Written versus spoken English- feature analysisEXAM TITLE: What are the differences between Written English and (a) Spoken Prose (b) Conversation?

Written English

It is first necessary to define what sort of Written English. Semi-formal Written English is in one sense less and in another sense more redundant than the spoken forms of the language.

Repetitions and duplications are usually avoided to a greater extent than in conversation, though a semi-formal style may still render some examples.

Intonation contours, stress patterns, junctures (transition and boundary features) and tone of voice are absent in Written English. But spelling, word boundaries and punctuation are present.

Spoken Prose

Spoken prose may consist of a speech, a sermon, a taped report or a radio broadcast scripted in advance and in the form of a monologue. It may be read or recited almost anywhere, but the speaker may equally be within visual contact of an audience.

It is not created spontaneously in the same way as Conversation is born, but the speaker may nevertheless make conscious or incidental use of expressive features such as tone of voice, gesture and facial expression.

Conversation

Because of its spontaneous creation, Conversation can be related more closely to the extra-lingual context and the responses of the listeners.

Speakers may be prompted to vary the speed of speech within segments, to lengthen pauses and to repeat words or add modifications according to the apparent degree of comprehension or momentary inattention on the part of listeners.

Conversation usually involves more than one party actively taking part and having the possibility to interrupt. It therefore tends to be more intimate and more personally relevant than other spoken forms.

Applying the criteria set out by Joos in "The Five Clocks", the description of "casual style" and "consultative style" help to illustrate some of the characteristics of Conversation in the most likely contexts in which it can occur.

When the dialogue involves family or close friends (usually "casual style"), little or no information is given which is not known to the participants. Well-known formulae are used with great frequency.

When the conversation involves strangers (usually "consultative" style) all necessary background information is supplied and more elaborate politeness procedures are added to the well-known formulae for requests, questions, orders, suggestions and acknowl

In such situations where there is a large information gap and a need to be explicit through the language, a rarer but more formal style of language may be witnessed, bridging the gap between certain aspects of Conversation and Spoken Prose.

Analysis of sample of conversation - not transcribed on this page

With reference to the sample of conversation given, the style of language (on Joos' scale) could be described as "casual". Although questions are asked, they are for the most part rhetorical in so far as they perform a social function.

They do not relate to much of an information gap. The generation of utterances is largely dependent on either the extra-linguistic situation or the preceding contribution.

Rupert offers very little in response to Malcolm's assertions about the funniness of the play. Malcolm therefore feels obliged to modify each of his preceding remarks.

First he asserts that the play was "terribly funny", then that it was "really pretty funny"; this is reduced to "bits of it were quite funny". Desperate for Rupert's accord, he finally decides that it "wasn't all that good".

Accomplished playwrights pay considerable attention to the psycholinguistic features of Conversation, to provide insights into their

Characters. Similarly, most major novelists recognise the importance of dialogue.

Prose on its own, whether spoken or written, is a blunt instrument for most of their purposes.

Linguistic features of [ spoken ] English conversation

Studies of the pronunciation of ordinary spoken English using transcripts of real-life conversations reveal the following characteristics:

(a) Loss of initial or final consonants e.g. the funnies(t) thing I've … isn'(t) it. (b) Assimilation of consonants c) Vowel reduction e.g. once (i)n a while (d) Combinations of a b and c, (e) Coalescence e.g. Let me ge(t you a) drink, what do you want? (f) Close juncture between words in rhythm groups e.g. I don't think it's all that good. Have a good lunch. Celia darling. It's really pretty funny.

Continuous flow of sound produced by the physical linking of one word to the next within the phrases.

Strong contrast is often made in conversation between heavy and weak stresses. Syllables which unsergo the process of reduction inherent in this contrast can be rendered obscure, indeterminate or even non-existent.

Grammatical and lexical material may disappear e.g. Oh, it does you good [ (to have a good) laugh once in a while,] doesn't it. I haven't laughed at anything so much for a long time (Highly stressed syllables).

Since Conversation isn't scripted in advance, it rarely uses the width of vocabulary and the complicated structures which are normally associated with written English or more formal styles of the language.

The act of conversation sets its own challenges which include establishing contact with the intended listener(s) and filling in time while preparing a context for segments of the utterance containing a properly organised message.

These functions are served through Conversation Tags and fillers, exclamations, expletives, hesitations and even longer formulae e.g. isn't it? My golly I think I mean You know, don't you?

In many conversations where agreable noise-making is called upon to fulfil a social function, it is often possible to retreat from the creative challenge or the mental discipline needed to say anything of substance.

At times when we want to relax our minds as well as on the occasions when we need more time to organise our thoughts we tend to fall back on lines we have rehearsed over and over again.

These include the idioms, colloquial clichés and polite formulae which are much in evidence in utterances between friends e.g. the funniest thing I've ever seen, terribly funny (colloquial clichés); mind you; have a good laugh (idioms)

Word length in Conversation is generally shorter than in other forms of spoken English. As speakers, most of us have greater familiarity with words of one or two syllables.

Conversation is usually made up of simple phrasal and compound verbs and the limited vocabulary used to serve the basic functions of agreement, offering, acceptance, greeting, request-making, stating & modifying beliefs, questioning & responding.

These areas are well-rehearsed and it is customary to use an unintimidating vocabulary.

The creative challenge of conversation often fails to result in syntactically perfect sentences. In this sense, sentences are not always simple. They are sometimes loose, awkward or vague. It is not easy to use the notion of "sentence".

Complete utterances in Conversation may be phrases which would be regarded as fragmentary in writing or spoken prose. There is often considerable use of contractions e.g. Haven't seen you for years. Err, Malcolm; Celia. Err, gin & tonic please.

Note that when two people are being introduced to one another, the context of "Err Malcolm; Celia." is provided by physical gesture and facial expression.

As sentences, conversational utterances are often "mixed" or "stringy" in syntactic form and omission of words is fairly common. Hesitations, self-interruptions, repetitions & false starts leave their mark on what may aptly be called a series of segments.

e.g. Well, I mean - I mean bits of it are - bits of it are quite funny aren't they. I mean bits of it. You know, don't you.

The arrangement of words gives more play to the intonation patterns of Spoken English. Instead of saying " Do you like it?" Rupert remarks: "You like it, do you?"

Utterances are constructerd so as to make way for exclamations and question tags. Malcolm's heavy use of Tune 1 "it's funny, isn't it" elicits strong agreement, at least from Charles. Rupert's heavy use of Tune 2 raises a note of discord which disturbs M.

The characteristics which differentiate Conversation from Spoken Prose or semi-formal Written English mostly relate to the nature of the interaction (i.e.It's not monologue), the need to produce and organise spontaneously & the social functions it serves.

Yet a knowledge of where sounds are articulated in the mouth coupled with signals as to the directions in which speech organs are moving and whether to expect "voiced" or "voiceless" stops, will help the non-native speaker develop similar listening skills

It is not difficult for teachers to demonstrate the relatively short vowel and voiceless stop in the word "seat" and to compare them with the longer vowel and voiced stop in the word "seed".

Indirect as well as direct procedures can be practised in identifying voiceless and voiced consonant sounds.

In this context, learners will both appreciate how simplification comes about and develop sufficient sensitivity to the sound of "informal English" to overcome the obstacles which features such as elision & assimilation present to the non-native listener.

Syntax and semantics

Describe the uses of the Present Perfect Tense in English

General statements concerning the use of the Present Perfect Tense emphasize the connection between present and past.

"a sort of mixture of present and past" (Thomson & Martinet) "past with present relevance" or "past involving the present" (Leech)

However, broad definitions like these are of limited help. A closer analysis of the "past - present" relation is in my view the first stepping stone to the question of use.

This would take account of meaning as given, for example, through intonation and stress or through the presence, nature or absence of adverbials.

Every English Grammar has its system of categorization.

I have found that the categories formulated by Leech in "Meaning And The English Verb" provide a clear understanding of the "past-present" aspect as well as indicating some important functions of the Present Perfect Tense.

The main contexts in which The Present Perfect tense is used in the English language:

It is used in conversations (a wealth of examples in everyday English) , letters, newspapers, radio reports, prayers, reports. Within these contexts the Present Perfect Tense has a variety of individual functions.

1. STATE-UP-TO-THE-PRESENT The state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment. It may extend into the future. Normally used with an adverbial of duration.

2., 3., & 4: EVENT VERBS I.e. verbs used to refer to events. There are three main uses of the Present Perfect with event verbs, as follows:

2.[a] INDEFINITE PAST At least once before now. The indefinite meaning is commonly reinforced by EVER, NEVER, BEFORE (NOW), ALWAYS and other adverbials. The number of events is commonly unspecified. The time is unspecified.

2.[b] RECENT INDEFINITE PAST At least once in a period leading up to the present. Associated with adverbs such as JUST, ALREADY, RECENTLY and YET.

3. HABIT IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT Used with an adverbial of duration (+ an optional adverb of frequency) FOR FIVE YEARS / ALWAYS / EVERY MONTH / FOR AS LONG AS I CAN REMEMBER / SINCE.

4. RESULTATIVE PAST Used in reference to a past event to imply that the result of the event is still operative at the present time. No adverbial support is needed.

5. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME REFERRING TO THE FUTURE. I'll help you after I've washed up.

Special attention must be paid to certain verbs which refer to the states of HAVING and BEING since the Present Perfect Simple must be used (not the Continuous). BE, BELONG TO, CONTAIN, CONSIST OF, COST, DEPEND ON, DESERVE, HAVE, MATTER, OWN, RESEMBLE.

1. The Present Perfect is used with "State Verbs". Verbs normally used to refer to "states" include BE, LIVE, BELONG, LAST, LIKE, STAND, KNOW, HAVE and CONTAIN.

"state" is undifferentiated and lacking in defined limits: e.g. How long have you lived in Brighton? I've lived in Brighton for two years / since 1977.

Here, as in most examples of the Present Perfect Tense applied to states, an adverbial is present and there is no suggestion that the statement may not be true of the future as well as being true of the period lasting up to the present moment.

2. Verbs normally used to refer to "events" include: JUMP,GET, PUT, LAND, BEGIN, FIND, HIT, FALL, GO. An "event" has a beginning and an end; it may be part of a sequence of events or happenings, so it can therefore be viewed as a whole entity.

2.[a] "I have never eaten frogs legs, drunk port or got married." 2. [b] He has just fallen over. 3. She has claimed Social Security for the last five years. 4. We've finished our work.

2.[a] The question HAVE YOU EVER.? Occurs frequently in conversation, in discussion about past experiences

2.[b] is frequent in conversation where short-term memory plays a fundamental part. The actuality of JUST & ALREADY explains why this use of the Present Perfect is especially common in news bulletins, letters and reports & summaries used in everyday conver

Mrs T. has just arrived in Moscow. She's already met 2 of the country's leading dissidents. Dear Lola, I've just received your card from Barcelona.

In news bulletins, Past Simple & Past Perfect are used with much more frequency than Present Perfect. The Indefinite Past does not tell you exactly when. (at six o'clock this morning / three hours ago .. Incompatible with Present Perfect).

Present Perfect used in criticism: The Gov't has doubled prices, lengthened dole queues. Connection with the present - what is wrong now. Also achievements.

3. Habit in a period leading up to the present - an adverbial of duration is usually required. "She has claimed SS as long as I can remember". Without the adverbial of duration the example would suggest the indefinite past.

The extra addition of an adverbial of frequency is often witnessed: "My typewriter has been serviced every year since I bought it."

Adverbials of time and their compatibility with different English verb tenses

Leech's points of orientation - they affect the choice of adverbials. The Present Perfect relates past time more directly to the present point of orientation "now". See Adverbials in relation to Perfect and Past (Leech).

Adverbials occuring with the Past Simple but precluding the Present Perfect: A WEEK AGO, EARLIER THIS YEAR, LAST MONDAY, THE OTHER DAY, YESTERDAY EVENING.

Adverbials which are most likely found in the Past Simple but can occur in an indefinite or iterative sense in the Present Perfect: AT FOUR O'CLOCK, IN THE MORNING, ON TUESDAY, THEN, SOON, NEXT, AFTER BREAKFAST. I've always done my HW in the evenings.

Adverbials which may accompany the Present Perfect but not the Past Simple include FOR THE PRESENT, FOR NOW, FOR THE TIME BEING.

Adverbials which are normally associated with the Present Perfect as opposed to the Past Simple, are SO FAR, UP TO NOW, HITHERTO, SINCE THURSDAY, SINCE I MET HER and LATELY & LATTERLY (recent indefinite past)

The group of adverbials which combine with either Present Perfect or Past Simple is interesting in so far as it indicates cases where the two tenses are interchangeable as well as instances where the actual meaning depends on the tense.

ALWAYS, EVER and NEVER can be used either with the Present Perfect or Past Simple: I've always said / I always said. He's always been a liar / He always was a liar.

NOW & ONCE: Now I've nearly finished my tea. Now it was nearly dark (for "then). I've visited Toledo once / Once I was innocent (at one time). Meaning change.

ALREADY, STILL, YET & BEFORE relate to point of orientation "now" when used with the Present Perfect and "then" when used with the Past Simple.

I've already finished it (as early as now) / I was already very tired (as early as then).

Other adverbials which combine with both tenses are: TODAY, THIS MONTH, THIS YEAR, THIS CENTURY, THIS MORNING, TONIGHT, THIS MARCH, THIS CHRISTMAS, RECENTLY, JUST (chiefly in the affirmative), LATELY & LATTERLY.

A common worry among Advanced level students is differentiation of Present Perfect Simple & Present Perfect Continuous tenses. Note the temporary nature of the situations which the Continuous is used to describe. Temporariness and possible non-completion.

Note that only the Present Perfect Simple (not the Continuous tense) is used with verbs describing states of "having" and "being".

Uses of the Present Perfect Continuous or Progressive tense

The Present Perfect Continuous can also be used in cases 1-4 (not 5) , though it is commonly used without adverbial reinforcement in category 1 "State verbs".

It would be artificial to attempt to teach the Present Perfect with overt reference to categories 1-5. Happily the textbooks provide a mixed bag of Present Perfects.

There is no problem of illustration since each of the categories mentined leads directly into the language of everyday conversation. Moreover, there is no shortage of adverbials in the English Language.

Given the abundance of living examples of use, the key to recognition of the Present Perfect Tense rests with the knowledge of time relations and all other aids to meaning and the ability to harness this knowledge for purposes of differentiation.