found within the acceptable
limits. However, the Total Coliform and Fecal Coliforms counts were more than
the permissible limits, which indicated a deprived quality of the river water.
The outburst of epidemics in the form of diseases like cholera, diarrhoea,
which are major water born diseases and a global health problem are the results
due to utility of waters contaminated with waste and sewage, is the claim of
Kristof. 1997. He says that these health problems are chiefly caused by fecal
contamination of water. As a result of contaminated waters around 2-3 billion
people suffer from such diseases , while several millions of people die every
year.
The analysis of Water samples from diverse resources like bore wells,
open wells, farm ponds and streams/rivers of twenty villages of Bantwal taluka of
Dakshina Kannada in district of South-western Karnataka was carried out by
Smitha et. al. (2007) . Water samples were analyzed for the physical and
chemical characteristics of the water in their study. They proved that for the
appropriateness of water for irrigation and drinking, evaluation of the feature of
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water is an important criterion. The results showed that water is appropriate for
irrigation and agricultural purposes.
Soil and plants at Unnao of Uttar Pradesh in India. were studied by
Sahu et. al. (2007). They studied impact of tanneries effluent on for
bioaccumulation of heavy metals into the loamy drain and a storm natural drain.
In their experiments , they checked water samples from two locations, Station I
convergence point between loamy drain and effluent channel and Station II 500
m downstream from the first location. Study supports that parameters like pH,
biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand at station I were
advanced than station II. Even they analyzed samples of soil and vegetables
from the land irrigated with loamy drain water for the presence of copper,
chromium , cadmium, zinc, nickel, and lead. The different metals showed diverse
enrichment factor for loamy drain water irrigated soil and are , Cd thirty percent
(max), lead twenty six percent, Zn eighteen percent, chromium 5%, copper 5%,
nickel2% (min). The results for entire plant samples collected at polluted
locations are In spinach maximum found are nickel46%, zinc 42%, cromium
39%, copper 33% and lead 20%, in potato tuber, cadmium 20%. The potato
tuber grown on polluted soil irrigated with contaminated water shown the levels of
these elements more than the mention value, which may produce persistent
health problem to human and cattle which consume these plants in one or other
form. Thus gathering of heavy metals may occur in the agricultural land in which
industrial waste water is used for plantation, enter the food chain and show its
hazardous effect on long run.
It was reported that there is a decrease in the nitration rate. This affects
the quality of the river waters of Huangpu River of China Yang et al., (2007).
They evaluated the quality of the river water. They measured a variety of
physicochemical parameters like pH, suspended solids , dissolved oxygen, and
biological oxygen demand etc. along with the total bacteria and E. coli content. In
the investigations the water samples were drawn on a bi -monthly basis for the
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period of one year (2004). the samples of water were collected from five different
locations along the river. From the measures and correlation parameters it was
found that the elevated nutrient content of the water had augmented the growth
of microorganisms, which in turn amplified the BOD of the water. Due to the high
demand for oxygen, there is a decline in the nitration rate which affects the status
of the river waters.
Adeyemo et al., (2008) determined the pollution levels of the rivers in
Ibadan, in Nigeria with a review of certain geographic parameters . The process
of sample collection was done at different points, to achieve this, throughout the
length of the rivers, in all the major regions of Ibadan from its origin to its
destination. The period was carriedout from winter 2003 and again from
monsoon 2004. The parameters that were checked were pH, D.O, BOD,
chlorides, phosphates and nitrates. changeable levels of pollution from
unpolluted to exceptionally-polluted levels was pragmatic during the different
seasons, posturing a danger to the fish health and biodiversity.
Hema et al., (2008) carried out a study in the River of ‘Tamiraparni River’.
They carriedput the analysis to study the pollution levels. They carrired out the
study with special reference to the presence of Coliform Bacteria and discharges
of dirty water in the river water. There were many manufacturing units on both
the sides of the river bank, which released manufacturing wastes, thereby
influencing the quality of the water of river. Examination of the samples collected,
discovered that the existence of Coliform Bacteria in river water was highest in
December - post monsoon, while it was least in May –ie. Pre monsoon.
Saxena et al., (2008) examined the Chambal River, in Madhya Pradesh.
Their objective was to study physicochemical parameters from the water samples
of the river. The water shed area of the river they studied, comes under the
“National Chambal Sanctuary’ region. They analyzed, DO, Turbidity, pH, EC etc.
and other parameters, like Total Hardness, Total Alkalinity, chloride, nitrates,
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sulphates, sulphides, BOD, COD, Na & K were also checked. They performed
the analytical study for one year. It was revealed that all the parameters
examined were within the standards prescribed by relevant authorities viz. Indian
Standard bureau. This indicates that water is free from contamination.
Shiddamallayya and Pratima (2008) studied effect of household sewage
on fresh water body (Tank water) in Bhalki town of Bidar for pH, DO, COD, Mg,
Chlorine, nitrite, sulphate, alkalinity, hardness, calcium, phosphate
etc.Parameters. The amounts of pH, hardness and NO3 were found elevated
than the standard of WHO of the potable water. The +ve co-relation coefficient
found between pH and magnesium, dissolved oxygen and hardness, free CO2
and calcium, alkalinity and nitrite, alkalinity and PO4, alkalinity and BOD,
hardness and calcium, hardness and magnesium, magnesium and chlorine,
NO3and PO4, NO3 and biological oxygen demand, phosphate and organic matter;
and silicon and COD. The dendrogram confirms chloride, pH, hardness, silicon,
total solids and SO4 which are the main factors of the change in the nature of
water body.
The assessment of groundwater in Phulera tehsil in Jaipur district of
Rajasthan was carried out by Sabal and Khan (2008).They performed
experiment to study of status of for Fluoride contamination. The water samples
shown alkalinity with pH ranging from 7.05 to 10.16. That alkalinity of all water
samples was observed to be greater than the acceptable maximum value. Total
hardness (TH) diversed from 69 to 572 miligrams per liter. Chloride varied from
minimum 92.00 mg/ l to maximum1422.00 mgl-1. Calcium hardness ranged from
minimum 10 to maximum 127 miligram per litre and electrical conductivity was
from 157 1mhoScm-1 to 1018 1mhoS cm-1. It was found that Phulera tehsil had
a problem of ground water pollution. In their investigation fluoride content found
in forty villages of Phulera tehsil were more than acceptable limits .The fluoride
ranged from 1.20 to 18 mg l-1. Every inhabitant showed symptoms of fluorosis. All
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the results indicated the poor quality of ground water of Phulera, which was
unsuitable for drinking purpose.
The purity levels of the Huluka River of Ambo region, Ethiopia were
assessed by Prabu et al., (2008). The objective was to review the purity levels of
the river water as the river flowed towards its destination. Five different sampling
points were selected along the course of the river for this study. The samples
were examined for a period of half year commencing February 2007. The
different parameters considered were like pH, hardness, magnesium, chloride
etc. The observed values for the different parameters were then compared with
the standards set by “Canadian Council of Ministers for Environment”. The result
conclusion was that most parameters exceeded the limits and the water quality
was found to worsen steadily, due to the direct discharge of domestic and
municipal sewage. It was also found that the water quality deteriorates as one
goes more downstream.
Singh and Mishra (2009) carried out experiment of Kuano river of eastern
Uttar Pradesh for study of occurrence of organochlorine pesticides residue in it.
They observed presence of HCH and DDT though usage of both pesticides was
restricted. In most of the samples it was found that the pesticides residues were
present in much higher concentration than the standards of drinking water
quality. It was then confirmed that the degradation of environment may be due to
these pesticide compounds. They also produce impact to the organisms and
hazards to human health in that area.
Dash et. al. (2010) worked on consequence of fascination of Durga-idol,
on quality of some water parameters of Bramhani River at Rourkela in Orissa.
Researchers found that large amount of bio-degradable & non-biodegradable
matters like clay, polythene, wood, coconuts colors, paints etc. are added in to
the river. As a result turbidity, total hardness, lead and mercury shows higher
values after immersion as compared to pre- status of the river.
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Patra et. al. ( 2010) carried out limnological Studies of Jheel Water of
Santragachi and Joypur, W.B, India. The study was related to Physical and
Chemical qualities .There it was found different temporal or seasonal deviation in
both the Jheels with respect to physico-chemical parameters such as pH,
transparency, conductivity, Chloride, Ammonia, CaCO3, TDS, Nitrite, Nitrate,
Phosphate, total alkalinity, DO, BOD, COD, free CO2, etc. The physical and
chemical qualities of water of the two Jheels discovered the poor water quality in
Santragachi Jheel than the Joypur Jheel. That was due to mixing of sewage
waste in to the Santragachi jheel consequently higher degree of pollution in
Santragachi jheel.
Garg et. al.(2009) carried out assessment of quality of water and
preservation administration of Ramsagar reservoir of Datia, Madhya Pradesh.
They assessed the parameters like physico-chemical characteristics, pollution
studies, trophic status, and macrophytic community of Ramsagar reservoir .The
results revealed seasonal as well as monthly fluctuations of various parameters
of reservoir water. Macrophytic diversity was found higher but nutrients like
phosphates, silicates, etc. were in limit. The results indicated the slight
eutrophication of reservoir under mesotrophic category.
Saksena et. al. (2008) carried out work on Chambal river in National
Chambal sanctuary to study pollution status and water quality of at Madhya
Pradesh. They studied different physicochemical parameters. In their
experiments they found results like turbidity (1-178 TNU), colour (transparent-
very turbid), and transparency (12.12 - 110 cm). The range of pH was (7.60-
9.33), and EC of water was (145.60- 884 S/ cm). In the chemical contents of the
river water it was found that sodium (14.30-54.40 mg/ l) and potassium (2.10 -
6.30 miligram per litre.) , chloride (15.62- 80.94 mg/ l), silicate (2.80-13.80 mg/ l),
nitrite (0.002-0.022 mg/ l), phosphate (0.004-0.050 mg/ l), total dissolved solids
(260-500 mg/ l), sulphate (3.50-45 miligram per litre), total hardness (42-140 mg/
l), total alkalinity (70-290 mg/ l), nitrate (0.008-0.025 mg/ l), dissolved oxygen
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(4.86-14.59 mg/ l), free carbon dioxide (0-16.5 mg/ l), biochemical oxygen
demand (0.60-5.67 mg/ l), chemical oxygen demand (2.40-26.80 mg/ l),and
ammonia (nil-0.56 mg/ l). The result showed the pristine nature of the river in
National Chambal sanctuary. The analysis indicated that quality of the river water
in the sanctuary area is contamination free. The river can function as a good
habitat for many water animals together with endangered species.
Agrawal and Gaur(2009) carried out a study water quality of different
physical and chemical characters of groundwater of Mansarovar colony in Jaipur
.The observation was performed to estimate the suitability of ground water for
domestic’s purpose by analyzing physical and-chemical parameters like pH,
electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, Total Hardness, sodium, pottassium,
calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, fluoride and alkanity, Dissolved
Oxygen, BOD, COD.
Brahma et. al. (2009) experimented on water quality in Mayurbhanj
District, Orissato study impact of Industrial activity and revealed that water was
contaminated with large amount of heavy metals (Mn, Cr, Cd, Ni, Zn and Fe) ,Ca,
chlorides and total hardness was in high level.
Chugh et. al. (2009) in their work on pollution level in rivers of
Punjab(Sutlej and Beas).From their findings it was clear that both the rivers are
severly polluted and their water is not suitable for drinking or industrial use. They
also suggested urgent need for the control of quality of water in the region of the
study. For their analysis of water pollution water quality index has proved to be
an effective tool.
The zooplankton diversity in river Kayadhu was explored by Jayabhaye
U.M. (2009) They carried out the investigation in different months and seasons
during the year 2004. In the study they assessed the species composition,
population compactness and seasonal fluctuation of this faunal group. Total
twenty five species of zooplankton were recorded consisting of five species of
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cladocera ,11 species of rotifera, and 3 species of ostracoda, 6 species of
copepoda. Species richness was elevated in the month of April (Summer) and
October (Winter) and it was least amount during June (Monsoon).
Muthulakshmi et. al.(2009) analyzed ground water around Sivakasi
Region for physico-chemical parameters. They found found higher
concentrations of almost all parameters and most of samples have total
dissolved solids much higher than permissible level stipulated by BIS and WHO.
They suggested attention towards this.
Meena et. al. (2009) analysed water quality of selected areas of Pali
district in Rajasthan with respect to heavy metals, physico-chemical and
biological characteristics. Researchers found high range of toxic heavy metals
and other parameters in the ground and waste water samples. They found higher
levels of heavy metals than permissible limit specified for drinking water in the
Indian standards.
S.Hema .et. al.(2009) attempted a detailed study in the four major
tributaries of Cauvery River. They analyzed About fifty water samples from
Cauvery River for the physical and chemical parameters during the study. They
studied pH, Electrical Conductivity, calcium , magnesium , sodium , potassium ,
chlorides , sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrtes and flurides, Total
Dissolved Solids, total alkalinity, total hardness. They assessed the
appropriateness of water for drinking and the degree of pollution by comparing
analytical results with the Indian (BIS) and International (WHO) standards. The
results of their study indicated that some of the samples of exceed the tolerable
limit of pollution and not suitable for drinking. They revealed that the sources for
the pollution of quality of water in the study region were Agricultural runoff,
sewage and industrial effluents. The variations of water quality with respect to
space and time were not homogeneous during the investigation.
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Soundarapandian P (2009) carried out experiment to analyze the
Nutrients and Physical and chemical parameters of water in the Uppanar Estuary
of Cuddalore, South East Coast of India. The pH showed greater variation from
6.2 to 7.9 due to irregular treatment of the effluents reloaded into the estuary.
The dissolved oxygen concentrations found to be lower and salinity was higher in
lower reaches. The total dissolved solids, calcium , total phosphorus content,
nitrite and ammonia was found to be higher in the station-II than in station I under
study.
Shelli Baraga. et. al. (2009) studied microbiological status of polluted
water of kali river at Meerut. Disposal of liquid wastes of distilleries, tire factory
and sewage wastes in natural Kali river water have resulted serious problem.
they made attempt to evaluate plankton population in the polluted Kali river
water near downstream site selected before Modinagar. Observation has shown
that most probable number of coliform found highest in monsoon season of year
2007-2008. Likewise, the Standard Plate Count also found highest in monsoon
season. Observation also indicated high phytoplankton count in winter season.
Bhandari et. al. (2010) analysed water quality of Gurgaon canal in
Haryana. Several physico-chemical parameters like pH, TDS, DO, biological
oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand, alkalinity, hardness, chloride,
nitrate-nitrite, etc. were studied and found that values of all these parameters
were in high range but BOD and COD were comparatively high indicating large
amount of oxygen demanding wastes entering in to the canal.
Chandekar and Kamble (2010) in their research on ground water fluoride
in Rajura Tehsil in Chandrapur district, Maharashtra recorded high level (more
than 1.5ppm) of fluoride in six locations and lower level (less than 1.0ppm) than
desired in nine locations. Researchers also found number of inhabitants from
study area with symptoms of dental and onset of skeletal fluorosis.
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Hejabi et. al.(2010) Investigated contamination of sediments samples
collected from river Kabini which is tributary of Cauvery drains at Nanjangud,
Karnataka. Total metal content was analyzed by advanced statistical technique
to find out the source of metal concentration. Metals like cd, chromium, Cu, iron,
mangaese, Nickel, Pb and Zn were supplied to the sediments through industrial,
agricultural and domestic effluents. From observation it was found that metallic
accumulation was normal at some areas where as to some it was beyond
threshold limit. On comparison with all metals Pb was the highest in terms of
contamination level at an area where input of paper mill effluent was observed
followed by Zn and Cu.
Jha (2010) studied ground water as well as Kharnai river water with
reference to heavy metals like Zinc, copper, chromium, manganese,iron, Nickel
pollution and revealed that the tubewell situated far away from river had
chromium below detectable limit but contained arsenic and the Kharnai river
water were found to contain chromium which is very toxic and can generate
diseases like nausea, skin ulcer and lung cancer when concentration of Cr
becomes more than 0.05ppb
Joseph et al., (2010) analyzed water of Pennar River in Kerelato study
the physicochemical characteristic. The physical characteristics of water, such
as, temperature, odour, colour, and electrical conductivity were considered.
Additionally, the purity of water was assessed by reviewing total suspended
solids (TSS), total dissolved substances (TDS) and Total Solids (TS) in water
samples taken. The physicochemical parameters, such as, turbidity, pH,
alkalinity, hardness, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical
oxygen demand, chloride, salinity, fluoride, phosphate and nitrate were also
studied. For the purpose of analysis, samples were extracted from 4 different
locations in all seasons of the year, viz. rainy, winter and summer. The results
indicated that the river is highly polluted and the water is unsuitable for drinking.
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The assessment of environmental variables in Cauvery River and its
tributaries in Mysore, Mandya and Chamaraja Nagar districts was carried out by
Mahadev et al., (2010) . They reviewed both physicochemical and biological
parameters to achieve this., Four different locations were selected for this
purpose from where water samples were drawn and evaluated over a period of 1
year. They observed Significant spatial variations in water level, transparency,
turbidity, colour, D.O, BOD, NO3, NO2 and total of hardness among the
physicochemical parameters at the study locations. They recorded about 13 -20
number of algal species at various sampling points .
Malviya et al., (2010) carried out experiments for chemical assessment
of Narmada River water at Hoshangabad city and Nemawar. The parameters
that were assessed in their study are D.O, BOD, COD, turbidity and total
hardness. For this purpose they collected samples for about a year at six
different sampling sites, four sampling sites were selected in Hoshangabad, one
sampling site in Handia village (Harda) and one sampling site in Nemawar village
(Dewas). Some of the sites were found to be highly polluted as compared to
others.
Osman and Kloas(2010) carried out experiments to evaluate the quality
of water springs of Nile river at Aswan and its estuaries at Rosetta and
Damieetta, Egypt, for physico-chemical parameters like conductivity, alkalinity,
COD, total oxygen consumption, ammonia, nitrates, sulphates, chlorides, total
dissolved solids, orthophosphate and were found to be of higher mean values at
the selected site than other locations. This was due to input of large amount of
waste water from industries, domestic as well as diffuses agricultural waste water
containing high concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants. These
contaminants got accumulated in the tissues of Clarias gariepinus exhibited
different patterns of accumulation and distribution among the selected tissues
and localities. It was evident from study that, trace metals accumulations in fish
liver at sites under investigation were noticed in the following order: Zn > Fe > Cu
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> Pb > Mn > Cr> Cd > Hg. In the gill tissues, theses metals were accumulated in
the order, Fe greater than Zn > mangnese > lead> Cr > copper> Cd > Hg and
low accumulation of metals in muscle may be due to lack of binding affinity of
metals with the proteins muscle.
The pollution levels in the water of Noyall River, Tamilnadu and the study
of water quality was conducted by Samuel A.et al., (2010). In Tamilnadu dye
units from Several textile industries are discharged into the river by effluents.
The authors carried out the study to find the correlation between the effluents
released and the pollution levels in the river water. They observed from data
obtained from analysis of sample results the presence of High levels of Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Chlorides. They also recorded the heavy metals from
the sediments of the dam.
The bacteriological analysis of Ganga river shown the high count of E.
coli and Coliform bacteria which indicated microbial and fecal contamination to a
great extent. Also it was investigated by Rai et al., (2010) that the values of
BOD, heavy metal concentrations (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd) were above the standards
set at all the three sites from the three points where STP (Sewage treatment
Plants) of Bhagwanpur, Dinapur and DLW discharged the sewage into the
river.they carried out the observation and analysis for a period of 12 months
commencing March 2005.
It was concluded that a visible effect on the pollution levels of water had
been caused due to the discharge of industrial wastes in the water of Amravati
river basin in Karor. It was reviewed for the determination pollution levels by
Rajamanickan R. et al., (2010). The objective of their study was to determine
how pollution levels were affected by effluents discharged by textile dyeing units
on ground water quality of the river. It was found that the pollution levels had
augmented as a result of increasing release of pollutants into the river. Judgment
of the sample data with the standards set by WHO, discovered that a variety of
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physiochemical parameters, such as, TDS, TA, TH, Ca, Cl, SO4 were in excess
of the prescribed limits.
Rajashekhar M. et. al. (2010) carried out study in the freshwater basins of
Gulbarga District of Karnataka in South India for the seasonal variations of
zooplankton community. They found rotifera as the dominant group among
zooplankton, particularly throughout the observation period. They recorded
maximum count in the summer season while minimum numbers in southwest
monsoon season. They studied the physicochemical parameters and their
correlation with Zooplankton community. Their results indicated that physical and
chemical factors of the location influenced that allocation and density of
zooplankton species.
Shiv Shankar et al., (2010) carried out a study in Nagpur Municipality
region. The main objectives of this work were to evaluate the quality of water in
lakes, well, bore wells etc. The geochemical effect on the physiochemical
properties of water was reviewed. Various factors such as the presence of
fluorides, chlorides, the pH of water, EC, D.O were analysed. The analysis of
different samples revealed that though the lake water was suitablefor drinking,
the well/bore well water was not of an adequate quality for human consumption.
The water from lakes, wells and bore wells of Nagpur Municipality were
sampled and analyzed using standard laboratory and field methods to determine
the quality status of water Shiv Shankar et al., (2010). This investigation
reviewed the geochemical consequence on the physiochemical properties of
water. The factors such as the presence of fluorides, chlorides, the pH of water,
EC, D.O were considered. From the analysis of different samples it was
revealed that though the lake water was suitable for drinking, the well/bore well
water was not of an adequate quality for human utilization.
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A review of physiochemical parameters of river, Gomati, at Karekat in
Uttarpradesh was carried out by Singh M. et al., (2010). The study dwelt with
the parameters such as Calcium, Manganese, Iron and Chloride of river water. It
was observed that the elevated concentration levels of Iron & chloride were
destructive to metallic pipes and structures as well as for the crops..
Singare et. al.(2010) studied pollution condition along the wetland of
Thane Creek. For their experimental statistics on heavy metal pollution in soil
they collected samples along Kalwa bridge of Thane Creek. Thane-Belapur
Industrial Complex biggest in Asia situated at the south region of Mumbai harbor
all along the west coastline of India in 2009.which has been creating a lot of
pollution .By the study of water it was noted the physical and chemical
parameters and profound metal pollution in the soil along the creek area. In their
investigation high values were recorded for the duration of dry seasons and low
in rainy period for the parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, alkalinity, bulk
density, and chlorine content. The samples of soil were also analyzed for their
contents of heavy metals like nickel, Zinc, cadmium, copper, iron, mercury.
During observation it was found that, the concentration of these metals
increases gradually in dry seasons, followed by sharp decrease during rainy
season. Such heavy metals cause a noticeable effect on the marine vegetation
and fauna when they go into the food chain and in the end affect the man kind
through bio magnification.
Srivastava et. al. (2010) did the annual survey of water quality of
Jalmahal, Amer, Nevta and Ramgarh lakes with physico-chemical parameters,
zinc and endosulfan contamination for one year. They confirmed pollutants
correlated with transforms in the chemical and physical qualities of water bodies.
They found the highest levels of zinc (heavy metal) and endosulfan (an
organochlorine pesticide) in Jalmahal lake and lowest in Ramgarh lake . The
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causes of pollution are anthropogenic sources and cultivation in the dried up area
of these lakes.
Joseph et al., (2010) analyzed the physicochemical characteristic of
Pennar River water in Kerela. The physical characteristics of water, such as,
colour, odour, temperature and EC were considered. Additionally, the purity of
water was assessed by reviewing total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved
substances (TDS) and Total Solids (TS) in water samples taken. The
physicochemical parameters, such as, turbidity, pH, alkalinity, hardness,
dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand,
chloride, salinity, fluoride, phosphate and nitrate were also studied. For the
purpose of analysis, samples were extracted from 4 different locations in all
seasons of the year, viz. rainy, winter and summer. The results indicated that the
river is highly polluted and the water is unsuitable for drinking.
Verma et al., (2010) conducted the analysis of the water of “Kalpi River”
at Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. The purpose was to inspect water quality of the
river. They described the values of various pollution parameters such as
transparency, electrical conductivity, BOD, COD etc. at six different points. It was
reveald that to achieve a decrease in the level of pollution, it was necessary to
have an planned approach to the problem of “Water Quality Management” –
incorporating both aspects of excellence and sufficiency.
After the physicochemical and bacteriological investigation on Cauvery
River, Karnataka, it was concluded that the water was not safe for drinking
Venkatesharaju et al., (2010). They conducted the bacteriological and
physicochemical studies of the river for three years from two thousand six to two
thousand eight. The purpose of the study was to examine both the
physicochemical and bacteriological parameters. they collected samples of water
from Six sampling locations along the Kollegal region of the river. The samples
were examined for two bacteriological and nineteen physicochemical
parameters. Based on the physicochemical parameters it was found that the river
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was not contaminated and all the parameters were within the permissible limits
specified by the “Bureau of Indian Standards”. The elevated values
bacteriological parameter however stated that the unsuitable status of water for
drinking.
Aarti.(2011) discusses the various factors which have effective for the
management of quality of water in rural India. In the article information about
urgent necessity towards access to safe drinking water is focussed entirely on
unprocessed surface or groundwater as thirty percent of urban and ninety
percent of rural domestics still depend on groundwater. The sewage and
industrial effluents contamining the groundwater and surface water needs
treatment. The microbial contamination, as well as fluoride and arsenic
contamination of these water sources affect the rural population. But the access
to water for drinking in India has augmented over the precedent few years and
that leads to great undesirable effect of hazardous water on fitness of health. The
paper gives information about checking groundwater features remainder a most
important concern and a chief challenge in countryside India.
Chetia et al., (2011) reviewed the pollution levels in Brahmaputra river
system at Golaghat (Assam), India. For this purpose, the analysis of Arsenic (As)
in the under ground water was carried out. Samples were collected from different
depths of the tube wells in the area. An aggregate of twenty two samples were
collected in this manner. Physicochemical parameters like pH, total hardness,
and DO were also studied out. Along with total Arsenic, an examination of
concentration levels of Iron, Manganese, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and
Magnesium was carried out. Most of the samples were found to be polluted by
Arsenic and Iron further than acceptable limits and the Gamariguri block was
found to be affected the most awful.
Gaike. Pramod et. al. (2011) carried out investigations on seasonal
difference of physical and chemical qualities of Dahiphal dam near Jalna of
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Maharashtra state. The work was carried for one year 2008-2009.The. Their
study illustrateed that the complete water sample meets the WHO restrictions the
for physico- chemical properties and for the trace metals. They reported the
different physical characters in Dahiphal dam, as the water hotness range from
19ºC to 300C. the range of Chlorides measured from 30.6 miligram per litre to
59.3 miligram per litre, the calcium range from 16.2 miligram per litre to 31.1
miligram per litre,the range of dissolved oxygen from 9.86 miligram per litre to
13.67 miligram per litre, the free CO2 varied from 4.2 miligram per liter to 11.5
miligram per litre. From the results they concluded that water is not polluted.
Gupta et al. (2011) experimented on the physicochemical analysis of the
Chambal River System in Kota city, Rajasthan. They carried out the analysis for
the period covered of summer seasons from two thousand seven to two
thousand nine. They found the pollution was within limits as the values of total
hardness, alkalinity, chlorides, sulphates TDS and pH levels were observed to be
satisfactory. The presence of iron, ammonia and comparatively lower value of
dissolved oxygen indicate the river is contaminated to some extent. Their overall
observation about the river was that the river was moderately polluted and only
highly polluted at the points of incursion of sewage and domestic wastes.
Hulyal S. B. et al. (2011) carried out experiments to study of water for
Physico-Chemical characteristics. and seasonal variations at Almatti water
Reservoir Bijapur district in Karnataka State. The environmental parameters such
as humidity, rainfall, air and water were studied. The physical and chemical
characters like temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, calcium, magnesium,
chloride, NO3, PO4, SO4, HCO3, total hardness, total dissolved solids, total
alkalinity, free carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen were studied. Their study
showed that seasonal fluctuations of the parameters occurred in the water of the
reservoir.
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Jayalakshmi et al., (2011) assessed the physicochemical parameters of
the Krishna River water around Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh. The water samples
were taken during January to December 2007 from seven different sites. Several
physical parameters like pH, turbidity, temperature and chemical parameters like
D.O, BOD, sulphates, chlorides etc. were determined and compared with
standards given by the WHO. The sites around agricultural fields, factories,
railway sewage entry and bus station drain water entry were found to be highly
polluted.
Physicochemical parameters of Sutlej River around Ludhiana were
studied by Jindal et al. in (2011). For this purpose they examined water
samples from three different locations along the course of the river. The
concentration levels of some of the physicochemical parameters were assessed.
also reviewed some heavy metal levels. . A period of one year November 2006
was considered for this purpose. They found water was to be unacceptable for
drinking at two out of the three sites.
The water of Ganga River was analyzed for assessment of
physicochemical properties during pre monsoon season of the year 2010 by
Khare et al., (2011) . The water samples taken from six different stations were
analyzed. Except for turbidity, all other parameters were within the most stringent
limits set by WHO, was the observation of the experiments. Authors suggested
the need for the treatment of the water of Ganga river as it was most probably
unfit for drinking.
The quality of water was poor and water quality management was
essential to prevent further degradation was concluded by Kori et al., (2011).
They studied Various parameters affecting the pollution levels of the river
Karanja at Bidar District, Karnataka. They collected samples from an aggregate
of five locations along the course of the river for the period of 2 years covered
during December 2007 to November 2009. Using weighted arithmetic average
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method on all the sample results they computed “Water Quality Index (WQI)”.
Their observation shown that that the WQI varies from 66.16 to 81.88 in different
seasons.
.
Mahadev et. al. (2011) analyzed water of Kabini River at Nanjangud,
Mysore with respect to physico-chemical, bacteriological and heavy metal
concentrations. From their findings they suggested that parameters like color,
turbidity, DO, BOD, COD, total bacterial counts exceeds the permissible value for
organized outdoor bathing use of water in this river. Metal concentration was
found higher in summer followed by winter and rainy season. Based on this
study, they provide scientific information to the concerned for the implementation
of river restoration plan and conservation of water body.
The water of the “Bebas River” in the Sagar region of Madhya Pradesh
were sampled and studied to check the interdependency between the
physicochemical water pollution indicators. The research was carried out by
Pathak et al., (2011) in the summer, rainy and winter seasons. They observed
the samples for a period of three years commencing 2008, from ten different
sampling locations. After the investigation of water samples for twenty one
parameters, the pollution levels in the sample waters were evaluated. from the
observation of data the correlation was formed by using the statistical tools to
estimate variable by the other known variable.
The effect of discharge of sewage on the water quality of the river“Harmu”
at Ranchi, was studied by Rai et al., (2011). They selected Three different
sampling points for drawing samples. The samples collected were then analyzed
for different physicochemical parameters, such as, pH, electrical conductivity,
alkalinity, chloride etc. The data obtained was compared with permissible limits
given by the WHO. The obtained values were more than the standard limit .
Hence it was concluded that the water was unfit for drinking purposes.
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The Kodumudiaru dam water was found safe for drinking and agriculture as the
results of the physiochemical analysis of water quality by Santhi D. et al., (2011),
revealed that the various parameters, referred to above, were within permissible
limits . They carried out the physiochemical analysis of water quality in
Kodumudiaru dam in Tirunelveli District. they studied different physiochemical
parameters, such as, pH, Electrical conductivity, total hardness, total alkalinity
and presence of metals, such as Ca, Mg etc. They used Equipments like pH
meter and Conductivity Bridge.
It was concluded by Sharma et al., (2011) that the potable nature of the
water of “Narmada River” water at Hoshangabad is lost. They reviewed the
physicochemical characteristics of “Narmada River” water at Hoshangabad, in
Madhya Pradesh. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the physicochemical
parameters from the water samples. The results of the study showed that the
standards of the parameters at some of the sampling locations were in excess of
the standards set by agencies such as Indian Standard Bureau, WHO. This was
due to dumping of substantial wastes in the river waters.
Ujjania N.C et al. (2011) discussed the pollution resulted due to
immersion of Ganesh idol in the water of Tapi River. They observed major
changes in the water quality during immersion period. The alterations in physical
and chemical features of Tapi River were observed. During the study apart from
for temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen showed slight changes while major
changes were observed in carbon di oxide, biological oxygen demand, chemical
oxygen requirement, total calcium, total hardness, total alkalinity, also oil &
grease were observed in the water. On the basis results it is concluded that
these spiritual activities causes unfavorable effect on the aquatic ecosystem and
the intensity of water contamination boosts in Tapi River owing to these changes.
The river water of Kosi River in Rampur District, Uttar Pradesh in India.
was found in poor condition for human consumption, domestic and irrigation
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purposes Yadav et al., (2011). They carried out a study on Kosi River. The
intention of the study was to assess the quality of the river water. For the
investigation they collected sixty samples of water from aggregate of fifteen
sampling stations along the course of the Kosi River. A range of physical
characters and physicochemical parameters of water were assessed. These
included the parameters as - temperature, pH, transparency, chloride, nitrate
and phosphate and fluorides, total alkalinity (TAK), total hardness (TH),
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The data
of the results of the sample analysis was compared with the standards laid down
by agencies such as “Indian Standards Bureau”. All sample observations were
found to be ahead of the acceptable limits laid down. This indicated the unfit
status of water of the river for human use.
Aggarwal et al., (2012) carried out a analysis of water in the Kaushalya
River in Parwanoo. The analysis includes study of two types of parameters, viz.
bacteriological and physicochemical. For this reason, two sites were selected
near the end point of the river and two sites were chosen near the origin of the
River. The process of sample collection was carried out in four specific months
January, April, July and October of the year 2011. It was pragmatic that except
for some parameters, all others were within the allowable limits agreed by
various “Authorities”. However, it was stated that water was risky for domestic
use if not purified, since chief physicochemical parameters like COD, alkalinity,
hardness and main bacteriological parameters - total coliform and faecal coliform
were in surplus of the limits. The continuation of a water treatment Plant at Kamli
became essential to purify the waters before utilization.
The plants occurring in Cauvery river and its river branches at Arasalar of
Kumbakonam area were examined by Annalakshmi and. A. Amsath
(2012).They carried out study on the need of by means of phytoplankton as
efficient and suitable technique of biomonitoring. Their investigation emphasized
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for assessment of quality of river water. They studied definite plants of the
Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae species for the composition, occurrence and
diversity, abundance and frequency .They concluded that the Cauvery river is ne
of the most useful riverine system of Tamilnadu . Their findings showed that
there are the algal species which are forbearing to organic pollution and refuse to
accept the pressure caused by pollutants were present in Kumbakonam area. In
the Cauvery river and its tributaries Arasalar which are contaminated at
downstream stations shows large quantity of such taxa. Their presence in the
polluted habitations puts forward their possible utilization as an “indicator
organism”.
Chopra et al. (2012) carried out the Limno chemical characteristics of the
Yamuna River at various locations . They studied the upstream, downstream
and at the point of incursion of manufacturing waste matter and domestic waste.
Their research discovered that the strength of effluence augmented at the point
of effluent/sewage disposal causing rigorous pollution. It indicated the
requirement to treat effluent/sewage before discarding into the river.
Hema et al., (2012) evaluated the quality of surface water of the Cauvery
River in Erode district, Tamil Nadu state using different statistical studies. The
river carries the waste matters of a large number of tanneries and textile
industries organized in this area. They selected 50 locations along the course of
the river in order to draw samples for assessment. They tested the samples for
thirteen parameters including trace elements such as cadmium, lead, zinc,
arsenic, chromium and copper respectively. FA, CA, PCA and data interpretation
were the different statistical methods used to identify low, moderate and high
contaminant groups.
The assessment of physiochemical properties of Jhelum River, Kashmir
was carried out by Khan et al., (2012). Due to the variation in the geographical
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location in the sites under study the variation in the results were observed. In
some cases, some parameters have crossed the highest permissible limits set by
WHO. The author’s review indicated deprivation in the quality of water and risk to
all kinds of life.
Pollution levels of the water of the “Irigu” River in the Meru province of the
Southern part of Kenya were checked by Ombaka et al., (2012). It was
concluded that the river waters could not be used for drinking and other allied
domestic purposes. They evaluated both physicochemical and bacteriological
parameters, in order assess the quality of the River “Irigu”. They collected and
analyzed the water samples both in the summer and rainy season. In their
assessment they found that certain parameters like pH, turbidity, ammonia were
elevated during the dry seasons due to anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter. The phosphorous levels were ahead of the limit which was likely to trigger
periodic flourish and eutrophication. Metals like iron, manganese, lead and
aluminum were more than permissible limit.
The assessment of physico-chemical parameters of Wardha river of
Chandrapur district in Maharashtra was carried out by Mithani Imran et.al.
(2012) In the study period they collected water samples for one year. They
collected water from different sampling points along the flow of river. Water of
the river in study area retained fine alkaline nature in the period of their study.
Variation were found in the parameters like total hardness, total alkalinity,
dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and pH from the upper region to the lower
region. It was found that dissolved oxygen was maximum during wintry weather.
It may be owing to cool temperature. However, during the summer season,
conductivity, total hardness and total alkalinity were found to be at upper limits.
Most of the parameters were highest in summer may be due to hot temperature,
high loss and small water level and lowest in wintry weather due to improved
water level.
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Nandi S, et. al. (2012) stated in his study about the abundance of the
Chironnomids. He found their usefulness to indicate the status of the ecosystem,
the availability of the nutrients in that ecosystem. The nutrients as potassium,
organic carbon, nitrates, phosphates in the water of ecosystem show relation
with the abundance of the chironomis. In their study they used the numerical
techniques. They used the Principal component analysis test, Canonical
association analysis test, and the cluster examination and with the results he
justified the environmental biomonitoring done by the chironomids. In their study
they shown the high correlation of chironomids with other remaing species also.
The index of water quality is greatly influenced by the aggregation of the
chironomids. They aslo put forward the utilization of these species in the
supervision of ecology and the biomonitoring.
A research was undertaken by Rahimibashar et al., (2012) to study the
effects of fish Culture pond on the water quality of the Shenrod River in Iran.
They decided six collection sites before and after each fish ponds, which were
sampled for water from April to September 2008 on a weekly basis. they found
that certain physicochemical parameters had crossed the acceptable limit at
study point after the fish ponds. It was indicated that domestic and industrial
waste had adverse effect on the river waters due to the high values of ammonia,
NO3, SO4 and high value of hardness.
Rai et al., (2012) reviewed the water of Ganga River at Patna, Bihar. to
assess the levels of pollution of the water. For this purpose, they selected two
sampling points. The analysis was carried in two seasons in the winter and
summer. The actual values of the various parameters, obtained on the basis of
analysis of sample data were then compared with the limits set by WHO. It was
observed that the standard limits prescribed by the significant authorities such as
WHO had been surpassed in a high number of cases. It was found that the
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water unfit for drinking and it desires to be purified before it can be used for
household consumption.
Sharma et al., (2012) did the analysis of the physicochemical
parameters of the Narmada River, Madhya Pradesh. They carried out the
investigation for a period of 12 months beginning in August 2009. They chosen
three different sampling stations along the course of the River in order to collect
the water samples. The different parameters measured were pH, temperature,
transparency, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chlorides, PO4,
NO3, alkalinity, SO4 and total hardness. PO4, nitrate, alkalinity and SO4 were
found to be elevated in September and October whereas pH, temperature,
chlorides and total hardness were towering in summer. The overall parameters
were within the WHO limits.
There is a needs of treatment of the surface water of Bhima river before
consumption and it also desires to be sheltered from the sources of pollution,is
revealed in the study of Bhima river. The water quality index Model of surface
water in Bhima River was prepared by Shivashranappa et al. (2012). They used
application of Water Quality Index (WQI) model. Water quality index gives the
viewpoint of dissimilarity of chemical contents of surface water in different
sampling points. They carried out the analysis of surface water samples for
physicochemical parameters and presence of biological community analysis
WQI also discloses the quality of water in different collection points. The
interpretation and conversations of their numerical data disclosed that water was
salty and inflexible all the points of observation. The content of fluoride and total
dissolved solids in all points of observation was well in the tolerable limit. The
Water Quality Index (WQI) was in the Good range at all the sampling points.
They recorded SO4 and nitrate content of the entire three sampling points are
well within the acceptable standards. At all the of observation points, the
biological oxygen demand is found elevated, the cause might be human
interference, as villagers are in surrounding area of river, behaviors like washing
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of clothes, rearing of livestock, bathing and even sewage water of villagers also
adding up in the river, For this reason water may be polluted by airborne or
human activities.It was observed that water was inappropriate for drinking
purpose, from the MPN-Index.
The Mancha River in Betul City, Madhya Pradesh was reviewed on the
sewage disposal into the river water by Shrivastava et al., (2012). The
assessment of physicochemical parameters like chlorides, nitrates, dissolved
oxygen, biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand etc. was done
to study the quality of water. The water samples from nine different sampling
locations, which had sewage inlets nearby were selected. The water samples
were analyzed during in early summer (in March 2009), in the rainy season (in
July 2009) and after rainy season (in November 2009). It was observed on
comparing the data obtained with the amounts prescribed by the WHO, that all
the parameters were more than the prescribed limits.
The physicochemical study of the Kodayar River, Tamil Nadu by Sreeja et
al., (2012) revealed that water at most stations was not contaminated and was fit
for domestic use. They assessed the river water from June 2010 to June 2011 at
seven sampling locations. They evaluated Various parameters, both physical and
physicochemical, such as, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total
dissolved solids (TDS)and compared the data of the results with the limits
prescribed by various agencies, such as, WHO and ISI. The conclusion directed
the suitability of river water for drinking and irrigation at most of the sampling
stations.
The study of water of Wardha and Dham Rivers at Wardha in Maharashtra
to assess the metal pollutants was performed by Thakare et al., (2012). The
assessment involved collection of samples of water from 10 different points on
the Wardha River and 9 different points on the Dham River. Seven metals such
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as-copper, manganese, zinc, iron, nickel, potassium and sodium and nine other
physical and chemical parameters were tested. The vlues of result obtained
were within the permissible standards laid down by Indian Standard Bureau. It
was concluded with the results that the water of these rivers was completely
harmless for human beings and fit for domestic use and irrigation.
The impact of growing population in the city of Abuja in Nigeria was
analyzed by studying the seasonal physiochemical characteristics of the Usma
River Ugwu et al., (2012). The values for total dissolved solids and electrical
conductivity showed that the liberations of industrial and domestic wastes in the
river water as a result of human activities were responsible for the augmented
levels of contamination. The study disclosed that all parameters measured were
within the acceptable level except Total Suspended Solid, which surpassed for all
seasons.
The WQI was determined by studying 12 physicochemical characteristics
for the water of Ghuma Lake, supplying fresh water in a rural area of Ghuma
village in Ahmadabad district. Kotadiya et al., (2013) ascertained the “Water
Quality Index” (WQI). They collected the water samples every morning at an
interval of 30 days. the assessment was carried out for pH, electrical
conductivity, hardness, D.O, BOD, TDS, alkalinity, Mg hardness, Ca hardness,
Nitrate, Sulphate and Chloride. According to them the water from the lake is not
suitable for drinking which was due to the result of saturation of water by
evaporation. The observation also showed that the pollution levels were higher
in summer than in the winter and rainy seasons.
2.2 Freshwater Fish Diversity
Sykes (1839-41) collected and scientifically studied the fresh water
fishes from different localities in Pune for the first time. Fraser (1942) did a
comparatively exhaustive survey of fishes from various places of Mula and Mutha
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rivers in and around Pune between 1936-1937.Frasers paper also give
considerable details regarding Mula- Mutha rivers and their surrounding
Environment. A complete checklist of fishes of Pune based on the collected by
Fraser was subsequently published by Mishra (1962) which contain 54 species
with their local names. An additional survey of the region was supported by Tilak
and Tiwari (1976) reported 112 species in Pune district. Ghate and Wagh (2002.)
resurveyed Mula and Mutha Rivers between 1992 and 1995 to study the impact
of urbanization. They recorded 64 fish species, 14 of which were fresh local
records. Total110 fish species are recorded from Pune urban area. The
information about species population changes and introductions in relation to
each other, species extinction, and various human influences is available from
the re-survey. Considering the review of literature the present study will be a first
study on limnobiodiversity and icthyofauna of Bhima River and also check the
productivity and impact of industrializations on aquatic life.
Day (1889) included 1,418 species of fishes found in the territories of
present Republic of India. Pakistan. Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
Besides the text, a separate volume of illustrations with 195 plates was also
issued. Even today, the publications by Day remain as an important reference
manual for the Ichthyology of Indian region. After Day, during the intervening
hundred years, there was nothing substantially published to till the lacuna. The
publications of Hora are indispensable for any student of Indian Ichthyology.
Hora published over 440 papers, and established three families. 28 genera and
139 species (Jayaram, 1974). Very few attempts were made in south India. Misra
published a series of checklists and aids for the identification of the ichthyofauna
of India and adjacent countries. These studies were continued by the publication
of Tilak (1976); Talwar and Jhingran (1991) supplemented information on the
inland fish fauna of India. Recently many foreign workers are also engaged in
freshwater fish fauna studies of Indian region.
Brij Gopal et al. (1998) in the article ‘Fifty years of hydrobiological
research in India’. have mentioned about the realization of the problem of water
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pollution, resulted in a rapid proliferation of hydrobiological studies which tend to
focus on correlation between the distribution of various organisms and degree of
water pollution and the effects of various organic and inorganic pollutants. A
sampling of published literature reveals that long-term, analytical and
experimental studies of the whole ecosystems (natural or experimental), and
studies of population interactions, biomanipulation, food chain dynamics, and
energy flows are wholly lacking. Their paper calls for the strengthening of field
and laboratory facilities, and establishment of regional and national institutes of
aquatic ecology which will be necessary for the management of both the water
quality and aquatic biological resources for sustainable development which is the
need till date.
Ferraris C J JR. et. al. (2000) Criticaly Reviewed the fish types of the
freshwater and marine water in the Australian Museum of Southern Asia. These
species are named by Francis Day.The presence of fishes studied by day were
noted in India, Pakistan ,Myanmar, and throughout in South Asia.. Francis Day
named 160 nominal species of fishes.
Ghate H V et al. (2002 ) collected a horned fish in Nira River a tributary of
Bhima river. They have mentioned about the occurrence of the fishes of the
genus Schismatorhynchus in the Indrayani river. They have identified the fish as
Schismatorhynchus nukta using the keys given by Talwar and Jhingran (1991).
Prabhakar A K et al.(2004) have studied shell fishes of Kosi region of
North-Bihar(India) with their taxonomic diversity. They recorded 10 species of
Pelecypoda in crustacea Crab, Paratelphusa and 20 species of Gastropoda and
prawn. The dominant and outstanding shell fishes were Macrobranchium species
of Gastropoda, The richness of the environment and ecology is increased due to
the biogeographical diversity of rich population of shell fishes . In the habitat most
abundant found shell organisms are lamellidens and parreysia species of the
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group Pelecypoda and other observed species are of the genera Pila,
Planorbis,Bellamya and Lymnaea.
Srivastava et al (2004) studied diversity of inland fishes of India using the
mapping based on the historical data of their occurrence. According to them Fish
museums across the world are a repository of historical data on fish abundance
and occurrence. These occurrence points when mapped provide a picture of
present-day and earlier fish distribution. The accuracy of the map will depend on
how exhaustive the museum collection is for the area, and also on the museums’
collection practices (comprehensiveness and survey design). Fish Base 2000, a
structured database on fin fishes developed by the World Fish Centre, Malaysia
(formerly known as ICLARM-The World Fish Centre), contains more than 3500
data sets on the occurrence point of over 300 inland fishes of India. Their study
has indicated that it would be possible to extrapolate the museum occurrence
data compiled in FishBase into distribution, provided occurrence points could be
validated and enriched by additional data sets. However, lack of base maps and
habitat information for the fish concerned were the limiting factors.
Jadhav S.D. et. al. (2006) In their paper physico-chemical assessment of
Krishna river at Karad. Studied water of Krishna River by analyzing the various
physic-chemical parameters. They found the water slightly alkaline, dissolved
oxygen maximum, chlorides within the limits and sulphates maximum, calcium,
magnesium within limits and hardness maximum.
Soni et. al. (2006) did the comparative study on toxic effect of textile dye
effluents on Gambusia affinis of a freshwater fish at Sanganer, Jaipurwith respect
to RBCs and mortality. They carried out the analysis with treated and untreated
waste effluents in the laboratory. They observed changes in shape and size of
RBC counts with percent age and reduction in mortality of the fish. They
compared the statistics of death and the cytotoxic effects on RBCs. They
establish the advanced indicator for toxicity measurement of together untreated
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as well as treated wastewater is poikilocytosis of the RBCs. They found either nil
or lower than the proportion of poikilocytic RBCs especially at their lowest
concentrations. They also found reduction in percent mortality of fish. They
recommended for regular check of fish bioassay to study poisonous effects of
wastewaters on in cooperation of dissimilarity in RBC shape and mortality.
Chandanshive N.E. et. al. (2007) collected 59 species from Pavana river
of Pune. They have recorded three species of fishes which were not previously
recorded. They found the alien invasion of fishes like Oriochromis mossambica,
Aorichthys seenghala and Gambusia affinis, Heteropneustus fossilis and
occasional report of Labeo, catla and channa species in the polluted water.
Sreekantha, M. D.et.al.(2007) studied the status of endangered and
endemic fish species of the Western Ghats. They highlighted the clinging of
endangered and endemic fish species in the stream habitats of persistant
patches of primaeval forests, which are substantially degraded. They mentioned
about the occurrence of two new species of genus Schistura reaffirm which are
endangered, endemic species and the discovery of the ‘hottest hotspot’ status of
the Western Ghats.
R. Senthilkumar and K. Sivakumar (2008) studied on phytoplankton
diversity in the Veeranam Lake of Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu in response to
abiotic factors. They reported the relation between variation in temperature and
the photic conditions and seasonal variation of productivity . They identified one
hundred sixty species of phytoplankton represented into different taxonomic
groups. Amongst these are 43 groups of Chlorophyceae, 74 species of
Bacillariophyceae, 5 species to Euglenophyceae and 38 species to
Cyanophyceae. The density of phytoplankton was low during the winter season
and high during the summer season. the dominant group found was
Bacillariophyceae .
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Kodarkar. M.S. et. al. (2008) carried out A case study of limnology of
Bhima –Ujjani reservoir. They discussed about changes in land use pattern and
deforestation that is among the major problems. They observed that there was
need of consciousness about the long-term effects of degradation causing
processes of such deforestation .They focused on the increased use of upstream
water in the lakes and reservoirs together with fast rate of siltation often leads to
qualitative degradation and quantitative reduction of water. Further, release of
untreated or partly-treated high amount of pollutant load of chemicals waste
matters from manufacturing sectors and domestic sewage, from exhaustive
agriculture fertilizers has more than all negative ecological impact on the water
reserves. They mentioned on the needs of proper solutions for the
environmental problems.
EDmondsen W.T.(1959). Critically reviewed past information work on
domestic water, aquatic insects and phytoplankton. Phytoplankton expressed
itself mainly as nutrient enrichment which are under the impact of anthropogenic
activity, raw sewage contained excess concentration of Cl- , NH4-, NO3, and SO4
as reported earlier by several authors. The major cause of high concentration of
the ions may be addition of various biological wastes like, dung and urine from
the dairies and septic tank effluent to the sewerage. All over the world, there is
need of assessment of the ecological status of surface water, for the control of
water pollution. Biological indicators are useful for the quantification of the
ecological status of surface water.
Prabhakar A K et al. (2009) carried out investigation of medicinal uses of the
shell fishes in North Bihar. In their study they found that the essential minerals ,
vitamins animal proteins and steroids are available from the unshelled mollusks
with removed mantle covering .hey studied this availability from the mollusks like
Lamellidens, Bellamya, Pila, and Parreysia, when used in diet in various forms
for the cure of some types of human ailments. The diseases like burns, asthma
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and joint swellings can be cured by the use of flesh of mollusks like Pila and
Viviparous sp.For the medicinal purpose the foot region of these animals is used
in the form of curry or in rosted form they are consumed. The egg soup is useful
to cure rickets in children. For the people suffering from blood related and cardiac
ailments the curry of Lamellidens flesh is found useful.They found that the
localites from Bihar use the shellfishes for the cure of many diseases like
conjunctivitis, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatism, heart diseases, calcium
metabolic disorders and blood and cardiac diseases.
S.E. Shinde.et al. (2009) carried out study on biodiversity of the fishes of
Pravara river at Pravara sangam dist, Ahmednagar (India). In the result they
have mentioned the record fishes of 7 orders, 14 families and 26 genera and 41
fish species . They recorded order Cypriniformes as most dominant among the
collected fish species.They recorded the fishes in descending order which were
as the orders Cypriniformes (50% ), Siluriformes (19%), order Perciformes 14.30
percent, orders Synbranchiformes and steoglossiformes 4.80 percent orders
Beloniformes and Mugiliformes (2.40percent.
Shinde S.E.et. al. (2009) have studied the freshwater fish diversity of
Harsool Sangavi Dam of Aurangabad dist (MS) India. They studied commercially
important fishes and abundance of fishes. In their investigation they recorded
fishes from 3 orders, 4 families, 12 genera and 15 species. In those The order
cypriniformes were dominant, followed by perciformes and siluriformes.
Bahadur et. al.(2010) conducted experiments to study consequence of
surfactants on phosphatase intensity in fish Labeo rohita of fresh water. In their
laboratory they exposed fishes to three surfactants. They found that marked
enhancement in the tissues of fish showed mainly in liver and then in gill and
muscle by the action of ACP(Acid phosphatase) . The fish showed stressful
condition by the increase in the levels of Acid phosphatase enzyme.
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Patil S. Y.et.al., (2010) studied Mitosporic Fungal Biodiversity in
Freshwater sources from District Dhule of Maharashtra in India. They found two
genera of Hyphomycetes and five species of them. They collected foam samples
and underwater leaves from the Panzara river and isolated the fungi species.
Among the recorded species Flabellospora acuminata Descals and Webster
were recorded for the first time in India. And in Maharashtra state Flabellospora
multiradiata Nawawi and Flabellospora crassa Alasoadura were reported for the
first time.
Vijaylaxmi C.et. al, 2010) carried out the study of allocation and diversity
position of Freshwater fishes of river Mullameri. This river is a small offshoot of
Bheema River of district Gulbarga in Karnataka. In their study they recorded
fishes belonging to 5 orders and 14 species. They reported the dominance of
order Cypriniformes(7species), followed by order Siluriformes (4 species),
followed by the order Osteoglossiformes, Channiformes and
Mastacembeliformes (1species).
Shinde. S. E. Et.al.(2010) carried out analytical study of the water quality
of dam Harsool-Savangi, Aurangabad of Maharshtra state in India. They studied
physical and chemical properties were and analyzed for one year. In their study
they collected water samples at four different sampling sites and studied the
Seasonal variations. The reported fluctuations in physicochemical parameters of
that dam in different seasons.. They reported the suitability of water of the dam
for fish culture and for agriculture watering. The water parameters indicated
richness of nutrients in the reservoir. But they noted that the Total hardness of
water in that region was further than the acceptable limit. The water was unfit for
drinking purpose according to WHO and ISI standards. They adviced for
continuous monitoring of pollution level. And there should be maintenance of the
encouraging conditions necessary for fish development, continued existence,
and reproduction in dam Harsool-Savangi of Aurangabad (M.S) India.
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The inflow of seepages, sewage and domestic waste discharged from the
Cooum and Adyar River are the reasons for occurrence of copepods M. Shanthi
and R. Ramanibai(2011). They Studied on Copepods from Chennai Coast
(Cooum and Adyar), Bay of Bengal - During the Cruise. According their findings
the low occurrence of copepods water in the river near shore stations compared
to that of offshore stations may be due to pollution.
Thirumala. S,et.al.(2011) investigated the relation between physical and -
chemical features of water and fish diversity in Bhadra reservoir of Karnataka,
India. In their study they reported 33 fish species. The fishes they reported
belongs to families Cyprinidae (18 species), Bagridae and Siluridae (3 species),
Channidae (2 species), and of Heteropneustidae. Cobitidae Mastacembelidae,
Notopteridae, Ambassidae, Cichlidae, Claridae(1 species). They discussed
relative occurrence and economic importance of fishes, besides their
identification. Most of the fishes they mentioned were useful as food fishes. The
Gambusia, Ambassis, and Puntius which are useful as larvicidal and ornamental
fishes. They found low fish diversity in premonsoon due to the reduction of the
water spread of the dam. They found the species diversity of fishs at max out in
post rainy season, because of favorable circumstances such as ample food
resources and sufficient water. The moderately oligotrophic in nature of water
body was indicated by low BOD coupled with the high value of dissolved oxygen
and other nutrient. They discussed in detail the factors responsible for declining
fish population. They suggested rising sustainable fishery practices and
appropriate citations to save the multiplicity.
Akkaraboyina M K et al.(2012) studied River Godavari at Rajahmundry
of Andhra Pradesh in India for quality of water. They carried out the study to find
out the pevailing situations and upcoming situations of index of water quality.
They used the standards of Indian Council Research (ICMR), 1975 and Central
Public Health Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), 1991 for the
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categorization of the conditions of water quality. They studied the water to
determine Water Quality Index. They found noteworthy outcomes of the limited
study representing appropriateness of the presentation of the Actual Measured
model and the Time Series (09-12) model .The quality of water of River Godavari
at Rajahmundry station diversed from outstanding to good. Elevated values of
water quality index for the prospect three years indicated the good water quality
of River Godavari.
7.02.2010 Uchchariya D.K.et.al., (2012 ) worked on fishes to study their
biodiversity in reservoir tighra of Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. In the learning
they observed forty groups of fishes belonging to 23 genera, twelve families and
six orders were identified. The a major order found to be was order Cypriniformes
with 55percent contribution. Siluriformes with twenty percent, Perciformes with
fifteen percent, Synbranchiformes with five percent and Osteoglossiformes and
Beloniformes with one point five percent part follow the sequence. Out of forty
species of fish, twenty species under lower danger near in danger, two species
of fish are under in danger of extinction, eight species of fish under susceptible,
three species under lower threat least concern and four species were reported to
be data deficient, according to CAFF (2006).
Jordon and Nigam (1992) classified different invertebrate and vertebrate
animals. Superclass pisces is divided into three classes as Placodermi- the
primitive fishes with bony covering plates. no member is living today, and
Chondrichthyes, the cartilaginous fishes and Osteichthyes , the bony fishes.
Dahanukar et . al. (2012) extensively studied the fish fauna of Indrayani
river of Western Ghats , Maharashtra. In their study they recorded 57 fish
species from the Indrayani river water. Among those species they reported five
fish species endemic to Krishna river system and 12 endemic fish species to the
Western Ghats. They found 7 species which were introduced newly in the river.
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They categorized those fish species according to the abundance as 9 rare
species, 11 abundant species, 23 moderate and 14 common fish species. In their
study they noted the extripation of fish species named Schismatorhynchos nukta.
Dahanukar mentioned this species as in danger of extinction (2010) in the IUCN
red list of threatened taxa. Their finding was also supported by Dr. Kharat(2003)
and Ghate(2002) who mentioned the decline of this species earlier. They noted
that the reasons for the extripation of that species might be over fishing,
increased pollution of the river water by organic and inorganic pollutants, the
competition by other carp fishes like Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala . During
their study they also mentioned the possible extripation of another fish namely
Aplocheilus lineatus due to the introduction of larvicidal guppy fish in Indrayani
river. They mentioned about the effect of anthropogenic activities on the decline
in number of fish species than the previous records.
Today demand for tropical marine aquarium fishes is a growing in the
international market and trade of Marine aquarium is expanding rapidly. Mandal
et. al.,(2012) studied the carotenoid pigmentation in ornamental fin fish of Indian
Sundarbans with special reference to few floral sources. Fishes are one of the
most significant species because of their large quantity and variety, among all the
groups of animal species available in Sundarbans.. Mangrove forests are among
the world’s most useful locations. According to authors association with
Mangrove plants is one of the great sources of pigmentation for the estuarine
fishes. To study this sources in Indian sundarbans they observed a variety of
colored fish community and identified about sixty seven species of finfish of
which were the representatives. They observed fish from five rivers during
period throught the year. The river Matla shown the highest coloured ornmental
finfishes. They studied eight mangroves . The ornamental fish diversity varied
significantly among the five different rivers of Indian Sundarbans was indicated
by ANOVA. The dominant fishes under study were from the order Perciformes.
They recorded unusual types of carotenoid pigments, from twenty two estuarine
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fin fish species. It was observed that pigments isolated from the ripen leaves of
eight mangrove plant species were more common in the carotinoid pigmentation
of the ornamental fin fishes studied. Thus this study and the findings provide a
new venture for the assessment of the relation in mangroves and pigmentation
in fish.
Arunkumar and Laifrakpam (2000) recorded occurrence of anew
species of fish from the Yu-River system of Manipur. They observed the close
resemblance of the new species Neonoemacheilus morehensis with the other
species like Neonoemacheilus peguensis, Neonoemacheilus assamensis and
Neonoemacheilus labeosus . But it shows the differnces in some features like 14
to 18 dorso-lateral vertical bars with distinct dark patch at the base of caudal fin,
a short transverse groove at the anterior nostril, two unbranched dorsal fin rays,
one unbranched anal fin ray, dorsal fin inserted closed to base of caudal fin.The
difference in the distances between the opening of anus to the anal fin and its
origin, distance between pelvic fin to anal fin origin was observed and also the
variation inthe length of length of the caudal peduncle was noted.
Kaushal et. Al.,(2001) reviewed the limnological characters of the Pandoh
reservoir formed across the river Beas in the district Mandi of Himachal Pradesh.
They examined the water and found low temperature range in the range of 10.3-
16.5°c ,the value of specific conductivity in the range 87—97 |j,mhos per
centimeter and total alkalinity also in lower range about 23 -43 ppm. The
nutrient status showed the moderate condition and oligo trophic tendencies of the
reservoir. The plankton count found was poor. In the reservoir Stocking of fish
was done first in the year 1978 when a batch of common carp was introduced in
it. On the other hand, stocking was not sustained in the water There was no
organized commercial fishing .The fishing was done by using gears and rods and
lines. The lake fish fauna is mainly composed of fishes like Salmo trutta fario,
Schizothorax rich ardsonii, Labeo dero, Labeo dyocheilus, Tor putitora and some
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hill stream fishes. Proposals be relevant to organization and development of the
fisheries in the lake were made. The practice of continuous storeing of cold
water fishes specially S.richardsonii, S.truttafario and Tor putitora would establish
remunerative in drawing tourist-anglers. It will be also proper to make some steps
for protection of fisheries of snow trout, S. richardsonii and golden mahaseer,
Tor.putitora.
Population parameters of the fish species Labeo calbasu (Hamilton) in the
Sylhet basin of Bangladesh were measured by Alam et. Al.,(2000). They
collected data from the north-eastern region of Bangladesh and analyzed it
using FiSAT software with length-frequency. They recorded the von Bertalanffy
growth parameters L°° and K for the species as 49.30 cm and 0.63 per year
respectively. the mortality of fishes due to the natural and fishing reasons was
found in the range 1.12 to 3.45 . The exploitation rate estimated by them was
0.76. The population of this fish species generally starts from the months
August to October and is maximum in september.The study put light on the
overfishing of the fish species and shown the effect on their body weight and
total length.
Katiha et. Al., (2000) reviewed The developments and sustainability of
fish seizes from riverside stretches in various districts of Himachal Pradesh.In the
state there is a network of the perennial rivers like Sutlej, Ravi, Beas and Chenab
in the west and in the east Yamuna and its tributaries . Importance of rivers in
most of the districts varied according to their geographical description and area.
The fishing business for the state had a significant growth rate of 9.56 percent.
Over the period of study it was observed that the rate was more than growth rate
in the number of fishermen fishing in rivers which indicates the increase in fish
productivity per fisherman. For the renewable normal property, there is a
maximum level of utilization which should sustain over time, ceteris paribus. It is
expressed as either highest sustainable production or highest sustainable yield.
The investigation indicated that fish operation in riverine stretches of district
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Chamba, Kangra and Kullu. The models used to approximation maximum
sustainable produce shown positively sloped equations for most of the districts,
representing massive scope for growth of fishery activities. Authors found that
although the State Fisheries Department has started a number of schemes to
improve fishery operations, these steps call for further intensification to
accomplish the required product.
Waikhom Vishwanath and laishram Kosygin (2000) recorded a new
catfish species of family Sisoridae and the genus Hara Blyth. Authors described
The new species Hara serratus from Barak River in Manipur, India. They have
focused the presence of a spine with the two serrated edges on the dorsal side of
the fish as the different character observed. They have also giver=n the
identification key of the fish from the genus Hara for the same fish.
Gobindsagar is the main water reservoir across the Sutlej river of
Himachal Pradesh. Benthic communities show interaction with the fishes in the
reservoir. Kaushal D.K.(2000) confirmed Interrelationship of fish and fisheries
with the bottom fauna of this reservoir. He analyzed the intestinal contents of
Cyprinus carpio and Labeo calbasu which was collected from the three major
ecological locations of the reservoir. The study was in combination with the
bottom fauna of the same ecosystems. the author revealed that the fauna of the
bottom of the water regulates the feeding habits of the selected fish species.
These fish species fed on chironomid larvae and pupae in prominance and
slectively on the young one of dipterans . The bathymetric distribution of benthos
was affected by wide water level instability , that created the differential
availability of benthos and accordingly had an control on the trophic spectrum of
the fishes. This has laid to the change in the feeding activities of these carps.
The fish landing shown the greater outcome where there was the better
availability of benthos at both the selected points of collection.
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Budha Nallah (BN) brookis a heavily polluted tributary of Sutluj river. It
was reported that 7 fish species like Ambassis ranga,Amblypharyngodon mola,
Catla catla, Ompok bimaculatus O. pabda, Punitus tictoand Xenentodon cancila
from Budha Nallah brook disappered due to the impact of pollution. It was also
found that 8 fish species namely Aspidoparia morar, Chelabacaila, C. laubuca,
Cirrhina reba, Crossocheilus latius, Osteobrama cotio, Puntius stigma and
Trichogaster fasciatus are under the process of abolition which is concluded by
the observation of their least occurrence in the area of Budha Nallah Kaur et.
Al.,(2000). The area between the point of budha nallah and river flowing together
and area of collection in downstream region did not show incidence of fishes
signifying their nonexistence in the region. the authors recorded , the incidence of
35 fish species in the downstream region 40-42 km next to the confluence of
Budha Nallah with the Sutluj river and 42 fish species in the upstream region 8-
10 km before the confluence of Budha Nallah with the Sutluj river.
Across the Sutlej river of Himachal Pradesh Gobindsagar is the main
water reservoir. Kaushal D.K. and Prakash A.(2000) revealed that chironomids
contribution in the water is relatively decreased with increasing depths, to the
total biomass and the population of oligochaetes was increased in the reservoir.
.It was concluded in their study of influence of the factors on the bathymetric
distribution of the benthos. Authors determined bathymetric distribution of macro-
invertebrates in relation to some factors for about two years from 1981 to 1983.
They recorded largest populations of 2,986 n m2 in the deepest part of the
reservoir. It was revealed that every time larger organic content of sediment and t
the wide oscillations in water levels featured to the strong development of
benthos in profundal zone.
The effect of cadmium chloride on the melanophore pigments of the fish
species Channa striatus was examined by Radhakrishnan et. Al.,(2000).
Cadmium chloride leads to sublethal effects on the melanophores and exhibits
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toxicity on melanophore morphology of the fish Channa striatus. During their
experiment it was observed that the melanin contents are released into the
surrounding matrix of the connective tissue, due to the breakdown of the
melanophores, between 20 and 30 days of exposure to cadmium chloride. This
happens by the attempt of fish to protect the delicate epidermis from the toxic
medium. there is gradual regeneration of the chromatophores as evidenced by
occurence of slow morphological colour changes, in addition to the physiological
colour changes. It was obseved the increased density of chromatophores after
forty five days. The chromatophores which were newly formed when compared
with the normal melanophores were found smaller in size and more in numbers.
the fish species of their study also showed the pigmentation effect the toxicity of
cadmium.
The impact of copper sulphate toxicity on the plasma electrolyte of
freshwater teleost fish, Cyprinus carpio var. communis during acute and
sublethal exposure periods was ascertained by K. Priya et. al.,(2000). Aquatic
animals are the long-established receivers of industrialized wastes including
heavy metals, which when discharged in high concentrations leads to harmful
effects on the organisms. One of the most poisonous heavy metals which is
often established in natural water is Copper. It is injurious to the aquatic animals.
Authors have studied the effects of copper sulphate on acute and sublethal
concentrations with respect to the changes in the electrolyte levels of sodium,
potassium and chloride present in the plasma. They recorded the significant
decline inn sodium and chloride levels when the fish was exposed to the acute
and sublethal concentration of the copper sulphate.
The digestibility of three relatively high protein feed ingredients all fed in
the form of meal , the sunflower seed, rapeseed and cottonseed, was examined
in tilapia species Oreochromis aureus x Oreochromis nilotica Gad Deganp And
Yehuda Yehuda(2000). For animals, the least expensive plant energy sources
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such as carbohydrates and oils, usually forms source of energy but their
consumption efficiency is different. The proportion of carbohydrates depends on
the digestibility that can be included in fish diets of the particular carbohydrate
source in the species for which the diet is prepared. This varies according to type
of the fish species as carnivorous, herbivorous or omnivorous. Optimal protein :
energy values can be established only after the digestible energy values in
feedstuffs have been evaluated. In their study of above fishes the authors have
discussed the difference in the digestibility of various protein sources. The
rapeseed meal showed 85 % digestibility of protein, followed by 77 %of
cottonseed meal and 76 % in sunflower seed meal. The results of digestible
energy tests showed energy yield of rapeseed as 2880 calories per gram;
energy yield of cottonseed as 2235 calories per gram; and energy yield of
sunflower seed as 1710 calories per gram. In the experiments the diet
containing 48% protein from different sources and 52 percent reference diet was
administered. The constituents were fifty percent soybean meal, thirty five
percent wheat flour, ten percent soybean oil, and five percent of vitamins, egg
yolk, guar andmchromic oxide. the digestibility was studied by using an inert
indicator in the nourish and gathering the faeces by stripping.
Baruah et. Al.,(1999). revealed that the rearing of hybrid magur (Clarias
gariepinus x Clarias macrocephalus) was found not suitable in Assam. The fish
species was introduced Assam in 1994 by private fish seed traders. The
objective was of assessment of the appropriateness of the fish for rearing in
Assam. But it was revealed after the various experimentation on cannibalism,
monoculture in pond, polyculture with carps and monoculture in cement tank, that
the species is unsuitable in Assam.
The fish Physiculus natalensis from Family Moridae has been recorded
by S. David Kingston and D. Manikandavelu(1998) from the Indian waters for
the first time. It was recorded formerly from the Natal coast of South Africa.
Comparison of the morphological characters of the fish with other specimens
from the Natal coast was carried out by the authors for this purpose.
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A comparative study of the morphometric characters of Himalayan
mahseer fish Tor putitora (Ham.) was carried out by Bhatt et. al.,(1998). The
observation of the fish collected from the hill section of the Ganga river and
Himalayan fish from the waters of Gobindsagar reservoir on Sutlaj river of
Himachal Pradesh was conducted. In the study the close relativity in the
morphological characters like Standard length, head length, length of anal fin
length of caudal fin, predorsal distance and preanal distance in proportion to total
length, and postorbital distance and preorbital distance in proportion to head
length of mahseer fish of Ganga river and Gobindsagar reservoir was observed.
The variations in the food habits of the fish Tor putitora (Ham.) in the
Ganga river of Garhwal region were studied by Kishor et. al.,(1998). The
feeding habits of the fish showed difference when examined from the different
tributaries of Ganga river. The food type included insect larvae and nyrmphs,
animal matter, Fish remains, Plant material like green algae, macrophytes and
diatoms.It was observed for the fish species from the Ganga, Saung, Nayar and
Alaknanda river respectively. The fingerlings shown highest degree of
omnivorous trend, while the youngest and sexually undeveloped individuals were
found to be carnivorous. RLG standards (0.42-21.10) indicated their carnivorous
tendency. The RLG values amplified with increasing length of the fish which
indicates the appropriateness of the gut for omnivorous diet.
The study of the ornamental fishes of the Brahmaputra river system has
revealed that large scale utilization of certain hill stream species caused severe
reduction of their reserve Pandey et. al.,(1998). They also reported adverse
effect of application of pesticides in the tea gardens and frequent use of
explosives in the hilly areas on the habitats of ornamental fishes . In their
investigation they collected the ornmental fish species from the valley of
Brahmaputra river in upper region of Assam. The cyprinid fish were dominant but
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the loaches were list found. it was noted that the weed infested beels form the
outstanding habitats for a large number of ornamental fishes.
Uma et. al.,(1998) studied the fish Notopterus notopterus(Pallas) from the
Saroornagar lake of Hyderabad in Andhrapradesh or its feeding habits and food.
They analyzed the various length of guts of the fishes for the study of their
contents fed. They found in the analysis that the fish feeds on a variety of foods
like aquatic weeds, mud and sand, nematodes, insects and small fishes. Relative
to the maturity fish showed minimum feeding in the winter and maximum feeding
in the summer period. The fish expressed the capacity of adjustment for a wide
spectrum of food on the approach of scarcity of certain food items. They survive
well on the food which is easily and readily available in such conditions .
A comparative study on the food and feeding habits of three Channa
species from the Eastern part of Godavari district of Andhra pradesh was carried
out by Rao et. al.,(1998). For their study they observed the fish species Channa
orientalis, Channa. punctatus and Channa striatus. from different ponds , tanks
and canals of Kothapeta mandal of the area. They recorded the difference in that
of the fish feeding habit of the species C. punctatus and C. striatus from Channa
orientalis . The illustrated the relation between different maturity stages and
feeding intensity of the three fish species and also highlighted their preferential
feeding habits.
The fish Labeo rohita (Ham.) from Jaisamand lake of Rajasthan was
studied using the key scales by Singh et. al.,(1998). They carried out the study
for three parameters as age, growth and harvestable size. They considered the
six characters as annual increase in length (h), in weight (w), index of species
average size (Qh), and population weight growth intensity (QCW), specific rate of
growth (CI), and of weight increase (Cw), growth constant (Clt) and growth
characteristic (Cth) for measurement of the growth every year. The record of
their study has shown the increase in weight up to the fifth year of fish life.
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Characteristic growth up to the third year of fish life after that the growth declines.
The growth constant was observed average more during the initial two years but
less in the last years i.e, 5-7 years. They also measured the suitable size for the
harvest of fish in the Jaisamand lake which attained the length of 46 cms.
Dutta et. al.,(2013) conducted the survey of fishes of coastal region of
West Bengal. They observed the fishes from Digha to Talpati about 64 Km
coastal area of West Bengal and recorded 20 species of ornamental fishes.
These fishes were important from the aquarium point of view and of the demand
as piscine status of ornamental fish. The species of these fishes which were
endangered due to ruined ecosystem of that region are Brachygobious sua,
Gobipterus chuno, Badis badis and Brachydanio rario. For the conservation of
these fishes some special care should be taken. Support of the unemployed
youth from that local area in the program of the conservation of the biodiversity
especially of the fishes can be adopted. This can be achieved through the
establishment of ornamental fish industry.
Dutta et. al.,(2012) studied the ichthyofauna of ornamental fishes of
Bordoibam Bilmukh Bird sanctuary of North east India. In the survey record of
fifty eight aquarium fish species from forty two genera and twenty one families
was prepared . The authors have suggested that the ornamental fishes have
prospectus in the development of a low cost enterprise. This will provide self-
employment and also can sustain the development of number of speciesof the
fast depleting ornamental fish species. They have suggested the method of
captive breeding as one of the measure for the conservation of the threatened
fish species. The local communities can have the substantial job opportunities
through such developments of low cost enterprises, along with the conservation
strategies. The authors discussed the suggestion about the habitat conservation
through such program.
The prospects of ornamental fish resource for potential utilization and the
problems in India were discussed by Ponniah et. al.,(2012) in their paper. The
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demand of freshwater and marine ornamental fishes all over the world has
increased for the practice of keeping fish aquaria at offices, homes or hospitals .
At many places fresh water and marine aquaria are used as a tourist attraction
articles. But after the survey it is found that the major countries producing
ornamental fish are mostly from Asia and Europe. India is recorded with two
percent of global ornamental fish trade, in the other minor supplier list. In India,
there is the record of about more than 288 exotic species of ornamental fish and
1.50 marine water species and 2.50 indigenous fresh water fish species. These
fishes available have been identified as prospective and appropriate for tropical
climate of India. The authors have put light on the current status of abuse of wild
reserve, creation through aquaculture and the biological and ecological
prospective for ornamental fisheries in India.
Yohana Velasco-Santamaría (2007) reviewed the nutritional
requirements of the freshwater ornamental fishes. According to the author till now
the information about the nutrition of ornamental fishes is the extrapolated
literature but actual information is not available. For the dynamic development of
the ornamental fish species the knowledge of nutritional requirements of them is
essential. The proper formulation of the food plan advance the nutrient
digestibility and provide the metabolic requirements of the ornamental fishes.
That will aid in the reduction of the maintenance cost and the water pollution at
the same time. The food containing the living items such as tubifex worms,
Artemia sp., rotifers and Moina , bovine heart and liver, and inert food items such
as flakes, milk powder, meal powder, forms a diverse range of the nutritional
values and also increase the productive properties. The skin pigmentation of the
ornamental fishes is a most important feature for the aquaculture which less
important for the other harvested fishes by fishermen. For maintenance of
pigmentation recommendation of carotenoids in the diet is given. The author has
written this document to highlight the significance of the particular nutritional
requirements of the ornamental fishes for the progress in the industrious
potential and economic status of the fishery business.
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Pandey et. al.,(1998) successfully carried out the breeding of the
endangered fish species golden mahseer and the fish Tor putitora. They
performed the experiment in the state fish farm of Bantiwali Mandi near
Dehradun during the month September of the year 1997. For the experiment of
induced spawning ,they used the mature males without any treatment which
were oozing under normal pond condition. They treated the females with
synthetic hormone drug ovaprim giving intramuscular single dose. They
collected the fertilized 4000 eggs with fresh milt, in viable condition after 24
hours. From this spawn the successful fertilization of seventy percent eggs anf
sixty five percent hatching was observed.
The age determination of some Indian fishes by using the otoliths , scales
and other hard parts was reviewed by G. Seshappa(1999). In India in the past
years characters like growth rings found in the scales, otoliths or other hard parts
of fishes to were used to judge the age of fishes at various stages of life. This
practice is customary now also. But these features were rejected due the
ambiguity in the appearance of the growth rings in these parts of the fishes in the
period of summer and winter. This was supported by the study of the fish
Cynoglossus semifasciatus at Calicut, which showed the annual periodicity of the
ring formation. In a few cases, because of the infrequent incidence of
abnormalities and fake checks in the scales, building the interpretations was a bit
difficult. But by other workers,such rings or annuli were later on found in the other
species of Cynoglossus at Calicut and also in many other fishes elsewhere .
Later on, in a vast study of more species from different locations discovered the
extensive incidence of growth rings (also called annuli) caused by factors other
than seasons. These findings were useful for the determination of the age of
fishes. The author has reviewed the development of this methods in the fishery
science of India.
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