oodcockNatural History & Management for Landowners

IN THE SOUTHEAST:W

The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental SciencesCooperative Extension Service

WoodcockNatural History and Management for Landowners

1 USGS-Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2152Present address: Arkansas Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, SCEN 617, University of Arkansas,Fayetteville, AR 72701

2 Warnell School of Forest Resources, the University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2152

IN THE SOUTHEAST:

David G. Krementz1 and Jeffrey J. Jackson2

This publication has been made possiblethrough a Wildlife Restoration programgrant from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,Division of Federal Aid. To learn moreabout the Wildlife Restoration program,visit: http://fa.r9.fws.gov/.

ContentsUnderstanding Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Why Do People Want Woodcock on Their Land? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

You May Have Woodcock on Your Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

The Woodcock’s World of Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Forest Type and Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Weather and Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Worms, Woodcock and Land-Use Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Can Woodcock Overharvest Their Worms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

The Woodcock’s Life Through the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Spring Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Nesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Fall Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Winter in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Woodcock Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Start With a Land-Use Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Protect or Create Daytime Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Find and Maintain Daytime Hiding Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Land Management Practices That May Incidentally Help Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Timber Management and Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Clearcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Shelterwoods and Seed Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Postcutting Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Thinning the Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Pine Monoculture and Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Prescribed Burning in Pinelands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Managing Open Lands for Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Maintain Old Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Pasture Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Mowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Tilling Fallow Croplands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

History and Future of Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

The Past and Future of Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

What Causes Woodcock Population Declines? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

American Woodcock Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Suggested Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

FiguresFigure 1. The male woodcock performs the sky dance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Figure 2. “Splash” is evidence of woodcock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Figure 3. A mixture of young pines, broomsedge clumps and bare patches makes this

field popular with woodcock at night. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Figure 4. A woodcock hides in a thicket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Figure 5. Probe holes are evidence of woodcock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Figure 6. Ideal woodcock habitat includes these features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Figure 7. Cane thickets make excellent hiding cover for woodcock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 8. A wet woods is often good woodcock habitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 9. Plugging a ditch can be a step in improving woodcock habitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 10. Pine monoculture makes poor woodcock habitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Figure 11. Dense grass cover prevents woodcock from probing for worms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 12. Burning in field or forest can make worms more accessible to woodcock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 13. Eastern woodcock survey region and area covered by this bulletin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Figure 14. Long-term trends and annual indices of the number of woodcock heard

on the singing-ground surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Figure 15. Indices of woodcock recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Additional ArticlesHunting Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Facts About American Woodcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Woodcock Recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

This bulletin describes woodcockhabits, habitat needs, and habitatimprovements that can help landownersincrease woodcock numbers. This bul-letin is aimed primarily at the Carolinas,Georgia, and northern Florida.

The quail-sized woodcock seems apeculiar bird. Unlike its sandpiper rela-tives, the woodcock is a forest bird. Itspends its days hidden on the forestfloor perfectly blended with dead leavesby its camouflaged pattern of brokenblacks and browns. Its eyes sit so farback on its head that a woodcock cansee all around, including behind itself.Its long, pencil-thin beak has nerves outto the tip to help its owner locate preybelow the soil. A woodcock can open itsbeak just at the tip while it is probingdeep in soft soil. These specializationsof the bill enable the woodcock to graspearthworms, its favorite prey, and pullthem from the soil.

The woodcock stands on short legspositioned so far back on its body that itambles about with an odd front-backbobbing gait. Perhaps because of thewoodcock’s curious habits and mysteri-ousness, it has many names that describeits appearance and habits: bog borer, bogsucker, big eyes, swamp bat, mud bat,hokumpake, Labrador twister, whistler,marsh plover, big-eyed John, swampquail, snipe, blind snipe, brush snipe,cane snipe, dropping snipe, forest snipe,owl snipe, wood snipe, hill partridge,night partridge, bec noir, becassé, nightbecassé, and the most common nick-name, timberdoodle.

Why Do PeopleWant Woodcock on Their Land?

To the naturalist and woods-wiselandowner, the woodcock indicatesenvironmental quality. Woodcock are

not common on impoverished lands.They like the rich soils and thickets ofwide (usually more than 50 yards),moist bottoms, and springs associatedwith permanent creeks. You may knowfrom their sign and their song thatwoodcock are there; you just can’t seethem as they sit on the forest floorbecause they are such secretive birds, soperfectly camouflaged. They add an airof mystery to special places on the land.

A woodcock may announce its pres-ence by bursting into flight at your feetwhen you least expect it. Being startled bya rising woodcock is a great thrill. How-ever, most of the time, the landownerappreciates this silent friend just throughknowing that woodcock are there.

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Understanding Woodcock

Figure 1The male woodcock performsthe sky dance.

To the birdwatcher, the woodcock isa fascinating bird to find because of itsfamous sky dance (Figure 1). Malewoodcock carry on their courtship activ-ities in open fields throughout most ofthe year, although it is concentratedfrom late winter through early summer.

The courtship behavior is complex.First the male woodcock enters a“singing ground,” which is often a fallowfield or a recent clearcut. After landing ina relatively open spot in the field at dusk,the male utters two calls, one right afterthe other. The first call is the “tuko” call,which is faint and can only be heard ifyou are quite close. The call that followsis the nasal “peent,” which can be heardfor some distance. As the male calls, hepaces around in circles, so the peent callseems to rise and fall in volume.

After calling for a few minutes, themale lifts off of the ground and spiralsupward into his towering sky dance. Ashe gains altitude, listen for a faint twit-tering sound made by the wind whist-ling past his three narrow outer primaryfeathers. Once he reaches the peak offlight, about as high as you can barelysee in the darkening sky, he begins anundulating flight in a large circle. Thenyou will hear his chirping call. After heflies in circles for a while, the male willplummet back down to his little strut-ting ground.

Once on the ground, he starts thewhole display over again. While he is onthe ground, females will visit the singingmale. Many males would advertise theirwares, but these display grounds are aplace for competition. The competitionis a cackle flight; competitors chaseeach other while calling back and forth.This system results in what behavioristscall a lek. The lek is a place and processthat determines who breeds. There stillremains some question about how thelek operates in the case of woodcock,but regardless, it is a fascinating ritualto watch.

To the hunter, the woodcock is asporty game bird. Hunters like wood-cock because they are challenging toshoot, they hold well for pointing dogs,and they are fine table fare. Before the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918,woodcock were often hunted at night.Hunters used torches to approach wood-cocks roosting on the ground in fields. Alone hunter could kill phenomenal num-bers of woodcock in a night. Todayhunters seek woodcock during the dayin brushy fields and thick woods. Thewoodcock’s habit of frequenting thickcover, its sudden flush and its dartingflight make it a challenging quarry.

You May HaveWoodcock on Your Land

Often landowners hope to attractwoodcock and then find—to their sur-prise—woodcock are already there. Atopographic map can help you locatewide (at least 50 yards) moist bottoms.Also check for springs and seepagesflowing into creeks. If there are thicketsin your bottomland fields and openings,examine the ground for the woodcock’scharacteristic dropping or “splash.” Ifwoodcock are using the thickets, youwill see these telltale signs. Woodcocksplash is about the size of a 50-centpiece. It is chalky-white with a dark

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Figure 2“Splash” is evidence

of woodcock.

Figure 3A mixture of young pines,

broomsedge clumps and barepatches makes this field popular

with woodcock at night.

Photo: Jeff Jackson

Photo: David Krementz

center (Figure 2). You may also find thelittle holes made by woodcock wherethey have been probing for worms.

Another way for finding woodcockis to go to potential roosting/singinggrounds. These are 1- to 5-year-oldclearcuts or other open brushy placesnear the wide bottoms. Visit the singingground just before dark and positionyourself where you can see the incomingwoodcock against the darkening sky.You may also be fortunate to hear wood-cock singing or peenting (Figure 3). Itwill be too late in the day for legal shoot-ing, but once you have located a roost-ing/singing ground, you can be surethose woodcock using the singingground are hiding in nearby thickets dur-ing the day (Figure 4).

The Woodcock’sWorld of Worms

Despite his docile look, the wood-cock is a voracious predator. For most ofhis days, a woodcock eats worms—worms for breakfast, worms for lunch,worms for dinner. A woodcock withoutworms is in big trouble. Worms can beastoundingly abundant in good soil—hundreds or even thousands of pounds ormore to the acre. Of this total earthwormtonnage, some species live too deep forwoodcock to catch. Understanding whatmakes good earthworm habitat is basicto helping woodcock.

A woodcock must find worms with-in an inch or two of the surface nearlyevery day of its life. Woodcock also eatcertain insects and their larvae, butworms are the main staple. And wormyhabitat is where almost all their food isfound.

Forest Type and WormsForest trees and soil type influence

the quality of worm habitat and, there-fore, the quality of woodcock habitat.Detritus-feeding worms, of the kindsthat woodcock feed on, prefer a medi-um-loamy soil. Earthworms eat fallen

leaves and convert them to litter in theirburrows. So efficient are worms thatjust a few individuals per square footcan consume up to half a ton of leavesper acre per season (Wilde 1958).Alder produces thebest leaves to feed thewoodcock’s favoriteworms. These leavesare high in nitrogenand other elementsthat worms need.Pines produce thepoorest litter of all.Presumably, the con-version of nativeforests, especially bottomland hard-woods, to southern pines degradeswoodcock and worm habitat. Pines tendto acidify the soil. As soils become moreacid, worms decline. Worms becomevery scarce when soil pH is less than 4.5.

We cannot evaluate woodcock habi-tat by simply measuring the abundanceof worms. Although about 300 kinds ofworms live in North America, any envi-ronment usually has only two or threespecies. Exceptional habitats may sup-port as many as 15 species. Of these,woodcock will feed on only a few.

Some of the woodcock’s favoriteworms in northern states are Aporrec-todea tuberculata, Lumbricus rubellusand Dendrobaena octaedra (Reynolds1977). Surprisingly, none of these threefavorite worms is native to America. Allare introduced European species.Apparently the woodcock’s originalworm foods have been replaced by anumber of species introduced fromEurope and elsewhere.

A stunningly abundant worm insome places is the large nightcrawlerLumbricus terrestris. This worm, intro-duced from Europe, has spread over vastareas, but its spread has not been goodnews for the woodcock; they rarely eatthis kind of worm. The woodcock’sworld of worms has been changed. Noone knows what has happened to thewoodcock’s former favorite worms.

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Figure 4A woodcock hides in a thicket.

Figure 5Probe holes are evidence of woodcock.

Photo: David Krementz

Photo: David Krementz

Unfortunately we know little aboutwhich species of worms woodcock eatwhen they are in the Southeast.

Weather and WormsWeather affects worms. If surface

soil is too cold or too hot, worms godeep. A soil temperature of 50° to 68°Fis about right for most of the wood-cock’s favorite worms (Edwards andBohlen 1996). During the southern sum-mer, the surface temperature is too hotfor the woodcock’s favorite worms. Wewonder if that is one reason why theymigrate north to find better feeding.

When surface soil dries out, wormsalso go deep. Woodcock cannot getworms from hard, dry soil. Nor canwoodcock feed in soil that is too wet.Surface soil moisture of about 20 per-cent to 50 percent is best for woodcockand worms (Edwards and Bohlen 1996).

Occasionally, widespread, extreme-ly cold winter temperatures in the Southhave caused soil to freeze and wood-cock to move. In most years, however,it is flooding on the winter grounds that

causes relocations of wintering wood-cock. Their movements are generallylocal; at most, a few miles. During thesetimes, woodcock suffer much predationbecause the better covers are often inun-dated with water and woodcock areforced into poor-quality cover. As floodsrecede, the woodcock fly back to their oldhaunts. The worms survive the flooding.

Worms, Woodcock and Land-Use Practices

Fire, grazing and tillage all reducethe volume of dead plant matter on thesoil surfaces. These practices mayreduce worm food and, hence, reduceworm populations. However, fire, graz-ing and tillage may benefit woodcock inthe short term by clearing away thickplant material so that woodcock caneasily probe for worms. Johnson andCausey (1982) noticed that woodcockfavored burned pinelands for feedingafter dark. Woodcock use such openhabitats only at night because the short-age of cover makes the birds vulnerableto predation. In general, fire, grazing

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DogsDogs are a must on

the winter groundsbecause, in most cases,southern woodcock densi-ties are low. Wanderingaround the woods withouta dog will likely prove fruit-less. Most woodcockhunters use pointing dogssuch as English, Gordon,Irish or Llewellyn setters;English or French britta-nies; drathhairs; German

shorthairs; and weimaraners. Some hunters use flushingdogs such as springer, cocker or American spaniels; orLabrador or golden retrievers. The primary differencebetween these two basic dog groups for hunting wood-cock is that with pointers, the hunter stays out of theheavy cover until a point is made. With flushing breeds,the hunter follows the dog closely and “busts brush” withthe dog. The hunter reads the body language of the dogfor clues that a flush is imminent. Hunting woodcock witha flushing dog requires a high level of alertness becausewoodcock take to the air with little warning.

EquipmentTo follow a dog in woodcock cover requires briar

proof pants, heavy field coat and heavy waterproofboots. Wear light leather gloves, protective eyeglassesand hearing protection. Wear enough orange so yourhunting companions can see you.

Once in the air, the woodcock is a slow flier, com-pared with ruffed grouse or bobwhite quail. If you cankeep calm, you have a good chance for a shot.Because woodcock are taken at close range, use openbores and smaller gauge shotguns, 20 or 16 suit theclose quarters shooting that woodcock provide. Smallershot sizes (7½, 8, 9) and low brass field loads are rec-ommended. Make sure your shotgun is plugged to holdno more than three shells.

Don’t Shoot Too ManyHaving hunted a covert and bagging some wood-

cock, we suggest that you not overhunt your new discov-ery. Most woodcock hunters try to avoid shooting a covertmore than two or three times per year. Woodcock areprobably faithful to a particular location year after year.

Woodcock coverts are precious places; once youhave a “trapline” of coverts to work during the season,be careful whom you tell!

HUNTING WOODCOCK

Photo: Jeff Jackson

and tillage followed by moist, rainy con-ditions means that good worm huntingincreases in the short term.

Removing vegetation by fire, graz-ing and tillage also has long-termeffects. Without the litter layer, the soildries out more quickly, making wormsless available until the next rain. And inthe long-term, less vegetation can meanless fertility and less worms.

Can Woodcock OverharvestTheir Worms?

We suspect that woodcock canreduce their food supply if they feedrepeatedly in the same small area.Woodcock eat 3 to 5 ounces of wormsper day—nearly their own body weight.Such removals, in large night-feedinghabitats, may not reduce worm-huntingsuccess. But it is likely that in small spe-cial places, like seepage areas, wood-cock could reduce their food supply tothe point where they would have to seekworms elsewhere. Presumably that isone reason woodcock leave favoritecovers after dark to forage more widely:to find places where worms are lessexploited and more abundant.

The Woodcock’s LifeThrough the YearSpring Migration

In late January and early March,most woodcock migrate from the south-ern winter grounds to the breedinggrounds in the northern two tiers ofstates and southern Canada.

The timing of spring migrationdepends on increasing day length, butthe exact time of the major flights isdependent on moon phase and the pas-sage of weather fronts.

When you see a full moon inFebruary, you know that most wood-cock will leave the winter grounds with-in two weeks.

The trigger will be a wind blowingfrom south to north. When the woodcocksense this wind, they depart shortly after

sunset. They leave singly or in loose,small flocks. They are thought to migrateat low altitudes, traveling about 30 to 40miles per hour. We think that mountainranges, rivers and the seashore are theirguides.

Their arrival on breeding groundsis remarkably constant from year toyear. The woodcock’s journey northtakes them from a mild southern cli-mate into the end of the northern winter.When woodcock arrive on the breedinggrounds, the weather is often harsh withsnow and ice storms, and temperaturesbelow freezing. If woodcock experienceharsh weather during the spring, sur-vival rates and nesting success suffer.

A few woodcock remain to breed inthe South, but they become progressivelyscarcer from Tennessee to the Gulf Coast.These remaining birds seem to disappearcome June or so. By July, and continuingthrough the summer, it is almost impossi-ble to find a woodcock in the DeepSouth. Whether these birds migrate northwith their young remains a mystery.

NestingBirds nesting in the South will begin

as early as late January. Most nesting onthe northern breeding grounds beginslate April to early May.

The woodcock hen lays four eggs ina shallow depression on the ground,often under bushes, amongst dead leavesand twigs. The eggs are a beautifullycamouflaged brown-spotted buff color.A nest is so hard to see that you can acci-dentally step on it. The hen incubates theeggs about 21 days. Birds may renest ifthe nest is destroyed or if the young arelost early during brood rearing.

The young can travel with thefemale within a day of hatching, but theyare not as independent as young turkeysand quail, which can feed themselvesimmediately after hatching. The hengathers most of their food and feeds theyoung directly. The young will huddleunder her for warmth during the first 10days. After this stage, the hen no longerbroods the young. Before they are truly

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! Woodcock are migratory shorebirds thatprimarily winter in the Southeast. They begin to arrivearound late November and leave by early March.

! Long bill with large eyes set far back on head andmottled brown plumage make the woodcock an odd-looking bird.

! Nicknames include bec noir, becassé, night becassé,bog borer, bog sucker, big eyes, swamp bat, mud bat,hokumpake, Labrador twister, whistler, marsh plover,big-eyed John, swamp quail, snipe, blind snipe, brushsnipe, cane snipe, dropping snipe, forest snipe, owl

snipe, wood snipe, hill partridge, night partridge, andthe most common nickname, timberdoodle.

! Females are slightly larger than males (6 ounces vs.5 ounces).

! Most live less than one year.! Moist thickets are the best habitat, but woodcock can

sometimes be found in a variety of habitat types frombottomland hardwoods to old-growth pines.

! Earthworms are their main food. They also eat insects.! We believe the woodcock is an indicator species; its

presence speaks of land health.

independent, the young are vulnerable todeath from cold, wet weather. The hen’sassistance tapers off after three weeks,and the young are on their own afterabout 35 days. Once independent, theyoung disperse from the brooding areabut remain in the general vicinity untilthe fall migration south.

Fall MigrationThe return south is a drawn-out

affair. In the far North, woodcock beginmigrating as early as late September, butmost birds begin migration in October.Timing of migration may be dependenton weather, but, as with the spring migra-tion, the driving force is day length.

By Thanksgiving, most woodcockhave left the summer breeding grounds.Migration routes of birds headed forGeorgia and the Carolinas are mainlyeast of the Appalachians. More adultsmigrate inland than young, whichmigrate along the Atlantic coast. Somewoodcock migrate through the South-east and winter in Louisiana.

Early migrants arrive on the wintergrounds in late November. By mid-December, most birds have arrived attheir winter destination. The northernlimit of the wintering grounds is southof freezing soil. Frozen ground makesworms unavailable. Most woodcockwinter in the southern Piedmont andCoastal Plain, although some go as farsouth as Miami.

Winter in the SouthOnce on the southern wintering

grounds, the woodcock follow a daily

cycle of roosting, feeding and courtship.Woodcock become active about an hourbefore daybreak when they feed heavilyand sometimes conduct courtship activ-ities. The birds usually fly from theirroosting site to a location in densethickets where they will spend the day.These flights are under half a mile, andtake less than a minute.

Although woodcock may use avariety of daytime habitat types, theyusually choose wet thickets where theyfind a high density of plant stems, butthe ground itself will be open and clear.Such cover allows easy access toworms and insects in the leaf litter,while the roof of plant stems and leavesprotects them from predatory mammalsor birds. Typical covers include cane,privet, wax myrtle and briars. Afterarriving in daytime cover, woodcockwill move and feed for an hour or so,then settle down to hide for the rest ofthe day.

Woodcock avoid predators by re-maining perfectly motionless. Move-ment is risky. About an hour beforedark, woodcock begin again to forage intheir thickets. Around dusk, they maymove to a brushy field or to anotherspot in the woods and continue to for-age for a couple of hours after dark.Those birds that move to fields oftenconduct courtship activities includingpeenting and the sky dance. Foragingactivities subside, but after midnightthey may forage again for an hour or so.After this, woodcock settle down againfor the rest of the night.

Page 6

FACTS ABOUT AMERICAN WOODCOCK

Perhaps more than any other south-ern game animal, the woodcock is thetruest indicator of total wildland quality.This is due to the array of habitats itneeds: forest, thickets and fields ongood soil.

By contrast, some game animalscan be brought to greater abundance byquick-fix management plans: A grainfield planted for doves can produce adove shoot in 90 days; an agriculturalfield converted to thickets of blackber-ries can create good rabbit hunting intwo years; a clearcut of hardwoods inthe mountains can make grouse habitatin five to 10 years. Some animals likedeer can be abundant in degradedforests or almost any habitat. Why can’twe make instant woodcock habitat?

One reason is that woodcock feed inthe detritus food chain. Detritus is deadand decaying plant matter. Unlike theabove creatures, which live in the graz-ing food chain and eat live vegetation.The woodcock’s food supply dependson decomposition. The value and rich-ness of the good wormy soil that wood-cock need exists out of sight, underground and largely beyond our control.We cannot make woodcock habitatdirectly, in the short term. But if wemanage our land with woodcock inmind, in the long-term it will, on aver-age, be better land for a great variety ofwildlife.

Start With a Land-Use Inventory

The first step in wildlife habitatmanagement is to inventory your land.Make a map. Within your propertyboundaries, draw the boundaries of themajor habitat types; e.g., bottomlandhardwoods, pine plantations, streamsidecorridors or whatever. Get aerial photosfrom your local natural resource conser-vation service office. Include habitat

information from your adjacent neigh-bors. It may be that your property hasno nighttime cover, but your neighbormay have plenty. If so, you would bewise to concentrate on improving thedaytime covers found on your property.

Once you have a map, think aboutwhat areas you would be willing tomanage. These decisions will be basedon the acreage involved, the extent ofmanagement needed and whether man-agement will really help. Whether man-agement will help will depend on theavailability of the different woodcockcovers and foraging areas that wood-cock need daily. The following sections

Page 7

Woodcock Management

Figure 6Ideal woodcock habitat includesthese features.

Ideal HabitatStructureHigh stem density with bare ground for foraging, hiding andescape cover

Ideal SoilTextureLoamy soil; nottoo sandy; nottoo much decay

Ideal WeatherFactors

Soil moisture andideal temperature

bring worms to surface

IdealVegetation

Leaves of preferred trees

decompose to make good

worm food

will help you make your map. You mayalso want to consult W. G. Sheldon’s1971 book, The Book of the AmericanWoodcock, for additional information.

Protect or CreateDaytime CoverFind and Maintain DaytimeHiding Places

Ideal woodcock habitat is a combi-nation of vegetation type, structure,weather factors and soil (Figure 6).

Woodcock dis-tribution is mostlimited duringthe day. The firstjob in woodcockm a n a g e m e n tshould be to findand protect thespecial placeswhere wood-cock can spendthe day. Thesetreasures arethe heart of

your woodcock habitat. Look for moistsoil at the toe of slopes, or near springsor seepage areas. Rich, moist soil undercover of thickets, where they can findworms and be safe, is preferred habitat

for woodcock to spend the day. Thesespecial places are indicators of the gen-eral health of the land; thus, an abun-dance of woodcock is one indicationthat the land is healthy.

“We still have those rich patcheswhere agriculture and forestry havebeen found uneconomical to pre-empt.They are treasures.” — C. H. D.Clarke

If your search for ideal woodcockdaytime habitat reveals ideal moist soilhabitat that lacks cover, you can createthat cover. If cover is deficient due tograzing, fence off the habitat to allowthickets to grow. Establish suitablecover plants such as alders, cane, or pos-sibly privet. Do not establish privet if itis not already common in the area, asprivet is an invasive exotic plant withpest status. Consider half-cutting over-story trees and leaving the tops to createimmediate cover. Half-cutting meanspartially severing the trunk to allow thetree to fall. Half-cut trees often remainalive and will last longer as cover thancompletely severed trunks. Once sun-light reaches desirable moist soil on theforest floor, a thicket will likely estab-lish itself. If a special place is too dense,consider a thinning or prescribed burn-ing to thin the cover. Thin just a little,not too much.

Page 8

Figure 7Cane thickets can make excellent hiding thickets

for woodcock.

Figure 8A wet woods is often good

woodcock habitat.

“We still have those rich patcheswhere agriculture and forestry havebeen found uneconomical to pre-empt. They are treasures.”

— C. H. D. Clarke

Photo: Jeff Jackson

Photo: Jeff Jackson

Some creek bottoms and low lyinglands show evidence of old ditches leftover from the drainage days whenditching was a widespread practice. Apossible management procedure mightbe to plug those ditches (Figure 9). Theresulting rise in the water table willusually benefit worms and so helpwoodcock. Be wary of this practicewhere you have valuable timberbecause changing the water level mighthurt the trees. The habitat managementpractices for daytime cover will alsobenefit woodcock visiting those coversat night.

Land ManagementPractices ThatMay IncidentallyHelp Woodcock

Although the core of woodcockmanagement is finding, protecting orcreating special places, woodcockmanagement can also be a by-productof land management done for otherpurposes. Burning, mowing, herbicideapplication, tillage and timber harvestmay help or harm woodcock habitat asa by-product of their primary purposes.Read the following sections to see howthey might contribute to your wood-cock management plan. Generallyspeaking, these practices set back plantsuccession. They can be used toimprove foraging habitat and singinggrounds.

Timber Management and Woodcock

Managed timber rotations mimicplant succession in simplified fashionwith some exceptions. Timber man-agers usually simplify the forest tofocus growth on one or more profitablespecies of trees. They may reduceunderstory with herbicides or fire.Woodcock may find good habitat, atcertain times and places, as an acciden-tal by-product of timber rotation.

ClearcutsYou can make a temporary field

by harvesting timber. Clearcuts can beexcellent nighttime cover (Figure 3).

Shelterwoods and Seed TreesTrees left after partial harvest

are often intended to provide a seedsource for the next crop of timber. Ashelterwood or seed tree will sufficeto create a patchy environment.These partial harvests may not bequite as good as clearcuts becausebirds of prey like to perch in trees.

Postcutting TreatmentsRemember, you want a patchy

appearance to the field: a mix ofthickets and open. What better wayto achieve this objective than by let-ting hardwoods and softwoods growfor the first year or two? A reason-able amount of slash left on theground will further add to patchiness.Whatever you do with your cut, wedo encourage you to leave alone wet-ter sites—seeps, springs, streams,creeks. These sites are suited forhardwoods naturally, and managingthem for pines usually involves bothmechanical and herbicidal treat-ments. The costs of these treatmentsmight not be worth the future return.These wet spots are what woodcockthrive on; leave wet spots alone.

Page 9

Figure 9Plugging a ditch can be a step in improving woodcock habitat.

Photo: David Krementz

If you abandon management,plant succession will change alogged area back into a forest. Aftera few years, most clearcuts becometoo thick for woodcock. At thispoint, a prescribed fire might help. Alight fire will thin out the vegetationbut leave enough patchiness toencourage continued woodcock use.If you don’t maintain the field, thecanopy will close in after five to 10years. Almost all use of the field as anighttime cover will cease as groundand midstory layers disappear.

Thinning the ForestYou can sometimes improve a

dense woods for woodcock by har-vesting some trees. The extra lighton the ground will allow thicketcover plants to thrive. Whenchoosing trees for removal, youmust inevitably make tradeoffsamong timber value, growth poten-tial and value to woodcock andother wildlife. There is no oneproper way to thin woodlands. Awildlife enthusiast often prefers avariety of trees to a pure stand ormonoculture.

There is no set rule about thenumber of trees to remove whenthinning. Heavier thinning will putmore light on the ground and willstimulate undergrowth. Thisundergrowth may be excellent orpoor for woodcock depending onthe soil, plants present, and previ-ous history of the site. Keep inmind that woodcock are oftenunable to use a forest habitat withtoo sparse an understory. Consider,too, that certain old natural forestshave become increasingly rare. Ifyou have a special woods, treasureit as it is.

Get an accurate measure of thevolume and professional helpbefore selling any trees. The Exten-sion service and state forestry agen-cies have bulletins on timber har-vest to help you.

Pine Monoculture and Woodcock

Many people ask, “Are pinesgood for wildlife?” Dense monocul-tures of southern pines tend to acid-ify the soil and degrade habitat forwoodcock and many other speciesof wildlife. Pure pine monoculturesare usually poor woodcock habitat(Figure 10). However, the southernpines (longleaf, shortleaf, loblollyor slash) can vary from good to pooras woodcock habitat. The variationis due to differences in the understo-ry, litter layer and soil. A verysparse pine forest with a good thick-et understory is better for woodcockthan dense pines that shade the for-est floor and often have little or nosuitable thickets for woodcock.Hardwood sprouts, small trees, gall-berries, blackberries, cane thickets,broomsedge, wiregrass or othervegetation may grow under pines.

Prescribed Burning in PinelandsBurning is a common forest

management practice, especially inpine habitat. Fire can remove pineneedles and clear the forest floor tocreate opportunities for woodcockto find worms. Fire sets back plantsuccession, can favor fire-resistantpines and can stimulate regrowth.Fire can provide many of the samebenefits as mechanical and herbici-dal treatments but at less expense.

A prescribed fire is one set witha goal and a plan. Contain pre-scribed fires within a man-made ornatural firebreak. Get help fromexperienced personnel when con-ducting fires. Bulletins on con-trolled fire are available from thecounty office of your land-grantuniversity Extension service andforestry agencies.

There are many uses, benefits,and liabilities of fire that are toocomplex to explain here. Winterburns remove dense vegetation andplant litter so woodcock have easy

Page 10

WOODCOCKRECIPE

To the cook, the wood-cock is a culinary experience.Many appreciate its rich,hearty flavor. Woodcock havelow fat content, so eithercook slowly with moist heator cook quickly with highheat. These approaches helpavoid the error of over-drying.

Jane Gusmano’s woodcock with creamserves 1-2

2 woodcock

Several gratings fresh

nutmeg

3-4 Tbs. butter

4 Tbs. heavy cream

salt and pepper

Carefully pluck woodcockrather than skin them.Leaving skin on preventsloss of juices. Put the liver,heart and 1 tablespoon ofbutter inside the bird, thenskewer it shut. Rub birds wellwith butter, salt, pepper andnutmeg.

Place in a low bakingdish and pour 2 tablespoonsheavy cream on each bird.Bake in a 375° oven forabout 25 minutes untiltanned and tender. Basteevery 5 minutes. Spoon hotcream and juices over eachserving.

access to the soil for foraging. It isbest if the larger stems remain toprovide cover.

How often should you burn?The richer the soil, the faster plantsgrow and the more often burning isnecessary. Vegetation on very poorsoils may be slow to recover. Amosaic of 1- to 4-year-old burnedareas often works well to ensure amixture of cover. A greater varietyof plants can result from a mosaicof burns than when large areas aregiven uniform treatment. Someenvironments need burning moreoften than others.

Avoid burning large areas.Large burned areas are less desir-able for woodcock than those thatleave scattered, unburned patchesof habitat valuable for feedingand protection. Sometimes youcan burn with spot fires underconditions that leave patches ofcover. Or you can divide thewoods into a mosaic of smallersections with firebreaks. Burn athird of these sections each yearor so at winter’s end.

Rake around or otherwise pro-tect isolated hardwood trees in pinestands. Likewise, avoid burningforest edges if they contain choicethickets or other desirable plants.

Choosing the right time to burnpinelands is critical. Early winterburns remove cover for a long peri-od, whereas burns just before springgreen-up allow cover to regrowshortly after a fire.

Often ideal conditions for awinter or early spring fire developafter a cold front brings a soakingrain of at least an inch. A few daysof steady, reliable wind from thenorth or west will usually follow.The litter should be wet right downto the soil (check it). As the litterdries from the top there is anincreasing layer of flammablematerial above the moist litter.

Flash fuels like dry grasses mayburn readily after only a short dryingperiod, especially if it is windy.When there is enough dry material tocarry a fire, check the wind andhumidity. Humidity should bebetween 30 percent and 60 percent.A wind speed of 5 to 15 miles perhour will help keep the heat clearedaway from the pine tops and reducethe chance of scorching treetops.With no wind, scorching is likely.Fires may be set to back into thewind (backfire), burn at a right angle

to the wind (flank fire), or run withthe wind (headfire). Backfires aresafest for beginners. Set fires with adrip torch in strips or as spots. Do notencircle areas with fire unless youintend to kill all trees and vegetationwithin. Read Georgia ExtensionBulletin 838, Prescribed Burning: AManagement Tool or other suitableinstructions before using fire in thewoods. Get help and advice and per-mits, if necessary, from your stateforestry organization.

Managing Open Lands for WoodcockMaintain Old Fields

Landowners often establish andmaintain old fields for rabbits, quail,deer and other wildlife. Woodcock

Page 11

Figure 10This pine monoculture stand is poor woodcock habitat.

Photo: David Krementz

use such habitat at night. Uniformground cover is undesirable fromthe woodcock’s standpoint. Thus,you will need to break up monoto-nous cover to make the field attrac-tive to woodcock. Alternativesinclude discing, mowing, herbi-cides, burning and encouragingnative shrubs and trees. The goal ofthese measures should be to make afield that is patchy. A little mowinghere, a little tilling there, is betterthan doing too much.

Pasture ManagementCattle, goats and sheep can

maintain areas of short vegetationthat can be very desirable wheninterspersed with cover. Overgrownwindrows of branches and trunksleft after logging, brushy ditchbanksand dense thickets of briars are goodkinds of cover in a pasture. Grazinganimals will not overuse if pickingsare better in the open field. Briefperiods of intensive grazing will setback plant succession but if grazingcontinues too long, it may be detri-mental. Grazing that results in areasof very short grass or little bareplaces can affect worm foraginghabitat. Tall dense grass may supporthigh worm populations but is notgood woodcock foraging habitat.

MowingMowing functions much like

grazing, and it has the added advan-tage of being very selective. Mow atany time of year to suppress unwant-ed growth as needed. Mowing inpatches in fall after growth hasceased can help create foraging areasfor woodcock in winter.

Tilling Fallow CroplandsFallow fields are fields set aside

to rest but will have crops again inthe future. Harrowing tends to setback some sod-forming grasses andhardwood sprouts. It can make wayfor annuals, bunch grasses, shrubsand sometimes hardwoods. The tim-ing of harrowing is important. Tryharrowing small plots at differenttimes throughout the year and notewhat plants grow afterward. Notewhich plots woodcock use. Resultswill vary with the locality. A field orfield edge should have harrowed por-tions in various stages of regrowth.Try a three-year rotation so each yearthere is a mixture of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old cover. Harrowing, like her-bicides, can help create and maintainsinging grounds. Burning canremove dense grasses and weeds toallow woodcock access to the soil foreasy foraging. See figures 11 and 12.

Page 12

Figure 12Burning in field or forest can

make worms more accessible to woodcock.

Figure 11Dense grass cover prevents

woodcock from probing for worms.

Photo: Jim Berdeen

Photo: Hans Stigter

History and Future of WoodcockThe Past and Futureof WoodcockPopulations

Woodcock populations in the Eastprobably peaked around the 1940s-’50safter large-scale farmland abandonmentduring the 1930s.

As abandoned farmlands grew backinto brush and then into young forests, alot of great woodcock breeding habitatbecame available. Scattered densethickets on good soil characterizedthese habitats.

Since the 1950s, however, aban-doned farmlands have, through plantsuccession, grown to become forests.And the woodcock is not a big woodsbird on the breeding grounds.

Today the combination of forestsuccession, land loss to urbanization,large-scale conversion to monotonoushabitats and unknown factors have con-tributed to the decline of woodcock.

Since the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService (USFWS) began monitoringwoodcock populations in 1968, wood-cock in the Eastern Region (Figure 13)have experienced an average annualdecline of 2.6 percent (Figure 14). Thissurvey measures the numbers of malessinging along survey routes in thespring.

The USFWS also monitors the num-ber of young of the year shot per adultfemale taken (Figure 15). The number ofbirds less than a year old as a proportionof the population gives an estimate of

recruitment. Recruit-ment is the number ofnew breeding animalsentering a population.The number of young shotper female has shown along-term decline, whichsupports the singing-ground survey results.

What CausesWoodcockPopulationDeclines?

Among the many recog-nized causes for the declineof woodcock (Straw et al.1994), the most probablecauses include the loss andalteration of habitat.

The outrightloss of habitat hasbeen primarily due to urbanization.This has beenespecially truealong the Atlantic seaboardfrom Boston to Washington.Habitat change has almostalways meant more suburbs,bigger towns, larger cities. This trend isespecially severe along the East Coast,which once had far more woodcockhabitat than it does today. There willnever be as much habitat available forwoodcock in the future as there was inthe past.

Page 13

Range of Woodcock inEastern Survey Region

Area Coveredby This Bulletin

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

4.0

1.0’68 ’71 ’74 ’77 ’80 ’83 ’86 ’92 ’95 ’98’89

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

2.2

1.0’63 ’67 ’71 ’75 ’79 ’83 ’87 ’91 ’95

Figure 13Eastern woodcock surveyregion and area covered by thisbulletin (Bruggink 1998)

Figure 14 (far left)Long-term trends and annualindices of the number of woodcock heard on the singing-ground surveys (Bruggink 1998)

Figure 15Indices of woodcock recruitment. Dashed line is theaverage. (Bruggink 1998)Nu

mbe

r of S

ingi

ng M

ales P

er R

oute

Year YearAdju

sted

You

ng P

er A

dult

Fem

ale

More subtle than the loss of habitathas been the alteration of habitat.Examples include maturation of forests,water development, conversion of natur-al lands into agriculture or forest mono-cultures. But to woodcock, these alter-ations represent a loss of habitat com-plexity, a decrease in soil quality andoften a change in the water table.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serviceis mandated by law to manage wood-cock populations in a manner that willnot endanger the health of the woodcockpopulation and, at the same time, pro-vide opportunities for the public. Theservice has at its disposal two primarymeans of managing woodcock. First,and foremost, the service sets huntingseason dates and bag limits. Since 1968,there have been four changes in datesand bag limits: 1982, 1983, 1991 and1997. Season dates, bag limits or bothwere altered or reduced. The other alter-native is to purchase or manage federallands for woodcock or encourage pri-vate landowners to do so. To date, nei-ther of these land management optionshas been attempted in more than a fewisolated locations.

AmericanWoodcockManagement Plan

In 1990, the USFWS, USDA ForestService and the Ruffed Grouse Societysigned a memorandum of understandingdesigned to guide the conservation ofwoodcock in the United States.

This plan described ways federal,state and private agencies could workcooperatively in addressing problems,developing management programs,and assuring the future well being ofwoodcock.

The goal of the plan was to increasewoodcock populations to levels consis-tent with the demands of people who useand enjoy them.

Inherent in this use was the harvestof woodcock, which was considereddesirable and consistent with the conser-vation of woodcock.

A two-pronged approach was out-lined. First, habitat management wasthought to be the key to maintaining andincreasing woodcock populations.Management of public lands on both thebreeding and wintering grounds wasoutlined as well as outright protection ofkey concentration areas that are impor-tant during migration.

Second, population managementshould be conducted through existingregulatory processes with harvest com-mensurate with population status.Population status would be monitoredthrough the singing-ground surveys andthe wing-collection survey. The wing-collection survey has since been upgrad-ed with the current Harvest InformationProgram, or HIP, which will greatlyimprove the means for obtaining data onharvest and hunter numbers.

The USFWS aims to help state, pri-vate agencies and private landowners tolearn management practices that willhelp the woodcock. We hope our bul-letin makes a contribution to that end.

Page 14

Bruggink, J. G. 1998. American wood-cock harvest and breeding popula-tion status, 1998. U.S.Fish andWildlife Service Bulletin.

Edwards, C. A., and P. J. Bohlen. 1996.Biology and ecology of earthworms.Chapman and Hall. London.

Johnson, R. C., and M. K. Causey. 1982.Use of longleaf pine stands bywoodcock in southern Alabama fol-lowing prescribed burning. Pages120-125 in T. J. Dwyer and G. L.Storm, Tech. Coords. Woodcockecology and management. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, WildlifeResearch Report 14.

Reynolds, J. W. 1977. Earthworm popu-lations as related to woodcock habi-tat usage in Central Maine. Proc.Woodcock Symp. 6:135-146.

Straw, J. A., Jr., D. G. Krementz, M. W.Olinde, and G. F. Sepik. 1994.American woodcock. Pages 97-116in T. C. Tacha and C. E. Braun, edi-tors. Migratory shore and uplandgame bird management in NorthAmerica. International Associationof Fish & Wildlife Agencies. AllenPress: Lawrence, Kan.

Wilde, S. A. 1958. Forest soils. Theirproperties and relation to silvicul-ture. The Ronald Press Co.: NewYork, N.Y.

Page 15

Literature Cited

Cade, B. S. 1985. Habitat suitabilityindex models: American woodcock(wintering). U.S. Fish and WildlifeService Biology Report. 82. 23pp.

Dwyer, T. J., G. F. Sepik, E. L. Derleth,and D. G. McAuley. 1982. Demo-graphic characteristics of a Mainewoodcock population and effects ofhabitat management. U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, Fish and WildlifeResearch Report 4.

Glasgow, L. L. 1958. Contributions tothe knowledge of the ecology ofthe American woodcock, Philohelaminor (Gmelin), on the winteringrange in Louisiana. Dissertation,Texas A&M College, CollegeStation, Texas.

Keppie, D. M., and R. M. Whiting, Jr.1994. American woodcock (Scolopax

minor). In Birds of North America,No. 100 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.)Philadelphia: The Academy of Natu-ral Science; Washington, D.C.: TheAmerican Ornithologists’ Union.

Mendall, H. L., and C. M. Aldous. 1943.The ecology and management of theAmerican woodcock. Maine Cooper-ative Wildlife Research Unit.University of Maine, Orono.

Roberts, T. H. 1993. The ecology andmanagement of wintering wood-cocks. Pages 87-97 in J. R.Longcore, and G. F. Sepik, eds.Proc. Eighth American woodcockSymposium. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Biology Report 16. 139pp.

Sheldon, W. G. 1971. The book of theAmerican woodcock. University ofMassachusetts Press: Amherst.

UGA Cooperative Extension Service:http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubs/pubsubj.html#forest

UGA Forest Extension Service: http://www.forestry.uga.edu/subjects/wildlife.htmlOffice of Migratory Bird Management: http://www.fws.gov/r9mbmo/homepg.htmlThe Ruffed Grouse Society: http://www.ruffedgrousesociety.org/The Ruffed Grouse Society of Canada: http://www.rgs.ca/

Suggested Readings

Suggested Web Sites

David Krementz

is the unit leader at the Arkansas

Cooperative Fish & Wildlife

Research Unit at the University

of Arkansas, Fayetteville. He

spent the previous 12 years

working as a wildlife biologist

(research) at the USGS-

Patuxent Wildlife Research

Center in both Athens, Georgia,

and Laurel, Maryland. He had

worked on wintering American

woodcock for 11 years.

Jeff Jackson

is a wildlife biologist at the

Warnell School of Forest

Resources, the University of

Georgia, where he teaches

wildlife management and served

for 15 years as Extension

Wildlife Specialist. Prior to that

he worked for six years in Africa

with the United Nations

Development program doing

research into the control of grain

eating birds.Page 16

We would like to thank Jim Berdeen, Frank Bowers, John Bruggink, John Carroll,David Clugston, Dan Dessecker, Anisha Frizzell, Paul Hendrix, Phyllis Jackson,Fred Kimmel, Lori Markiton, Dan McAuley, Mike Olinde, Elinor Ruark, JohnSeginak, Greg Sepik, Jay Welch, Larry West and Carol Williamson for their assis-tance in preparing this publication.

Cover design by Carol Williamson and Jeff Jackson

Line drawings by Jeff Jackson

Layout by Anisha Frizzell

Acknowledgments

The University of Georgia and Ft. Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and counties of the statecooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Georgia College of Agricultural and EnvironmentalSciences offers educational programs, assistance and materials to all people without regard to race, color, national origin,age, sex or disability.

An Equal Opportunity Employer/Affirmative Action Organization Committed to a Diverse Work Force

Bulletin 1183 September 1999

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, The University of Georgia Collegeof Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.

Gale A. Buchanan, Dean and Director

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Call or visit your local office of theUniversity of Georgia’s CooperativeExtension Service.

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