WOMEN PRINCIPALS IN CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP AT …
Transcript of WOMEN PRINCIPALS IN CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP AT …
WOMEN PRINCIPALS IN CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP AT SCHOOLS IN DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES IN THE GAUTENG EAST
DISTRICT
by
Bhaigiavathie Naidoo
Student No. 920413151
MINOR DISSERTATION
submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SUPERVISOR : Prof Juliet Perumal
2013
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ABSTRACT
This study is part of the SANPAD (Southern African Netherlands Partnership
for Alternatives in Development) research project. It seeks to answer the
research question, how do women principals experience curriculum leadership
at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District? The
dawn of South African democracy gave rise to many changes and awoke
many dormant issues, one of which was the issue of equity in the workplace.
This extended into the sphere of education. There are many women who have
managed to penetrate this equity barrier and reach positions of leadership in
schools.
I conducted this research at three schools, which are located in disadvantaged
communities in the Gauteng East District in Gauteng Province in South Africa.
For this qualitative research I used observations and semi-structured
interviews to elicit data from the participants. During the analysis of this data
the following themes emerged: (1) exercising a successful leadership style; (2)
the principal as a curriculum leader; (3) socio-economic profile of community
and its impact on curriculum; (4) striking a balance between family and school
and (5) stakeholder participation and support.
This study reveals that women principals continue to experience challenges
within school; from the community outside school and in their personal lives.
Stereotyping still exists, especially in communities where men are still
privileged over women. Women principals need a support structure to
persevere as curriculum leaders. This research project concludes with
suggestions and recommendations for future research.
KEY WORDS
WOMEN PRINCIPALS
CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP
THE PERSEVERANCE OF WOMEN LEADERS
STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND SUPPORT
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DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Mogambal Chetty, and my late father,
Sathasivan Chetty, who have both always been an inspiration to me and who
have sacrificed so much to ensure that I am where I am today!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to: My spiritual master Bhagavan Sri Sathya Sai Baba who has been an immense
guiding force and who has inspired me to continue to seek knowledge.
My supervisor, Professor Juliet Perumal, for her unwavering academic
guidance, adept skill and diligent support throughout my research study.
My husband, Ceilan and children Yourishaa and Saihen for their patience,
encouragement and understanding. Thank you for the constant moral support
and inspiration.
The principals, School Governing Bodies and School Management Teams of
the schools who participated in this research.
My siblings, Poovan, Ranjini and brother-in-law Mogenthiran for all the
encouragement and technical assistance in the presentation of this research
report.
Southern African Netherlands Partnership for Alternatives in Development
(SANPAD) for the financial support toward this research and for the profession
development initiatives that were afforded to me. This study was part of a
larger SANPAD study entitled: Women leading in Disadvantaged Education
contexts – which was co-led by Professor Juliet Perumal and Professor Brigitte
Smit.
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DECLARATION
I, Bhaigiavathie Naidoo declare that this research report:
Women Principals in Curriculum Leadership at schools in disadvantaged
communities in the Gauteng East District, is my own work and that all the
sources that I have consulted and quoted have been acknowledged by
complete references.
This research report has not been submitted for a degree at any other
university.
______________________ Bhaigiavathie Naidoo 2013
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome B. COM Bachelor of Commerce CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CMM Curriculum Management Model D.E.T Department of Education and Training D.O.E Department of Education HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDSO Institutional Development and Support Officer MGSLG Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SANPAD Southern African Netherlands Partnership for Alternatives
in Development SASA South African Schools Act SGB School Governing Body SMT School Management Team USA United States of America
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i DEDICATION іі ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ііі DECLARATION іv LIST OF ACRONYMS v PREAMBLE x AIMS OF THE RESEARCH xii RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY xiii RESEARCH DESIGN xiii PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY xiii CHAPTER STRUCTURAL OUTLINE xv CHAPTER 1 WOMEN’S JOURNEY THROUGH THE LABYRINTH: ESTABLISHING THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE IN SOCIETY 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 THE POSITION OF WOMEN ABROAD AND LOCALLY 1
1.3 FEMINISM AND FEMINIST THEORIES 5
1.3.1 The Historical Roots of Feminist Theory 6
1.3.2 Radical feminist theory 7
1.3.3 Socialist feminist theory 8
1.3.4 Cultural feminism 10
1.4 GENDER AND LEADERSHIP 11
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1.5 WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICAN 14 SCHOOLS 1.6 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: WOMEN BREAKING 17 THE SCHOOL LEADERSHIP BARRIER
1.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES 21
1.7.1 Transformational leadership 22
1.7.2 Ethical leadership 23
1.7.3 Learner-centred leadership 24
1.8 CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP 25 1.9 DISADVANTAGED COMMUNTIES 31 CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE AND PROCEDURE OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS 35 2.1 INTRODUCTION 35 2.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 36 2.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 37 2.4 SAMPLING AND SELECTION 38
2.4.1 Research Sites 40
2.5 METHODS OF DATA GATHERING 45
2.5.1 Interviews 46
2.5.1.1 Semi-Structured Interviews 47
2.5.2 Observations 49
2.5.3 Field Notes 50
2.6 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 51 2.7 DATA MANAGEMENT 52
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2.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS 52
2.8.1 Reliability 53
2.8.2 Validity 53
2.8.3 Triangulation 54
2.9 TRANSCRIPTIONS 54 2.10 AXIAL CODING 56 2.11 ETHICS CONSIDERATION 56 2.12 SUMMARY 57 CHAPTER 3 WOMEN UNLOCKING THE DOORS TO LEARNING 59 3.1 INTRODUCTION 59 3.2 THEMES ELICITED FROM THE DATA ANALYSIS 60
3.2.1 Exercising a Successful Leadership Style 60
3.2.2 The principal as a Curriculum Leader 63
3.2.3 Socio-economic profile of Community and its Impact 65
on Curriculum
3.2.4 Striking a balance between Family and School 69
3.2.5 Stakeholder Participation and Support 72
3.2.5.1 The potential of parental power 73
3.2.5.2 The development of community involvement 76
3.2.5.3 Co-operation of the school management team and staff 78
3.3 CONCLUSION 80
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CHAPTER 4 THE LONG AND WINDING JOURNEY IS NOT COMPLETE 83 4.1 CONCLUSION 84 4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 85 4.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES 86 4.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 86 BIBLIOGRAPHY 87 LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Letter of Request 97 APPENDIX B: Consent and Confidentiality 98 APPENDIX C: Interview Questions 99 APPENDIX D: Observation Schedule 100 APPENDIX E: Observation and Record of Field Notes 101 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Biographical details of participants 40 TABLE 2: Excerpt of Analysis of Data 55
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PREAMBLE
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to investigate how women principals experience
curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities. Principals of
schools that are situated in an area characterised by socio-economic
hardships may experience unique problems with regards to curriculum
leadership in their schools.
RATIONALE
In my profession as an Institutional Development and Support Officer I interact
with principals on a daily basis, some of them are women who work in
disadvantaged communities. As a woman, I identify with these women. I can
identify with some of their experiences at home, at work and in the community.
These women are able to lead; they meet challenges, make personal
sacrifices and rely on a support system in order to persevere. My interaction
with these women gave me a deeper understanding of their feelings and
thoughts and how their experiences impact on their lives as women principals
and curriculum leaders. Moorosi (2007:509) claimed that women teachers,
especially those who are in positions of power, whose personal lives are
closely linked to their work life experience challenges. This prompted one of
the critical questions, how does the position of being female leaders affect their
personal and family lives?
There is a misconception that women do not exhibit any potential in leadership
(Smith 2008:13). This finds agreement with the statement made by Cubillo and
Brown (in Oplatka 2006:612) who declared that the position of leadership
should remain in the domain of the male. This is not only prevalent in the
private and corporate world but such perceptions also exist in public sectors
like education. Women have been excluded from management and leadership
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positions and relegated to perform menial tasks for many years. Fischer
(1996:34) has indicated that it would take many years to remove the effects of
gender disparity and discrimination against women.
Prior to 1994, education departments in South Africa subscribed to apartheid
policies such as The Bantu Education Act (No.47) of 1953 and the Extension
of University Education Act of 1959. Education, resources and budget were
allocated unequally amongst different racial groups and genders. These
policies ran parallel with traditional gender stereotypes which purported the
view that race, culture and ethnicity characterised discrimination against
women leadership (Mahlase in Moorosi 2007:509). Women were expected to
occupy a subordinate position in society and in leadership roles. Such policies
laid a favourable ground for men to dominate. In the South African context
decision making remained the responsibility of males (Kiambi in Wagadu
2008:5).
In line with the Bill of Rights and the Constitution of South Africa, which was
passed in December 1996, The Employment of Equity Act 55 of 1998 was
passed to achieve equity in the workplace through the elimination of unfair
discrimination and the implementation of affirmative action by “promoting the
employment and promotion of individuals from previously disadvantaged
backgrounds” (Government Gazette: 1996 [No.17678]). Although there have
been notable efforts to address these imbalances there still exists a minority of
women who have managed to penetrate this barrier to leadership positions in
education.
Those women who have managed to break through this ceiling are faced with
many challenges and demands in curriculum leadership which require them to
possess a range of attributes and skills. To survive such a complex
environment women principals must have the knowledge, skill, experience,
innovation and forbearance to rise above the challenges in curriculum
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leadership. The manner in which women principals perceive their roles and
functions as leaders of curriculum is critical to this study. South Africa is
referred to as a rainbow nation because it mirrors a mosaic of cultures,
backgrounds and communities. There are communities that are economically
privileged and communities that are disadvantaged. The experiences in
leading curriculum in schools in different communities are therefore different.
Curriculum leadership is often shaped by expectations, beliefs, preconceptions
and stereotypes associated with leadership, and gender is no exception.
This research looks at the experience of three women who are school
principals in disadvantaged communities. By combining their career histories
and views on curriculum leadership (as related by them in interviews) the study
focuses on their leadership experiences as principals of schools in
disadvantaged communities. The study further explores ways in which women
principals navigate gender and cultural challenges and highlights how these
stereotypes affect curriculum leadership styles.
AIMS OF THE RESEARCH
Through interviews and observations this study aims to capture the voices of
three female principals regarding their experiences in leading curriculum
implementation in schools in disadvantaged communities. The main aims of
the study are:
to explore the preconceptions and stereotypes of women principals in
curriculum leadership positions, in disadvantaged communities
to examine curriculum leadership styles of women principals in
disadvantaged communities
to observe the impact of preconceptions, stereotypes and beliefs on
women principals in curriculum leadership positions in disadvantaged
communities
to observe how women principals navigate challenges that they endure
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The following critical questions guided the study:
What are the challenges facing women principals in curriculum
leadership positions?
How does leading a school in a disadvantaged community impact
on curriculum leadership?
What leadership styles do these principals adopt?
How does the position of being female leaders affect their
personal and family lives?
RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY
The findings of this study will be:
1. To make recommendations that would challenge stereotyping against
women principals
2. To assist one in understanding curriculum leadership
3. To showcase curriculum leadership styles of women principals
4. To describe the many experiences of women principals
5. To make recommendations for further research in gaps identified
RESEARCH DESIGN
A qualitative research methodology was best suited to conduct this study as it
provided insiders’ perspective and interaction with research participants to
elicit valid and reliable data. The three identified principals who participated in
this study were observed in their natural conditions. To complement
observations I interviewed participants in the study and thereafter compared
the participants’ responses.
PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY This research was limited to a few participants; hence the findings cannot be
used for generalisation purposes. I chose to focus on three schools with
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women as principals in the Gauteng East District. The research was gender
related, hence purposeful sampling was used. The sample chosen was also
reflective of Black women principals.
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CHAPTER STRUCTURAL OUTLINE
This research report is presented in four chapters.
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study and Literature Review: Women’s
journey through the labyrinth: establishing their leadership role in
society
This chapter provides a description of women in leadership positions
internationally and locally. Using relevant theories of feminism, leadership
styles and content on curriculum I presented a background to guide my
research. The chapter ends with a discussion of disadvantaged communities,
which was an important contextual factor in the research.
Chapter 2: Research Methodology: Structure and procedure of the
research process
In chapter 2, I focused specifically on the research design and method which
were used to underpin this study. A qualitative research paradigm was chosen.
The methods to collect data were interviews, field notes and observation of
three female principals. This chapter also provides a profile of the participants
and the sites where the study was conducted. I chose to use critical discourse
analysis to analyse the data because my data collection methods encouraged
discussion and reflection. I chose to do participant observation because it
affords the researcher the opportunity to verify their participants’ perceptions. I
also opted for semi-structured interviews because it presented the opportunity
for participants to clarify their responses.
In this chapter, I also describe how data analysis was done. Attention is drawn
to my role as a researcher and to issues of trustworthiness. I detail how
transcriptions were done. The information that was gathered from the tape-
recorded interviews and my observations was transcribed. I then assembled
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common factors from the transcriptions into codes. This elicited the themes.
Finally I explain how I dealt with ethical issues in the research.
Chapter 3: Discussion of findings: Women unlocking the doors to
learning
In this chapter I present the analysis of the data that was gathered in the
research that investigated how women principals experience curriculum
leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East
District. Common subject matter which emerged during the data analysis are
categorised under the following themes.
(1) Exercising a successful leadership style
(2) The principal as a curriculum leader
(3) Socio-economic profile of community and its impact on curriculum
(4) Striking a balance between family and school
(5) Stakeholder participation and support
I use excerpts from the interviews, my observations and the views of the
participants to explore the main aims of the research. The findings in this
chapter are expounded in line with the literature review.
Chapter 4: Conclusion: The long and winding journey is not complete
The final chapter of this research brings together the conclusions of the
previous chapters. In response to the analysis of the data, recommendations
are made to assist women principals as curriculum leaders in disadvantaged
communities.
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CHAPTER 1
WOMEN’S JOURNEY THROUGH THE LABYRINTH: ESTABLISHING
THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE IN SOCIETY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a summary of prior research conducted on key aspects
of the research question, which is, how do women principals experience
curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng
East District? It also serves as a foundation for this study. I have organised the
literature review on women’s role in leadership positions internationally and
locally in South Africa. I draw on radical, socialist and cultural feminist theories
that assisted in understanding the social, cultural and historical practices which
describe the three female principals in this research. The chapter then
describes women’s advancement into management and leadership positions
at schools, various leadership styles that they draw on and then on
experiences of women in curriculum leadership positions. Finally, the chapter
concludes with a description of the environment in which the schools are
located, where women experience curriculum leadership.
1.2 THE POSITION OF WOMEN ABROAD AND LOCALLY
In order to understand the local scenario of women in leadership positions
better it is important to locate this study within the context of international
literature on women in leadership positions.
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Over the past twenty-five years there has been an increase in the number of
studies conducted on women’s views and on school leadership, however there
is a sharp awareness that they have only gained the attention of a limited
audience (Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:26). Klein, Richardson, Grayson, Fox,
Kramarae, Pollard and Dwyer (2007:103-105) maintain that the worldwide
deficiency of consistent and similar information on women’s formal leadership
positions is challenging and therefore women are the best resources in
imparting data about their experiences. This deficiency stems from research
being incorrectly perceived as a domain of the male; hence research on
women’s experiences was reported through a ‘male’ lens (Nohria and Khurana
2010:379).
According to Camerer in the Citizen (2000:12), “those women who break
through the glass ceiling have succeeded either because someone gave them
the opportunity to test their abilities, or they were courageous, or visionary, or
took a view that they will redefine who they are in society”. She reaffirms that
for women to reach top positions they have to be determined, dedicated,
endure challenges and have a good support structure.
For years women have been excluded from public presence, economically
exploited and forced into motherhood. Culturally, family responsibilities
remained the domain of women whilst men sought paid work. As women
began to climb the corporate and government strata, striking a balance
between family lives and containing leadership roles became contentious. Van
der Westhuizen (1997:545) asserts that because of their gender, internal and
external challenges that women encounter can be downgraded to
inadequacies.
Although there have been many convincing grounds for equal representation
of women in leadership, progress towards this initiative has been notably slow.
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Grogan, Gupton & Slick and Hamilton (in Smith 2008:129) claim that women
are under-represented in educational leadership positions. Shakeshaft claims
that in countries like the United States of America (USA) and Europe, previous
literature on school leadership were inclined to overlook women (1989:49). It is
only recently that researchers began researching the role of women in
education. She further notes that presently in the United States of America it is
for the first time that women are beginning to dominate the workforce. More
women are becoming the primary breadwinners. However, leadership roles
still evade women in key institutions, although over fifty percent of women
occupy middle management jobs. It is then queried if women are “leadership
material”. The assertion made at the United Nations 4th World Conference on
Women, which was held in Beijing in 1995, was that women were significantly
marginalised in most government ranks (BPA:1995). Mathipa and Tsoka
(2001:324) agree that women throughout the world are under-represented in
leadership roles.
Nohria and Khurana claim that in the 2008 presidential election, people of the
USA deliberated Hillary Clinton’s toughness when she was emotional and at
the same time they rebuked her for being masculine. In the same vein Israel’s
first female prime minister was labelled “the only man for the cabinet” and
Germany’s current female chancellor has been hailed as “the iron frau”.
(2010:379). A Soviet journalist nicknamed Margaret Thatcher the "Iron Lady”,
by which she later became acquainted because of her uncompromising politics
and leadership style. The qualities of assertiveness, authoritativeness and
decisiveness are characteristics associated with men. Women are expected to
nurture and care; and sustain warmth, understanding and affection, as claimed
by Bem (in Bratton, Grint and Nelson 2005:185) and reaffirmed by Kolb,
Williams and Frohlinger (2010:7-8).
Nohria and Khurana declare that generally the attitude towards women in a
group are positive but not for women who occupy traditionally male roles.
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Women who are competent in these roles are less liked. Those women who do
well in male dominated fields are viewed as competent, but not successful.
Bias is levelled at the way women leaders are perceived and therefore women
leaders have difficulty in the way they perceive themselves (2010:379).
At an international conference held by the University Council for Educational
Administration in Nebraska in July 2011, women from nearly every country
reported that the advancement of women into leadership roles was slow. In
Pakistan women have limited access to education because social norms of
Muslim traditions are constantly reinforced. Only in Germany is it noted that
education is important to everyone (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:4).
Jansen (2007:4) contends that South African women are still struggling to
come to terms with their identity in communities. Often the suitability of women
as leaders has been questioned; therefore South African women must be seen
as those having the resourcefulness of effective leaders (Luhabe 2007:4).
Kanjere (2008:5) states that if women leaders are empowered they can
strengthen the lives of their communities through the concept of ubuntu.1
Stereotypical expectations and beliefs have restricted their opportunity in how
to lead (Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:101). According to Daft, “a stereotype
can be described as “a widely held generalisation about a group of people that
assigns attributes to them solely on the basis of a limited number of
categories”(1991:437). Cultural stereotypes and other prejudices against
women make it impossible for women to realise what they are capable of.
Gardiner et al (in Klein et al 2007:116) claim that race coupled with gender
were detrimental in women penetrating male-dominated leadership positions in
Nigeria and South Africa because of the resistance women met in having their
power respected and accepted.
The under-representation of women can be traced from the time when
feminism began making inroads into society. Rampton (2008:1) likens
1The concept ubuntu is an African Bantu word meaning ‘the awareness of being’ which is expressed in the spirit of
fellowship and cooperation, humanity and compassion (Rukuni 2007:1-2).
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feminism to a journey that women had to travel in order to establish their own
position in the world. In the next section I review feminism and three feminist
theories which is critical because it seeks to campaign for a better life on be-
half of women.
1.3 FEMINISM AND FEMINIST THEORIES
It is imperative to examine ways in which gender is addressed in feminism and
informed by feminist theories. According to Peet and Hartwick (2009:240),
feminism encompasses various philosophies, theories and political
movements. The majority of these are critical towards existing social and
gender relations. Feminist theory investigates the situations and experiences
of women in society (Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:450). It examines origins,
characteristics and forms of gender equality that influence gender politics and
power relations. It campaigns for female rights and centres on patriarchy2,
stereotyping, equal pay and oppression. Feminist theory aims to vigorously
promote social justice in the sphere of women. By focussing on how race,
class, ethnicity, and age traverse gender, feminist theories critique the
differences between men and women. It gives voice to women by highlighting
the many ways that they have contributed to society.
Support for women’s equal political and legal rights with men was detailed by
feminism during the 1880s. Very early works by people like Rousseau3
reflected that women and men were not the same. Their roles in society where
women were wives and mothers and men became citizens were defined by
their biological differences. Women’s subordination was reflected in their
oppression to capture their thoughts in writing and their exclusion from public
2The concept "patriarch", as ‘the father and ruler of the family and tribe’, was first used during Biblical times and refers
specifically to the sons of Jacob, (as well as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and their forefathers) (Oxford Dictionary, 1969:890). 3Jean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment in eighteenth century
Europe.
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discussion. Women were expected to be dependent, protected and kept close.
It was the responsibility of women to ensure that men and children were
nurtured and nourished by them in a calm and leisured environment (Bryson
2003:5). Eagleton (2003:12) agrees with Bryson that the women’s role was
confined to the private sphere, whilst men occupied the public arena.
1.3.1 The Historical Roots of Feminist Theory
According to Bryson (2003:5-6) during the middle eighteenth century, there
emerged a ‘bluestocking’ group in Great Britain which comprised of intellectual
women who publicly discussed and published their views and thoughts about
women. Hannah More, one of its members wrote that it was more the
woman’s, not man’s responsibility to nurture virtue within the family. Women
were motivated by their sensibility instead of reason. This group further
debated that women should become more educated if they were to become
better mothers and wives. Women united their efforts to campaign for equal
rights in a succession of movements or ‘waves’.
Rampton (2008:1) claims that the success of the first wave of feminism elicited
transformation in education, healthcare and in the workplace. The first wave of
feminism was primarily driven by middle class white women. Second-wave
feminism, which began in the 1960s and continued into the 1990s, included
women of colour and developing nations. They formed camaraderie and
encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives and reject
sexist structures of power. Radical groups like the ‘Redstockings’ staged
campaigns rejecting pageants where women were subjected to parades.
Second-wave feminism linked the suppression of women with concepts of
patriarchy, capitalism and the stereotypical role of women as wife and mother.
Gender was viewed as a creation of society whereas sex was biological.
Campaigners of second-wave feminism wanted the highest levels of
government to free itself from the shackles of sexism. The third wave of
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feminism began in the early 1990s and it is continuing. In this phase many
women are claiming to be strong and empowered, shunning victimization.
They are proud of who they are. They note the differences of ethnicity, class
and sexual orientation as vibrant, situational and temporary.
Peet and Hartwick (2009:240-241) claim that women's position and experience
of social situations are different and unequal to men's. Liberal feminists lobbied
that women can reason the same as men, but that patriarchy has historically
denied women the opportunity to express and practice this reasoning. Women
were relegated to the private sphere of the household, without a voice in the
public sphere. Even after they entered the public sphere, they were still
expected to take care of household duties and child rearing. The
circumstances in which women found themselves due to steadfast power
relationship between men and women are captured in theories of gender
oppression.
Next I review three feminist theories, which are radical, socialist and cultural
feminist theories which inform issues of gender and class. These three
theories have also assisted me to understand the historical, social and cultural
practices which represent and challenge gender relations as an essential
determining factor in the identities of the three women principals in my
research.
1.3.2 Radical feminist theory
Radical feminism is a philosophy that emphasises social dominance of men
over women. The radical feminist approach saw women’s oppression by men
as a reality in women’s life (Eagleton 2003:58). Mannathoko (in Soudien,
Kallaway and Breier 1999:453) proclaims that the oppression of women by
society is evidenced in every organisation, which is a medium for promoting
the dominance of men. This inequality between men and women is rooted in
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patriarchy. Women were dominated by men in the private and public spheres
of their lives. The philosophy of patriarchy benefits men and oppresses women
because it divides rights, privileges and power by gender. Radical feminism
resists political and social organisations that are connected to patriarchy.
Radical feminists therefore support any cultural change that challenges
patriarchy. They want to probe how patriarchy meshes itself into society. The
force behind radical feminism is that women must be recognised as unique
and separate human beings and their importance must be equal to that of
men. Radical feminists contend that women are never recognised as positive
beings in patriarchal societies where they are oppressed. To a large extent
physical violence is used to support the system of patriarchy.
The aim of radical feminism is to confront and get rid of patriarchy by
challenging gender roles and domination of women. Eagleton asserts that if
patriarchy is eliminated, it will liberate women from an unjust society. Radical
feminists believe that patriarchy can be defeated if women acknowledge their
own value and strength, form a network of trust with other women and oppose
oppression in private and public spheres (2003:116). One of the basic beliefs
of radical feminism is that women have more in common with other women,
not considering race, ethnic group or class, than they do with men. Based on
shared suppression, radical feminists proclaimed the idea of sisterhood. This
started to unite women and reinstate a liberated female.
1.3.3 Socialist feminist theory
Socialist feminists do not accept the radical feminist aggression that women’s
oppression is predominantly rooted in patriarchy. According to Thakathi
(2001:31) social feminism is aligned to Marxist feminism because it is
capitalistic in nature. Socialist feminism has its roots in the early Marxian
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doctrine4. It combines Marxian class study with feminist social protest
regarding women. Socialist feminists agree with Marx and Engels5 that the
working class is exploited as a result of the capitalist approach of production
(Eagleton 2003:118). Social feminism sees the impact of class relations and
the exploitive economic relations between classes and gender and contends
that this exploitation extends further from class to gender. Socialist feminists
declare that although not all women experienced oppression in the same way
they came together because they shared the same view regarding the world.
Generally, they were limited to the private sphere of household and family, and
were rarely involved in political, economic, or public social life. By the
nineteenth century women started making inroads into the sphere of public
activities, but their participation was restricted by difficulties like factory
legislation and the family wage. These associations are oppressive to women.
Women cannot be liberated from the family outside society.
It is important to understand some of the difficulties women faced in this
period. In the late nineteenth century men still held formal power over the rest
of the family, and women were mostly excluded from the public sphere. Bryson
(2003:240-241) avers that there were the laws that gave husbands control
over their wives' money and property. Women did not have the economic basis
for equality. They were prevented from owning property and did not have
sufficient resources to maintain an independent livelihood. They were
dependent on their husbands or fathers. From the labour front women were
alienated from work, often paid less and downgraded to be in subordinate
positions. Single females were expected to work in a temporary capacity, until
marriage. There were only few cases where women within the work force were
managers or occupied dominant positions within a hierarchy. Women were
4The Marxian doctrine is a political and economic philosophy in which the concept of class struggle plays a central role
in understanding society's allegedly inevitable development from bourgeois oppression under capitalism to a socialist and ultimately classless society 5Engels built upon a theory of how the rise of class society led to both the rise of the state, which represents the
interests of the ruling class in the day-to-day class struggle, and the rise of the family, as the means by which the first ruling classes possessed and passed on private wealth
10
thus rendered powerless, required only to serve others. During the 1970s
socialist feminists declared that the two interlocking and mutually dependent
systems of patriarchy and capitalism were the primary cause of oppression of
women (Eagleton 2003:57). Hence, social feminism developed in tandem with
radical feminist theory and practice.
1.3.4 Cultural feminism
Radical feminism expanded to cultural feminism, which is a theory that draws
attention away from the biological difference between males and females. It is
a theory that praises the cultural difference because it believes that the female
attributes of child-rearing, nurturing and domestic care underpin a more caring
view globally (Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:462). Cultural feminism suggests
that the positive attributes of women, which are cooperation, caring, and
nonviolence in conflict resolution forms a basis for a healthier society. Eagleton
(2003:155) claims that the sensitive and emotional reactions of women are
more beneficial to society than aggressive selfishness. This claim is reiterated
by Addams, a cultural feminist who states that in addition to women being
compassionate and more gentle they are also ‘down to earth”. She further
asserts that the confinement of women to the home will deprive society of
fairness and values (Deegan 1986:226-230). Cultural feminism commends
women’s morality and values.
The review of these theories has shown that women have been oppressed.
Radical feminist theory blames the system of patriarchy as the cause for
oppression of women and the socialist feminist theory attributes economic and
power benefits amassed to men as the reason why women were classified as
part of the working class, thus assuming women's relation to men as workers
and as producing workers (Mannathoko in Soudien et al 1999:457). Cultural
feminism supports feminine morality and values as advantageous to society.
These theories crusaded for deep, structural and cultural changes that broke
11
up the system of oppression to be replaced by socialism and more unrestricted
family systems. Feminism has laid the foundation for social transformation and
the way women are viewed as aspiring leaders in society.
1.4 GENDER AND LEADERSHIP
The perception of a woman’s leadership is often influenced through a biased
gendered lens (Nohria and Khurana 2010:379). Krook and Childs (2010:3)
define gender as “a social system that divides power”. Gender is a
construction of society. Gender bias is an important challenge for women and
organisations alike.
Literature on women’s traditional roles differs in different cultures because
ideologies are deeply embedded in cultural practices. Male domination exists
among all ethnic groups although they may take different forms according to
cultural practices (Tyson 2006:84). Historically men come from a tradition of
being dominant and women have been subjected to this domination. Women
have been left to struggle over the quality of life, despite having the potential to
exhibit values and commitment. Knowledge and experience gained as a
mother and a wife at home were not considered as sufficient knowledge in the
academic world. The manner in which women’s experiences are recorded and
replicated is different from their real experiences at home. Women have been
far too oppressed in the past. Presently women are becoming empowered
through education (Datta and Kornberg 2002:2-3 &86).
Education challenges cultural and religious practices because it describes the
roles of women differently from the traditional view. Through empowerment
women find new approaches to deal with bias in the community, at work and in
society. Women leaders need to balance their responsibilities between work
and at home. The structure of women’s leadership is often formed through the
12
development and balancing of their personal and professional responsibilities
(Klein et al 2007:116). Like men leaders, they go through the roles of leading
at work, but in addition they also have to perform their roles in caring for their
families and their homes. The approval of family and their support has made it
possible for women to assume leadership and management positions (Klein et
al 2007:108 and Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:21&42). Even after they reach
the top, people’s experiences are shaped by traditional gender expectations
and practices (Nohria and Kuhrana 2010:121). Datta and Kornberg state that it
is therefore necessary that the cultural perception regarding the need to
empower women must also change (2002:2-3 &86). The strategy for achieving
gender equality must be pursued broadly throughout the world.
The global inconsistency in gender representation in public life however, is
disquieting. This inconsistency is evident in the international, national and local
trends on women empowerment. Each draws attention to the different effects
that empowerment has on women in the context of development and social
change. Datta and Kornberg declare that the degree of women’s
disempowerment and challenges varies within and across countries. They
further state that there was a social acceptance of women like Prime Minister
Benazir Bhutto providing leadership in Pakistan. Sri Lanka and Turkey were
also predisposed to such a stance. In spite of China’s and India’s efforts
through national policies and beliefs in striving for women and men to be
treated equally, the prevalence of patriarchal structures that prevent women’s
empowerment still exists. Although India has had a female leader in
government, overall representation in government sectors is dismal. Many
important women were in the forefront of the struggle for India’s independence.
Women like the late Indhira Gandhi raised the confidence of millions of poor
women in India but her contribution to upward mobility was been curtailed
largely because of patriarchal social frameworks (2002:164).
13
Makoro (2007:53-66) reflects on the situation of women in Southern Africa as
“traditionally composed of a patriarchal order”. Damons (2008:1) has written
that the patriarchal culture which prevails at most schools has restricted the
advancement of women to senior management positions. Patriarchy is a
culture which promotes the belief that men are more privileged than women.
Such a culture favoured men as being strong, protective and rational and
ultimately the decision makers (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:2).
Gender bias manifests itself in the system of patriarchy. It is a structure of
control of man over woman, which goes beyond eras, class, areas and
different economic systems. Patriarchy can thus be described as a set of
social relations between men, which enable them to dominate women. Gender
identities that inhibit women’s empowerment are not inherent, but are acquired
through social and cultural interactions. This includes the household because it
embodies class antagonisms. It is an oppressive institution. This position is still
prevalent in most countries in Southern Africa. In her address to the
September 1995 Beijing World Conference on Women, Dr Nkosazana
Dlamini-Zuma6 said, “Women in South Africa are definitely not free. The
majority live their lives as effective minors subject to the authority of a male
relative.” This denotes that women were, and in some instances still are not
allowed to own any property, to speak in public (especially where men are
present), or to be in positions of leadership. In this situation a woman is not
equal to her husband. She is a minor answerable to all men in the family,
including her sons.
In his paper, Challenges faced by women leaders as school principals in rural
areas, Kanjere (2008:2) quotes a very prejudiced Northern Sotho proverb,
“Tsa etwa ke ya tshadi pele di wela leopeng”. In English this translates to “if a
leader is a woman, disaster is bound to happen”. If a woman assumes a
6Dr Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma was then a Paediatric Medical Officer at the Mbabane Government Hospital in
Swaziland.
14
position of leadership in a community that shares such a belief, she is already
challenged before assuming her leadership. Women in leadership positions
from these communities are subjected to prejudices because men in such
communities uphold staunch cultural beliefs. Koch and Irby (2002:23) contend
that despite the advancement in addressing gender inequalities there is still a
very slow change in many entrenched views, such as gender related
discrimination and stereotyping. Whether it is deliberate or concealed, it is
harmful to people (Benokraitis in Pooe 2007:32). In addition to women’s
subordination that reflects cultural practices, the effects of Apartheid on
education in South Africa cannot be ignored (Msane 2005:15). Wolpe, Quinlan,
and Martinez (in D.O.E 1997:15) claimed that The Bantu Education Act of
1954, which was introduced through Apartheid, was a system which
disadvantaged women because it overtly demonstrated inequality regarding
the appointment of women to management positions.
1.5 WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS
Prior to 1994, gender discrimination was evident in the education sector of
South Africa. Different subject specialisations offered to teachers, salary
scales of educators and the dismissal of married women or women who
intended to marry characterised discrimination in the teaching profession. The
profession therefore became a contentious place for gender equality
(Mahlase1997:5).
Today women dominate the teaching profession in South Africa, but only a
minority hold leadership positions. Statistics obtained from a Gauteng
Department of Education statistician in December 2012 revealed that in the
Gauteng Province (where the research was conducted) only 727 of the 2164
principals in 2012, were women (Reynecke: 2012).
15
Some women entered the profession to get a foot in the door of the teaching
profession and some saw it as a link between mothering and teaching as early
expectations of subservience and cultural reproduction. Others saw it as a way
to change the ways in which children were educated. Documented studies also
indicate that women showed a reluctance to progress to principal positions
because they had no intention of becoming principals, but they had finally
moved into the job because ‘something had to be done’(Van der Westhuizen
1997:545).
Reynolds (2002:51) states that during the 1990s South African women
dominated the teaching profession; however their presence in school
leadership positions was under-represented. South Africa has attempted to
address gender inequality through the formulation of the Employment of Equity
Act of 1998. The purpose of the Act is to achieve equity in the workplace by
promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the
elimination of unfair discrimination. The Act stipulates that no person may
unfairly discriminate, directly or indirectly, against an employee in any
employment policy or practice, on one or more grounds including race, gender,
pregnancy, marital status, family responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour,
sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
(HIV) status, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture, language, and birth
(Government Gazette, Vol. 400, No.19370).
Despite the introduction of this Act, the under-representation of women in
positions of leadership in government and non-government organisations is
still prevalent in South Africa (Perumal 2007:2). The present South African
Cabinet Constitution lends credence to Perumal’s assertion. There are 22
male Ministers and 14 female Ministers as well as 18 male Deputy Ministers
and 15 female Deputy Ministers (http://www.info.go.za- government
communication and information system). Kloot (2004:471-472) states that
16
there is an absence of women in most senior managerial positions, although
they have the necessary qualifications.
Apart from literature on gender differences, gender leadership and
management in education has not featured prominently. Attention has been
cast on the patriarchal culture which relegated women to subordinate roles and
damaged their self-perceptions (Thornham 2007:23). This has invariably
resulted in the oppression and suppression of women and their rights. Fischer
claims that the upward mobility of women in education has not been given the
appropriate recognition it deserves (1996:36). Cotter (2004:129) agrees that
the prevalence of male dominated management positions, which seems to be
an accepted norm, disregards the experience and qualifications of females.
Gumbi (in Wagadu 2008:6) states that in Australia in 2000, women in
executive leadership were 34.6% compared to 65.4% men. In the USA the
majority of teachers and educational administrators are women, yet only a
small portion of them occupy formal leadership roles. A survey conducted in
Uganda in 2006 shows there is a distinct under-representation of women in
leadership in schools. Only 20% of the heads, which we refer to as principals,
in government schools were women and in government-registered private
schools they occupied 10% of the position of principal. One of the reasons that
Kiamba (in Wagadu 2008:2) espoused for this is that traditionally there exists a
male dominant culture in Uganda. Consequently, men have the decision-
making power and authority regarding strategic direction, and allocation of
resources.
Chisholm (2001:391) advocates that the reason why women lack confidence in
their leadership stems from race and gender issues. This view is reinforced by
Bratton et al (2005:191) who contend that women leaders are often criticised
by their subordinates because of stereotypes like patriarchy. These views
predispose women into thinking that they are not competent. According to
17
Snyder and Tadesse (1995:44) the progress of women as a whole will be
impeded if there remains unwavering feelings and thoughts about the
competency of women. The progress of women into leadership and
management positions was previously deterred, not by lack of ambition or
motivation but, by family commitments and preconceived expectations.
Christman (in Klein 2007:109) surmises that there is an almost pessimistic
anticipation for women who aspire to leadership positions. Women therefore
have the added challenge of dispelling this view in addition to proving their
capability as effective leaders.
1.6 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: WOMEN BREAKING THE
SCHOOL LEADERSHIP BARRIER
The concepts leadership and management are used interchangeably, yet they
mean two different things. The duties, responsibilities and roles of a leader are
dissimilar to that of a manager. The ability to do the right thing at the right time
describes leadership, whilst the ability to getting things done through others
depicts management (Wolpe et al in D.O.E 2007:15). Razik and Swanson
assert that leadership is a mutual relationship between leaders and followers
whereas management is an authority relationship between a manager and a
subordinate (2010:356). Leaders look to the future to derive success whilst
managers derive success from within and from the present.
Leadership provides the vigour and the force needed for accomplishing
success. Gauthier (in Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:2) defines leadership as a
process, not a person, of getting people to work together towards achieving a
common goal. This finds agreement with Gunter (2001:74) who claimed that
this relationship must be geared towards a social vision and change in order to
achieve a common goal. Kaplan (1994:3) maintains that leadership is a
discipline whereby a leader recognises the importance of others over him or
18
herself. It stems from values, action and power. He further states that
leadership must impact on organisational performance. Leadership is about
inspiring and giving direction to all stakeholders towards attaining and
maintaining the vision and mission of the school. Furthermore it creates the
environment for effective learning.
Within the school context, management is about ensuring that the school
achieves its set targets and objectives. It embraces performance management,
staff development, constructive assessment and planning. The effect of
leadership and management in a school is evaluated by their effect on the
excellence and standards of the school. Both are necessary for the success of
the school. The success of educational leadership in schools is influenced by
many variables, of which management and leadership is crucial (Clarke
2007:1). Effective leaders will build capacity for improvement through
collaboration within schools and with stakeholders of schools. Effective
leadership is often associated with the school effectiveness tradition in relation
to a quantifiable measure of outcomes like examination results. Loock
maintains that in order to improve and sustain the delivery of quality education
in schools, it is highly imperative to address leadership effectiveness in these
institutions (2007:5).
In all schools the principal is the one who holds formal authority for
management and leadership of the school. School leadership is shaped by
expectations, beliefs, preconceptions and stereotypes associated with gender.
Much literature published makes reference to leadership having male
connotations. Eggins (1997:12-13) postulates that the idea of leadership has a
masculine implication and images of leaders are often that of male. Beeka also
advances such a view by stating that authority is central to a masculine style of
leadership that is vested in the school principal (2008:161). Leadership is an
aspect that poses a challenge to women principals.
19
According to Grogan in Smith (2008:36), female leadership is interactive
leadership; it is relational, power-shared, learning-focussed, authentic, moral
and a synergised leadership. Women leaders prefer a horizontal rather than a
vertical style of leading. Vertical leadership refers to an individual who is in a
formal position of power, such as being the hierarchical head of a division.
Horizontal leadership refers to information and communication passed along in
the form of networks or webs. Female leaders work in forming webs, rather
than pyramids in their institutions. Women’s lived experiences as leaders differ
from that of men’s. Although we know that all women do not lead in a particular
way, there are methods and preferences that characterise the leadership of
many women. Women use power to strengthen relationships. Women leaders
use the foundation of family to characterise their work. Their mothering skills
are often used to support, encourage and protect their learners at school.
During conversations women principals often share their experiences of their
home in relation to their school (Earley and Weindling 2004:71).
Klein et al (2007:116) maintain that some women fall back on their religious
beliefs to understand how spirituality affects their lives as leaders. Studies
have shown that African women principals include ministerial and spiritual
aspects in their leadership. They attribute their success and ability to tolerate
difficult and conflicting times to their spirituality. In so doing their behaviour
serves as a model and inspiration for their teachers to remain strong and
innovative. Many believe that spirituality is a search for inner peace and self
understanding. Eagly and Carli state that women are perceived to be more
religious and empathetic towards the less-fortunate than men (2007:46).
Grogan and Shakeshaft agree that research done among women principals in
the USA, found that women principals relate spirituality to the way they model
behaviour and inspire others. It assists them to explore others’ worlds because
the lives of children are directed to the social context in which they develop,
not just the school (2011:5&14-19). Moral leadership which includes purpose,
ethics and beliefs can help in transforming a school from a formal organisation
20
to a community and inspire commitment. Women principals are moved by
watching children develop. Many women learn leadership by being curriculum
coaches, curriculum instructors and from their knowledge of teaching.
Tyson (2006:85) posits that society categorised women as being trained to
nurture rather than lead. Cultural definitions of femininity classify women as
being sensitive, conformists, are dependent and lack assertiveness. School
principals are expected to be assertive, aggressive and competitive. These are
traits recognised as natural in men but as negative in women. In contrast
women were viewed as feeble, nurturing and submissive in nature. There are
those who believe that motherhood tends to interfere with women’s
commitment and willingness to enter into a profession.
Msane contends that organisations are not very willing to employ women
because it is presumed that women cannot enter into leadership occupations
and integrate them with full family responsibility at the same time. This was
used to justify why men monopolised positions of power socially, culturally and
educationally (2005:15). Traditionally, women remained oppressed and
powerless because they were denied the educational and occupational
opportunity to gain economic, political and social power. Hence, women
wrestle a constant battle against discrimination at a societal and at an
organisational level.
Research conducted on gender differences in school management and
leadership indicates that there are no striking differences found in the way
tasks are viewed or performed in school management practices. What is
significant is that there are gender differences in leadership styles when tasks
are executed (Msane 2005:15). The choice and implementation of the correct
style of leadership can also be a challenge to women leaders because
leadership styles reflect their own character. The feminine characteristics of
caring, communication and collaboration were once thought to be weaknesses
in leadership (Grogan in Smith 2008:36).
21
1.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES
The three common traditional management and leadership styles are
autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. In brief, Harris and Lambert (2003:27)
describe autocratic leadership as a top-down approach. In a school this style
of leadership is noted for information flowing from the principal in the form of
delegation, to teachers in one direction. The principal depends on the
teachers’ compliance for success. In contrast the democratic approach is
characterised by two-way communication between the principal and educators.
All stakeholders are part of the decision making process. According to Daft
(2005:55) a democratic leader delegates, encourages participation and
depends on other staff members’ influence. Collaboration ensues in a
stimulating environment under democratic leadership. Such an environment
favours effective teaching and learning. The laissez-faire style of leadership is
where leaders allow group members to make the decisions. This type of
leadership is characterised by little guidance from leaders, but leaders provide
the tools and resources needed for group members to solve problems on their
own.
Gunter states that the choice of behaviour and specific tasks which facilitate
accountability for school improvement is defined by leadership (2001:31). She
further maintains that the existence of a variety of leadership styles works to
the benefit of a woman principal because women leaders gravitate towards
various forms of collective leadership. In the discussion that follows I focus on
leadership styles that are common and that contribute positively to effective
schooling and curriculum delivery.
It is also important to note that different situations require different leadership
approaches or styles.
22
1.7.1 Transformational leadership
The premise of transformational leadership is that schools are actually
outcome focussed organisations, which strengthen the power structure of a
leader. Transformational leadership ensures that the culture of a school is
predisposed to self-improvement and to necessary change which is needed for
improvement (Gunter 2001:75). If a new principal in a school does not
understand the culture of the school and what needs to change, he or she will
be detached from lobbying sufficient support to move the school forward. A
leader must be visibly committed. Best leaders devolve power, rather than
wield it. They think on their feet. The key to successful leadership is
developing the appropriate personal qualities in potential leaders. Schools
have unique goals, committed employees and very transparent boundaries.
Transformational leaders help staff to develop and share understandings about
the school and its activities. According to DuBrin (2004:82) transformational
leaders are charismatic, visionary, and innovative and give positive feedback
to their staff.
Davies concurs with DuBrin, stating that the purpose and the school’s vision is
a key aspect of transformational leadership (2009:45). Generally, people are
motivated by goals because goals help them to make work more meaningful
and feel a sense of identity. Group goals also help to create high performance.
The personal attention that a leader devotes to his employees also increases
enthusiasm, optimism and reduces frustration. Therefore, transformational
leaders provide stimulating environments which support and sustain
performance of administrators, teachers and learners.
Gunter (2001:73-75) further maintains that transformational leadership
emphasises vision building and establishes commitment to decided goals. The
provision of intellectual stimulation and individual support and guidance is
made possible by transformational leadership. High expectations of staff are
23
encouraged by this form of leadership because it is induced by improvement of
learners’ results. Attention is drawn to the performance of staff involved in
activities that affect the quality of teaching and learning. The promotion and
development of their schools as learning communities is another key attribute
of transformational leadership.
1.7.2 Ethical leadership
Davies maintains that this type of leadership goes beyond the educational
administration at schools. It is about the humane or compassionate part of a
person (2009:53-55). When a leader is challenged by someone’s demeanour,
he or she will have to react in a manner that is diplomatic and delicate. A
certain degree of respect must be accorded. In the South African context a
leader must respect people as people come first. This is in line with the
Constitution of South Africa, which emphasises human dignity, the
achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights (Government
Gazette 108 of 1996). Schools as government institutions must serve the
interest of the people first. In a teachers’ strike, for example, the principal must
respect the constitutional rights of teachers and learners. Leaders will look for
ways in which learners are changed by what they learn in order that they
become richer, deeper human beings. O’Sullivan and West-Burnham
(2011:171) agree that moral or ethical leadership is about school leaders
ensuring that social values transcend beyond the school into the community.
Bureaucratic procedures must be infused with human values. Earley and
Weindling state that ethical leadership is about accountability and effective use
of resources (2004:71). It is especially important for induction of new teachers.
Whilst acknowledging the demanding nature of teaching and learning the
leader must be considerate. This type of a leader is proactive rather than
reactive.
24
1.7.3 Learner-centred leadership
This style of leadership is based on the premise that leaders work with and
through others. The principal relies on the School Management Team (SMT)
who in turn relies on educators to deliver upon agreed curriculum in agreed
timeframes (Davies 2009:59-64). O’Sullivan and West-Burnham state that
learner-centred leaders should lead by example. The teachers and the
principal of a school are learner-centred leaders (2011:46). Coming early to
school, being on time for meetings and dressing appropriately are role models
for others. There is constant observation of the principal within and outside the
school. The proceedings of the school must therefore be monitored and the
principal engaged in dialogue with the community of the school. Monitoring is a
way of checking on learners’ progress. Direct knowledge on teaching practices
and classroom activities is gained. The identification of teachers’ strengths and
weaknesses is assisted by monitoring. Learner centred leadership is about
developing one’s colleagues. Learner-centred leaders use dialogue as an
avenue in which opportunities are created for teachers to talk about teaching
and learning, sharing ideas and challenges. It is healthy because it influences
what goes on in the classroom.
Schools are busy and dynamic places. According to Landsberg, Kruger and
Nel, school principals can make schools become and maintain a supportive
caring community. Schools need special leadership because each school has
its own unique atmosphere. All stakeholders involved with the school may not
always agree, hence it is the duty of school principals to nurture commitment
and harmony to ensure that the schools are purposeful for all involved
(2005:21). The values and beliefs of a principal are important. Sergiovanni
(2000:166) posits that there can be no leadership if there is nothing important
to follow. In order to run effective schools many successful principals maintain
that a school culture needs to be established with parents, teachers and
25
learners working together. Parents and community, teachers and learners
must have faith in the school to guarantee its success.
Dalton, Fawcett and West-Burnham (2001:5) declare that school leadership
concerns change and improvement and to achieve this leaders must be able to
inspire and persuade their followers. A leader needs to be consistent and fair,
promote mutual respect and be able to negotiate and compromise. There is no
one leadership style that can be advocated for all schools. Circumstances will
dictate the style required (Hersey and Blanchard 2001:4). What is important is
how the style of leadership impacts on curriculum, which is the core business
of the school. According to Oplatka (2006:258-259) curriculum leaders must
also be able to shift leadership styles to accommodate different situations.
1.8 CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP
Ylimaki (2011:121-2) claims that curriculum encompasses content,
assessments, activities and programmes that are created by teachers,
learners and administrators. Socio-cultural, political and a person’s own
assumptions influence the meaning he or she gives to curriculum.
Principals previously had very little time to co-ordinate activities in curriculum
and instruction and even less time to observe teachers in class. Their
complaint was that managerial activities, attending to scheduled and
unscheduled meetings and the daily operations of the school took up a lot of
their time. Subsequently principals’ attention on curriculum has increased.
Many principals perceive conceptual leadership as denoting knowledge or
curriculum, instruction, teaching and learning. The culture of the curriculum
must have an impact on the learners’ lives. According to Cornbleth curriculum
is an integrated interface of planning, performance, policy and socio-cultural
systems. It is a product of social activity that is influenced by contextual factors
26
inside and outside the classroom (1990:24&27). Content and learning activities
in the curriculum must be related and have significance to learners and
teachers. Joseph (2011:38) maintains that curriculum encompasses all the
activities within the school that supports the holistic development of the
learners. It must surpass syllabus completion and school assessment so that
we develop learners who are physically, intellectually, personally and socially
equipped to meet the challenges of society. Curriculum must equip learners
with skills, knowledge, experience and attitudes to meet the challenges of the
social world.
Busher and Harris see curriculum as values-based. Teachers, learners and the
principal come with their own implicit or explicit values which influences
curriculum (2000:62). Crow, Matthews and McCleary (1996:12) declare that
the success of a principal’s leadership depends on a school’s situational
characteristics. Curriculum leadership is a shared experience which has its
own uniqueness at each teaching site. As a shared occurrence, it is presumed
that the different stakeholders will make contributions that impact on how it is
shaped (Macpherson and Brooker 1998:1). Razik and Swanson claim that
educational leadership is often challenged to draw up a curriculum that caters
for the needs of the learners who are influenced by parents and communities
(2010:24). In order for curriculum leaders in schools to perform effectively, they
need to develop coherent policies and practices.
Glatthorn, Boschee and Whitehead (2006:258) state that the initial step in
curriculum leadership is to get an in-depth understanding of the norms,
patterns and structures that hinder or make curriculum change possible.
Curriculum leaders must familiarise themselves with the structures, content,
discourses and hierarchies in curriculum. Strong leadership in curriculum
development is an essential element of any school improvement strategy, and
current principals play a vital and ever-expanding role in the process.
Curriculum leadership includes activities which are related to the knowledge,
27
skills and attitudes that are required for improved teaching and learning. It is a
shared occurrence between all stakeholders of the school that ultimately
shape the practice of curriculum leadership by organising and co-ordinating
organisational activities. Every school should have dedicated curriculum
leaders.
Hugh (in Busher and Harris 2000:61) maintains that the curriculum leadership
role calls for more creativeness, collaboration, motivation and modelling from
the principal. A curriculum encompasses activities within a school that promote
physical, social, personal and intellectual development of the learners.
Therefore leaders need to generate policies and preparations that are
coherent. In addition, curriculum leaders need to encourage and display
openness, trust and communicate effectively. Zenger claims that trust is the
foundation upon which all relationships within an organisation are built
(2010:250). Curriculum leaders play an important role in changing the internal
conditions of the school. They are uniquely placed in that they can bring about
change within the school. They are in a position that can create a culture of
teaching and learning that are values-based. Curriculum leaders also have the
opportunity to manage everlasting communities. Joseph (2011:3) posits that
curriculum is a process for transforming educational aims and practice through
inquiry and introspection. Therefore, it encompasses values, vision,
interactions, practices and introspection.
Glatthorn et al (2006:258-259) further state that curriculum leaders should
therefore; develop a network of support with other curriculum specialists. They
must also be able to take risks and continue to improve their skills to bring
positive changes to curriculum. Formulating a shared vision and developing a
strategic plan for its implementation are necessary for the success of a
curriculum leader. The involvement of the parents and communities are central
to shared-decision making process in the school.
28
Joseph claims that the concept of curriculum should include practice,
interactions, values and visions and personal reflections (2011:3). Principals
should therefore be knowledgeable on how the curriculum acquired by
learners contributes to their growth and development. The emphasis on
supervision by the principal should shift from inspection to that of teacher
needs and development. At an instructional level, principals must work with
teachers to synchronize the implementation of curriculum across all grades to
ensure standards are maintained. Staff development and empowerment are
important for curriculum implementation. The involvement of teachers in
deliberations benefits the curriculum. The curriculum must open up the
planning process to all those who want to participate. Meeting the needs of
learners is a huge challenge at schools in the present day.
Classrooms and schools have their own cultures largely influenced by those
that are closest to them. Policies that dictate curriculum may be the same, but
implementation is different. Bobbitt (in Jackson 1992:11) contends that the
school is an extension of society and those skills and knowledge lacking in
society must be addressed by the school. Joseph agrees that people may
share similar understandings of their societies and hold shared values, but
their own individual understanding of events and practices are interpreted
differently (2011:27&186). Therefore, what is taught in the classroom is a
collection of an individual’s understanding and values which are influenced by
family culture, race, gender, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, religion
and their own creativity and imagination. The curriculum of a school would
have a greater impact on the lives of its learners if its beliefs and practices
were consistent and sustained throughout the school. Learners would have
difficulty in articulating the vision of the school and the goals of learning if they
have to engage in many different cultures in one day. A school community that
understands the educational mission of the school would be dedicated by the
same vision and would work harmoniously. A curriculum that can embrace
29
indigenous traditions and cultures across all levels is inclusive and relevant to
those learners.
Curriculum leadership involves issues of communication and consultation. This
normally will pose a challenge to the arrival of a new principal. In time
principals and staff begin to find each other as they work towards delivery of
curriculum. Hence, a lot of emphasis on interpersonal skills, relationships and
teamwork are necessary as they are school contextual factors that impact on
curriculum. Duignan (2006:22) claims that the principal needs to operate on
two levels. The first is on the professional and socialisation level. This is the
prior learning on a principal’s role and his or her own experience from
schooling, teaching and attending formal training. The second is at an
organisational socialisation level where principals display knowledge, values
and behaviours required to perform their specific tasks within the school
context. The weak manager will struggle and tend to function on his or her own
Support is the cornerstone for successful curriculum delivery in education and
collaboration is the means to attain this support. Although collaboration is not
always easy, it can be very rewarding. Friend and Cook (2009:5) perceive
collaboration as a voluntary activity when two or more people or parties work
towards a common goal. Van der Mescht and Tyala (2008:221) claim that
participation from all the stakeholders at schools must be encouraged. A good
relationship between the principal and the chairperson of the school governing
body (SGB) is cemented by mutual respect and a common view in the way a
school should operate. Support from the SGB goes a long way in helping to
remove the feeling of isolation. The SGB is made up of teachers, parents and
co-opted members with specific skills and expertise that can provide
assistance to the school. Coming from different backgrounds they provide an
array of experience and expectations of education.
According to Busher and Harris (2000:96) the role of the SGB is vital because
they can influence curriculum implementation and discipline control.
30
Chairpersons of governing bodies must therefore be keen, interested and
accessible. They must be the ‘critical friend’ of the school. After all they are a
vital link between the school and the community. They bring knowledge of the
community into the school. Effective heads recognise that an effective and
efficient governing body can make a difference; they add value and make
significant difference to the effectiveness of the school. A delegated team
management is essential for a successful school. Good teamwork can be
strengthened by having proper procedures and good communication systems
with everyone involved in the well-being of the school.
In addition, the principal still has to manage and lead curriculum, which is not
an easy task. An effective leader is one who aligns his or her own role with that
of the organisation’s goals. To do this Earley and Weindling (2004:61) assert
that they must be driven by their own passion and values, which involve high
expectations, teamwork and commitment, inclusivity, shared educational
values and beliefs, understanding and engagement with stakeholders.
Duignan (2006:1) states that school leaders are often confronted by external
and internal challenges and expectations because they are accountable for
high standards of curriculum delivery and meeting the expectations of a
school-community. Educational leaders have the responsibility of ensuring that
learners at their schools receive the kind of education that will prepare them for
life and become better citizens. They must be able to make a difference in their
own and in community lives.
Duignan maintains that leaders cannot achieve everything by themselves; they
need to work with and through others to achieve the school’s vision and goals
(2006:22). The intention and content of a vision helps to motivate all members
of a school community to come together. An inspirational vision and clear
purpose must be linked to practice by the leader. Curriculum leadership
encompasses a shared vision (MacNeill 2003:7). Shared relationships grow
out of a shared vision. Principals must develop effective relationships and
31
create opportunities of leadership for others within the school context.
Delegating authority, empowering and trusting others with tasks underpins a
leader-staff relationship. The traditional school operated on rigid educational
policies and practices. With the emphasis now that the school is a social
movement, it disrupts practices of the past. Schools have become areas of
community involvement. MacNeill maintains that curriculum leadership must
include the entire school community (2003:5).
Relation-building in a school community gives stakeholders a sense of
belonging. According to Chrispeels (2004:3-5) when principals share
leadership with the school community, an effective environment for learning is
enabled. The opportunity for networking and trusting relationships are
developed. The fundamental issue in a school community is how best
relationships serve the needs of learners and their parents. As a curriculum
leader the principal must be sensitive to the accepted beliefs and norms of
people in the school community. It is therefore necessary that the curriculum is
developed to fit the needs of the community. Davies (2009:45-46) states that
schools occupy the minds and hearts of parents because that is where their
children spend most of their formative years in learning. Earley and Weindling
(2004:72) have noted that in the United Kingdom the metaphor of a school as
a family is common. The school is a haven for children from disadvantaged
homes and disadvantaged communities because such schools draw attention
away from social challenges and focus on academic work. Through
government funding such schools are also on nutrition and social programmes.
1.9 DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES
A disadvantaged group or community is characterised by a deprivation of
resources and barriers that it faces. These barriers may vary from group to
group. Traditionally, “disadvantaged” was used to describe a particular group
32
of people’s class. Rural areas are often categorised as disadvantaged
because they have the same deprivation characteristics as disadvantaged
communities (Herselman 2003:950).
According to Homel, Elias and Hay (2001:1) when we speak of disadvantaged
communities we should not just concentrate on individuals and families but
also on neighbourhood characteristics because these are critical ingredients
for describing what disadvantaged communities are. People coming from such
communities need each other to form a base of support. These areas of
support can be found in one’s own family, one’s culture and the neighbourhood
(Mayer 2003:6-7). Peet and Hartwick claim that people from disadvantaged
communities do not have the means to meet the basic needs of life. This
includes sufficient food to maintain good health, a healthy place to live and
affordable services available to everyone, being treated with dignity and
respect. Development is about emancipation from within the self (2009:1-2).
Price-Robertson (2011:10) agrees that community disadvantage represents
people living in certain areas that are unable to achieve positive results in life
due to a host of factors.
Meece and Eccles (2010:318) maintain that characteristics such as education,
employment and substance abuse within such communities are highlighted as
a result of the effects of their social and environmental circumstances. These
communities are subjected to weak social systems, have no or poor role
models and little or no opportunities to improve themselves. Educational
attainment in such communities is influenced by socio-cultural factors such as
ethnicity, economic status and parental education. In spite of many years of
educational reforms there still persists disparity in achievements of learners
from disadvantaged groups or communities (Shields 2009:53). Parents who
speak a language different from the language of teaching and learning cannot
offer assistance to their children. Cunningham and Cordeiro state that parents
33
who are not proficient in the official language will expect the school to have full
control and influence over their children’s schooling (2003:101).
According to Price-Robertson (2011:10-11) previously the term disadvantaged
was associated with economic factors like unemployment and income.
Recently, the term disadvantaged is viewed as a multifaceted problem. Social
exclusion is one such problem. Social exclusion happens when a community
of people endure a combination of setbacks such as poor housing, bad health,
unemployment, poor skills and high crime environments. Generally,
disadvantaged people have a poor level of education. They do not trust the
school and other institutions of learning. They do not respond well to pressure
and are not confident in their ability to achieve. They are put off when they are
confronted with things that are too theoretical, complicated or not taught well.
Orstein, Pajak and Orstein (2007:338) contend that certain characteristics of a
disadvantaged group itself make it difficult for them to progress. The
assistance offered by the outside society could mean contradicting their own
culture thereby resulting in their reluctance to accept help. Education is
therefore necessary to change the mindset, raise the self-esteem and inspire
confidence in such a group. A higher priority on community involvement within
the educational milieu should be placed. Parental and community involvement
have a positive effect for change. The school can provide the cement for
bonding because it is a place where people can share traditions, values and
experiences to achieve a common goal. Orstein (in Orstein et al 2007:188)
further indicates that the moral development of the child is stimulated by a
balance between the school, home and broader society.
Chapter one provided a foundation for this study. Although some women have
triumphed in attaining leadership positions, there is still an under-
representation of women in curriculum leadership positions internationally and
locally. Journeying from the waves of feminism to the context in which
34
principals in this study work, women have to prove their capability as leaders,
rise above stereotypical misconceptions and choose leadership styles which
can assist them in becoming effective curriculum leaders. This chapter
elucidated that curriculum leadership is a shared practice and the contributions
made by different stakeholders have an impact on the school’s curriculum. The
chapter concluded with a description of disadvantaged communities. This was
necessary because schools in this research are located in disadvantaged
communities.
In Chapter Two the research methodology is discussed.
35
CHAPTER TWO
STRUCTURE AND PROCEDURE OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will focus on the research methodology that I used in conducting
my research to investigate the research question, how do women principals
experience curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in
the Gauteng East District? Imenda and Muyangwa (2000:89) claim that
research methodology illustrates the direction of inquiry of the study. This
chapter will focus on the following elements of the research methodology
Research design
Sample and selection of research participants
A description of the participants and research sites
Methods used to collect data
Critical Discourse Analysis
Data Management
Trustworthiness
Transcriptions
Axial Coding
Consideration of ethics, anonymity and confidentiality
The research design links the data gathered to the research question and
ultimately to a conclusion. Mouton contends that the research design provides
the guidelines and assists the researcher to reach the aim of the research
(2002:107).
36
2.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
According to Yin (2011:75) ‘research designs are logical blueprints’. The
design entails the research questions, how data is collected and what
strategies are used to analyse the data so that the research questions are
spoken to. Denzin and Lincoln state that the research design outlines the
rationale for the study, the information that will be used to explore the research
question and which methods will be best suited to obtain this information
(2011:245). I used qualitative research to conduct this study. This research
design allowed me to connect to the sites, the participants and stakeholders of
the schools where the study was conducted. I conducted interviews and then
shadowed the principals in the research to corroborate what was stated in the
interviews. Henning (2004:20) contends that a researcher must spend a good
deal of time in the natural setting among those involved in the study.
The shadowing of principals in the school setting was necessary because it
provided a source of rich and detailed descriptions of their real-life situations.
Denscombe (2003:89) posits that the interpretation of cultures and events are
shaped by one’s own beliefs, experiences and values. As a researcher in
these particular sites I was obliged to do some introspection. As a woman,
belonging to the Hindu religion I could align myself to some of the beliefs,
events and experiences of the participants in this research. A Hindu woman is
expected to nurture and provide a supportive, caring and spiritual environment
for her husband and children at home.
Henning further states that it is important for the researcher to gather as much
data as possible in its natural setting in order to understand and interpret the
data accurately (2004:20). McMillan and Schumacher (1997:3) claim that
qualitative research makes it possible for the behaviour of people to be
investigated as they occur in their natural conditions.
37
2.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The aforementioned claims by Henning and McMillan & Schumacher credited
a qualitative research methodology to be used to conduct this study. According
to Merriam, a qualitative research approach is exploratory, descriptive and
helps to accumulate a lot of data (1998:6). It is an educational research
method in which the researcher relies on data obtained from participants.
Fraenkel and Wallen (2003:450) contend that the three main methods that are
used to gather data are observations, interviews and field notes. This type of
research brings the researchers closer to the fields they are researching. It is
an interpretative, natural approach because it provides descriptions and
records of social interaction in natural settings. According to Creswell the
researcher conducting a qualitative research study will spend hours in the field
in order to obtain data (1998:4). As a qualitative researcher I wanted to gather
a wealth of information on women in curriculum leadership and understand the
meaning that they make of their world and their experiences. A growth of deep
understanding of people’s feelings, experiences and circumstances can be
achieved through qualitative study. This justifies the assertion by Davies that in
qualitative research it is easy for researchers to get involved in the participants’
lives (2007:191).
In addition to the collection of data, the qualitative research methodology also
details how a researcher arranges and interprets information. In comparison to
quantitative data collection and analysis, there are no obvious or established
methods or rules in qualitative data collection and analysis (Ritchie and Lewis
2003:200). The whole rather than the parts is emphasised. Lichtman supports
the assertion made by Ritchie and Lewis that qualitative research is dynamic
as it does not follow any specific way of doing things (2010:15).
The qualitative research methodology is an inductive approach to research
whilst the quantitative research method is deductive in nature. Qualitative
researchers ask “why” questions. They ask new questions and find different
38
ways of answering them. In qualitative research the participants in the
interviews often relate their stories. Qualitative research involves studying
things as they exist, rather than in a controlled environment. Lichtman
(2010:15) asserts that such an environment is conducive for observations.
The “variables” in a qualitative study are not controlled as in the case of
quantitative research. A narrative account of events is captured. The questions
are also open-ended and responses can be probed further. Henning (2004:3)
claims that the researcher has the autonomy in capturing this data when it
happens.
To achieve this, I used interviews to get participants to share their experiences
and the impact that these experiences have had on their lives. The participants
that were chosen satisfied pre-determined criteria which will be expounded
further in this chapter. Groups studied in qualitative research are smaller and
the sample chosen is purposeful.
2.4 SAMPLING AND SELECTION
I chose purposive sampling for this research report. Purposive sampling is
beneficial because it allows the researcher to pinpoint people or events which
will justify the research. The researcher focuses on cases that will shed light
on the research question. Hence, purposive sampling is efficient because it
can provide more information from chosen samples than from those chosen in
probability sampling (Denscombe 2003:15-16). Mouton maintains that
purposive selection also provides the researcher the opportunity to choose the
sites that have features or processes relevant to the research study
(2002:104). This view is supported by Yin (2011:88), who claims that in
purposive sampling the samples are chosen in an intentional method because
it will provide the most relevant and sufficient data on the topic. In purposive
sampling the researcher must be acquainted with some of the participants or
39
experiences and deliberately selects them because they are distinguished as
examples that can provide valuable data to the research. Criteria used for
purposive sampling are usually established very early in the research. Ritchie
and Lewis (2003:80) contend that the criteria are informed by the aims of the
research, existing knowledge and gaps in knowledge about the study Gray
cautions that if important aspects are unintentionally omitted in the criteria;
purposeful sampling can be unhelpful (2009:153).
Purposive sampling was appropriate, focussed and represented a particular
group. Women featured in this study were from schools in disadvantaged
communities. The sample was limited by the nature of the study. Therefore,
participation in this study was limited to three women principals. Two principals
were from secondary schools and one was from a primary school. I
approached many female principals from three different disadvantaged
geographic areas within the Gauteng East District to participate in this
research. The three participants who responded favourably were chosen.
Although the sample is limited the process had to be objective so that the
sample can stand the test of independent scrutiny.
I chose Gauteng East District because it has many schools located in
disadvantaged communities, the schools were easily accessible and arranging
meetings with participants, interview schedules and observations were
manageable. As an Institutional Development and Support Officer (IDSO) in
the same district, I was afforded the opportunity to familiarise myself with the
environment of the schools and I also knew that the chosen participants could
provide valuable data pertaining to the research study according to
predetermined criteria. All participants in the research had to be female; they
had to be principals of schools and they had to be leading curriculum in
disadvantaged communities.
To reduce the effect that my position as an IDSO in the same district would
have on the interview process and the data collection I explained that the
40
research is done as my own choice and that the participants should not feel
coerced into the study. I also visited them at their schools on a few occasions
prior to the interviews and observations to build trust and encourage them to
feel comfortable and relaxed during my presence. My position as an IDSO also
assisted my role as a researcher. The SGB, SMT and principals were
accommodating and willing to participate in the research. The principals
agreed to be shadowed and granted me access to their schools whenever I
requested to visit the school sites to conduct observations. They had arranged
in advance with their staff not to be disturbed during the interviews. Initially, I
was doubtful about the sincerity in their responses during the interviews.
However, my observations and field notes confirmed their honesty.
Table 1 outlines the biographical details of the research participants.
SCHOOL NAME
(pseudonym)
PARTICIPANT
(pseudonym)
GENDER AGE RACE
Daffodil High Annah Female 40 Black
Zinniah
High
Busisiwe Female 47 Black
Sunflower
Primary
Cynthia Female 60 Black
The information reflected in Table 1 was gathered from the three participants
during interviews, which was part of the data collection process. The sites
where the research was conducted were also purposefully chosen.
2.4.1 Research Sites
Photographs that capture the environment in which the research sites are
located are included in this section of the research report. The three sites were
41
given pseudonyms because they are schools that can easily be identified.
They are referred to as Daffodil High, Zinniah High and Sunflower Primary.
Photograph 1 Photograph 2
Photograph 1 depicts the rubbish thrown on one of the corridor roofs of
Daffodil High. It evidences neglect, lack of care and respect for school
property.
Photograph 2 captured a hanging ceiling, which poses a safety hazard to
learners in this school.
Photograph 3 Photograph 4
Photograph 3 is proof that school desks have holes due to defacement by
learners. This makes writing at the desks extremely difficult.
Photograph 4 describes the rural area where Zinniah High is located. The
community is located over thirty minutes from the nearest town.
42
Photograph 5 Photograph 6
Photograph 5 shows that people of this community also live in low cost
houses. Access to electricity is a luxury.
Photograph 6 is evidence that filth is strewn around and nobody seems to
care.
Photograph 7 Photograph 8
Photograph 7 and photograph 8 are images of the two classrooms that are
currently being restored at Zinniah High. There is apathy towards pride and
care by learners and parents of the school.
Daffodil High is located far east of the Gauteng Province. It is surrounded by
informal settlements and low cost houses. Houses in the community do not
have electricity. Although the main road is tarred, the ones leading from the
43
school to the homes of learners are corrugated, and in many instances no
bigger than pathways. It is difficult for vehicles to traverse these roads; hence
residents need to walk long distances to reach public transport. The roads are
strewn with rubbish, which has a detrimental effect on the health of the
residents. Youth and idle adults are a common sight on the roads, denoting
unemployment in the area. Many of the houses are make-shift. They are built
of used metal sheets, old timber, and cardboard, plastic and even car doors.
Stones, pumpkins and tyres are generally seen to hold down the roofs of these
dwellings. The dwellers do not have funds to take proper care of their houses.
On rainy days, rain drips through holes and partitions, making life extremely
uncomfortable. These buildings accommodate up to sixteen family members in
one small room. There is seldom enough food for all family members. Poverty
is rife. Many residents rely on food parcels and second hand clothes from
social services and the generosity of religious organisations. Daffodil High is
also sandwiched between three taverns. Learners are enticed to consume
liquor, although many are under the legal age to indulge in this practice. Drugs
are also a huge challenge in the area. Police often burn down ‘dagga’ plants,
but do not succeed in combating the problem.
Daffodil High also experiences challenges within the school. Electricity at the
school is often cut off by the local municipality because of unpaid bills. Grass
behind the last block of classrooms of the school is uncut; the toilets reeked of
urine and learners use them as a smoking hide-out. There is insufficient
furniture for teachers and learners. In some classes learners were observed
sitting on oil drums, paint tins and their school bags. The floors have holes in
them and the notice boards are devoid of covering. The ceilings in four of the
classrooms were hanging loose, posing a safety threat to learners. The school
desks were also full of holes and some were broken off their hinges. This
makes writing at the desks extremely difficult. Broken window panes were a
common sight. These were indications that learners simply did not care for
44
school property, teachers were not instilling good practices and parents did not
view the school as part of the community.
Zinniah High is situated in a rural area bordering Mpumalanga and Gauteng
Provinces. It is a school that is part of a disadvantaged community, plagued by
homelessness, hunger, unemployment and illiteracy. The community is located
over thirty minutes from the nearest town. The community is small and it takes
twenty minutes to walk through the entire area. There is only one road into the
township. The socio-economic problems of the community namely; poverty,
unemployment, illiteracy and substance abuse far exceed their commitment to
improving their lifestyle. People of this community lack financial (money),
physical (proper housing and transport) and cognitive (ability and acquired
skills to deal with everyday life) resources. Access to electricity is a luxury and
the social grant that majority of the residents receive is much awaited every
month. Residents live in informal and low cost houses. The area has one
community centre, but lacks recreational facilities. There is no library for
learners to access reading material. Many learners come from child-headed
families within the community. The result of this is that there is no adult
supervision at home. Learners from this community rely heavily on the school
nutrition programme and often the meal they have at school is the only meal
for the day. Livestock roam the streets. Men of all ages are usually seen
walking aimlessly or standing around, chatting during the day. There appears
to be a very lackadaisical attitude about life. Nobody seems to care that there
is filth strewn around their houses. Members of the community are often in
need of healthcare and social assistance. Many are single parents or
guardians. Zinniah High is made up of brick and mortar and mobile
classrooms. Like Daffodil High there is no care or community involvement in
the school. Two classrooms were burnt during a storm; others are in need of
repairs.
45
Sunflower Primary is located in a slightly better area. The roads around the
school are tarred and there is access to the local transport. Houses are old
and in a state of disrepair. The community in which the school is based is
weighed down by socio-economic challenges. Substance abuse is rife and
unemployment also plagues the community. There are two taverns on the
same road as the school. Children are thus exposed to alcohol very early in
their lives. There are many teenage pregnancies in the community. The
community also has many child-headed families, or children living with
caregivers.
The young mothers of the community often leave their children in the foster
care of their grandmothers, whom themselves are in need of medical and frail
care. Members of the community are also affected by HIV/Aids (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus /Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).
Government social grants are the only source of income for members of this
community. Community members do not show much interest in the school and
often rely on the school to educate the children in all aspects of life. Learners
are also on the school’s nutrition programme.
2.5 METHODS OF DATA GATHERING
Data is a collection of systematic information gathered from experience and
observation. It is the basis for any research study. Interviewing, observing,
collecting and examining materials and feeling are field-based activities which
are tools used to gather data for qualitative research (Yin 2011:129). Henning
states that it is preferable to use two or three methods of data sources in
qualitative research to ensure variety (2004:6). In this research data was
collected by means of semi-structured interviews, observations and field notes.
The combination of interviews and observations afforded me the opportunity to
enter into the life worlds of the people under study. For this research, women
46
in curriculum leadership positions from three different schools, situated in
disadvantaged communities, were interviewed. I scheduled times with the
principals to conduct the interviews and observations at the schools.
2.5.1 Interviews
According to Babbie and Mouton (2006:277) interviews provide a thick
description of information, presenting the reader with detailed descriptions to
inform judgements. Maree agrees with Mouton and adds that it is an
interaction between two people with one person asking another a number of
questions to elicit as much information as possible and the other person
responding by narrating his or her ideas, beliefs, opinions and views on the
subject. He further claims that interviews are a method of seeing the ‘world
through the eyes of the participant’ (2007:87).
Cormack states that interactions in interviews are purposeful because the
participants engage in a negotiated interaction with an intended outcome
(2000:294). Interviews are used to gather information on the interviewee’s
attitudes, preferences, values and knowledge. Interviews are usually
conducted with smaller number of participants as compared to questionnaires.
For this research, the interviews were conducted at the school sites, after
school hours over a period of three months. The interviews in this research
study focussed on participants’ experiences within school, outside the school
(in the community); and how their personal lives were influenced by their
responsibilities as curriculum leaders. A friendly, open interactive atmosphere
prevailed throughout the interviews. This gave the participants the opportunity
to express themselves freely. They reflected on events, experiences and
situations that provided opportunity to understand their behaviour in context.
According to Maree (2007:87) the role of the interviewer in the interview can
be challenging. The interviewer has to pose the questions, listen to the
47
responses and capture them and observe body language of the interviewee. If
conducted properly, the data elicited during the interview can provide a wealth
of information on the meanings people ascribe to their lives and behaviours.
Gray (2009:370-371) contends that interviews can be separated into five
categories which are focused interviews, non-directive interviews, informal
conversational interviews, structured interviews and semi-structured
interviews.
Initially I had chosen to conduct structured interviews, however, during the first
interview I realised that the language used by the respondents and their
answers necessitated further probing and clarification of responses. According
to Gray (2009:373) semi-structured interviews allows for probing of more
details, if the response is not clear.
2.5.1.1 Semi-structured Interviews
Maree (2007:87) states that semi-structured interviews are synonymous with
qualitative research. It is normally used to substantiate what has been
obtained from other sources of information. Yin maintains that this type of
interview takes on a relaxed approach, which leads to a social relationship. It
allows for mutual interaction. It is usually quick. The researcher has a list of
pre-determined questions, but will not necessarily follow the order or deal with
all of it. He or she is flexible regarding the order in which issues are covered
(Yin 2011:135). The answers are open-ended and the interviewee is given the
opportunity to elaborate on aspects of significance. Semi-structured interviews
allow for queries and explanations to responses given. They assist the
researcher in trying to understand the participant’s world. The interview is
tape-recorded and notes can be taken.
Denscombe (2003:167-8) contends that one-on-one interviews are a common
feature of semi-structured and unstructured interviews. It is the meeting
48
between one researcher and one participant. It is also easier to arrange a
scheduled time between two people. The process is uncomplicated because
the information or data comes from one source. The researcher needs to guide
only one person through the interview and grasp only one person’s ideas.
I chose semi-structured interviews because it allowed me to ask
predetermined questions and to seek further clarity on some of the responses
that the interviewees gave. A set of 24 questions were drawn up before the
interview, this subscribes to one of the characteristics of structured interviews
and semi-structured interviews where the researcher draws up a list of
questions in the form of a questionnaire that will be asked in the interview. The
same questions are posed to all interviewees and the interaction between the
researcher and the respondent is minimal. Questions on the list were divided
into three parts. The first part required participants to provide biographical
information, the second part focussed on leadership and curriculum and the
last part focussed on the participants’ views on disadvantaged communities
(Refer to Appendix C).
At the beginning of each interview I gave each of the participants a copy of the
questions that would be used in the interview. They had a few minutes to
peruse the questions before we started the interview. All participants in the
research granted me permission to audio-tape their interviews. Each interview
lasted between 85 to 110 minutes. As stated earlier, during the interviews
some of the phrases and responses given by the participants were unfamiliar,
vague or required further probing because as the researcher I needed to give
meaning to their response.[In one interview the participant said, that school was
just a fanta fun bus school, when I probed further she explained that; A Fanta fun bus
school is a school where anyone is doing whatever he wants to do, learners, teachers, so they
did everything, there was no systems in that school. In another interview the participant
mentioned this pull-down syndrome, which she explained was a pessimistic attitude
displayed by someone].
49
This necessitated the initial intention of using structured interviews to change
to semi-structured interviews. Observations were used to complement the
interview.
2.5.2 Observations
The rationale for using observations in addition to interviews was intended to
increase the trustworthiness of the study. Maree (2007:84) states that
observation affords us the opportunity to gain an inner view of people’s
behaviours in different situations. Observations can be done secretly or openly
(Gray 2009:397). Observations are about perceiving what we witness. When
we observe people in their natural environment it is easier to understand their
nature and how they relate amongst each other in groups. Yin (2011:143)
contends that observations are done through the researcher’s own eyes and
ears therefore; the findings are a primary source of data. Before an
observation is carried out, the researcher decides on a particular aspect that
he or she wants to observe, how the observation will be recorded (tape
recorder, video, notes), how much time will be spent on the observation and
where the observation will be carried out (Lichtman 2010:168).The two
commonly used types of observations are structured observation and
participant observation.
I chose to do participant observation. The purpose of participant observation is
to create data by observing and listening to people in their natural environment
and noting what meanings and interpretations they make of their own
activities. With participant observation the researcher becomes a member of
the group being researched as he or she begins to understand the situation by
experiencing it. The challenge here is for the researcher to maintain a distance
as an “outsider”. The advantage of participant observation over a
questionnaire is that the researcher can verify if their participants’ perceptions
are correct, if they are true in what they say. In observation there is a high level
50
of personal involvement of understanding the data accumulated. It can prove a
challenge to report this as a true reflection of events.
The three participant principals were informed in advance that I would be
observing them on a specific day. Appendix D shows the observation schedule
that was used to shadow principals. A minimum of three hours was spent on
each observation as I ‘shadowed’ the three principals. This also necessitated
me observing their morning briefings, one School Management Meeting, one
staff meeting; and one of them administering a class written assessment test.
My observations were recorded as field notes. Appendix E outlines what was
going to be observed.
2.5.3 Field Notes
According to Maree (2007:85) field notes can be categorised as anecdotal
notes, running notes and planned observation. Anecdotal notes describe the
actions exhibited during the observation. These are short phrases or words
that are unbiased; they do not capture any reflections of the observer or
researcher. Running notes follow a succession of events as they occur. The
behaviour is captured in relation to the circumstance in which it takes place. I
used anecdotal notes and running notes during my ‘shadowing’ of the
principals. I recorded what I saw and heard. The sites used in the research,
the atmosphere and the people that engaged the participants were described. I
captured the physical reactions of the three principals in the different
situations. I also made personal notes of what I felt about specific incidents.
These included facial expressions, body language and verbal remarks.
These methods of data collection align with discourse analysis as it makes
provision for rich descriptions of data and the stimulation of provoking
questions (Cox, Geisen and Green 2008:53).
51
2.6 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
According to Fairclough and Wodak (in Van Dijk 2006:352) the main view of
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is that it is a type of social action, which
focuses on society and its culture, its challenges and it forms a link between
society and content. Discourse analysis can be interpreted and explained. A
study and analysis of printed and verbal texts is conducted to understand the
origination of power, bias, dominance and inequality and how it influences
social, political and historical structures. Fairclough claims that transcripts can
be analysed in relation to symbols and representations. He further maintains
that the analysis of written text is possible because it encapsulates grammar,
sound, semantics and vocabulary (1995:57).
Maree (2007:102) affirms that discourse analysis offers a reason why written
and spoken language is the way it is. He further indicates that there is flexibility
of language in the way that one expresses oneself through the use of words.
There develops a relationship between the reader and the writer as the reader
accesses information through interpretation. Language chosen in critical
discourse is purposeful. It conveys discourse through space and time. This
critical discourse analysis is aimed at finding a relationship between how
events and practices are shaped by the influence of discourse and power
(Fairclough 1993:135). Van Dijk (in Schiffrin, Tannen & Hamilton 2001:357)
states that the intention of critical discourse analysis is to ‘understand, expose
and ultimately resist social inequality’. It favours ways in which versions of
reality, which are veiled in written and oral words, are revealed. The critical
theoretical approach relies on a combination of observation and interviewing
methods which encourages discussion and reflection (Van Dijk in Schiffrin et al
2001:254). It affords the researcher and the participants the opportunity to
critique society and culture. In education researchers and developers can use
this approach to understand the needs of teachers, learners and curriculum
52
development. In addition critical discourse analysis is used to explain how
gender differences are widened, supported and refuted.
I used the critical discourse analysis to assist me in learning about people from
people. There was a need to understand the meaning participants assigned to
concepts and how they and I (as the researcher) interpreted certain situations.
2.7 DATA MANAGEMENT
My role in this research report was to obtain information of the principals’
experiences and to give meaning to their responses, without judging them. A
tape recorder was used to record the interviews, after the participants acceded
to this request. A transcript of each of the interviews was also done. This was
to be used as evidence, in case participants refused to be tape recorded. The
findings show that there are correlations in the experiences of the women
principals who participated in this study.
Maree (2007:80) and Patton (2001:14) claim that in qualitative research, the
researcher becomes the ‘instrument’ that gathers data. When many methods
such as document analysis, observation and interviews are used to gather
data, it enhances trustworthiness.
2.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS
Both reliability and validity are significant for qualitative research because they
assist in describing the data. According to Ritchie and Lewis (2003:270)
reliability means that the results are guaranteed and validity means the extent
to which the research design is scientifically sound or correctly conducted.
Reliability and credibility are crucial to the trustworthiness of the research
53
findings. In quantitative studies the instruments of reliability and validity are
used to test the hypotheses, but not in qualitative studies (Patton 2001:14).
2.8.1 Reliability
Reliability refers to the dependability of the findings. In qualitative research, the
researcher is an essential part of the research instrument. In qualitative
research the exact results would not be possible due to situations differing.
The researcher tries to show if similar findings would be made by other
researchers on different occasions (Ritchie and Lewis 2003:273). Therefore,
the construction and description of meaning and understanding of participants
in a particular social setting is essential (Wolcott 1995:167). The popularity of
reliability in qualitative research gains momentum when coders share an
interest in comparing coding. Reliability, together with validity determines if the
research is credible.
2.8.2 Validity
When data and its results are quality checked, validity ensues (Creswell and
Clark 2007:133). Validity in research is the appropriate collection and
interpretation of data so that conclusions drawn depict the real world as it was
studied. Arksey and Knight (in Gray 2009:375-6) state that validity is supported
by:
using interview methods that encourage rapport and build trust so that
participants can articulate themselves.
encouraging participants to elaborate on their responses.
drawing up questions that stem from literature.
making sure the interview lasts long enough so that the area under
discussion is sufficiently probed.
To ensure that this research satisfied credibility criteria I correlated the
research question, available literature, data collection and data analysis to
54
raise valid arguments, findings and reports. To achieve validity I posed the
same set of questions to each interviewee. Each interviewee was given the
luxury of time and freedom of expression when responding. They were not
coerced into a particular response. For accurate capturing of data, a digital
audio recorder was used. There was thorough involvement to get an in-depth
understanding of the field situation through observations, field notes and
interviews. Reliability, validity and credibility are further improved by
triangulation, where different sources of data are examined, compared and
cross-checked.
2.8.3 Triangulation
Triangulation is actually a strategy or test used for improving the validity and
reliability of research findings. It is a valid procedure where researchers search
for a combination of many different sources of information to form themes or
categories in a study (Creswell and Miller 2000:126). According to Golafshani
(2003:604), the use of several methods like observation, interviews and
recordings leads to more valid and reliable findings. Maree claims that
triangulation also minimises the threat of bias and ‘chance associations’ when
data is gathered. After data is gathered it must be transcribed to enable the
researcher to scrutinise, read and understand the information gathered
(2007:39&104). Through the interviews, observation and field notes, multiple
sources of data were acquired for this study, thus enabling triangulation to
occur by confirming the emerging findings.
2.9 TRANSCRIPTIONS
A documentation of what transpired in the interview and audio recorded is
referred to as a transcription. In conducting my qualitative research within a
critical discourse paradigm, I relied on my interview notes and my field notes
55
which I made during my observations. Whilst the participants’ facial
expressions and gestures were still clear in my mind I noted them down to
avoid loss or reduction of data. After each interview I also transcribed the
audiotape recordings myself in order that no detail was left out during
capturing. I then read the transcription over to note similar phrases and words.
I noted complementary and conflicting statements that were captured in my
notes.
Then I copied the interview data onto a page that was divided into three
columns. On the left hand side I had a column that denoted the researcher and
the interviewee, in the middle I captured the question posed to the interviewee
and the response of the interviewee and in third column I coded the
information as I identified common factors that contributed to curriculum
leadership of female principals in disadvantaged communities (an extract of
this is recorded as table 2). Thereafter, I added a fourth column for the themes
that emerged. Mouton (2002:111) contends that during analysis of data,
patterns and themes are identified from which we draw conclusions.
Table 2: Excerpt of Analysis of Data
ENTITY QUESTION CODE THEME RESEARCHER What in your opinion makes this
a disadvantaged community?
INTERVIEWEE Ya it is a disadvantaged community because majority of learners, no I’m sorry, of parents, they are illiterate and they are not working and ...
stakeholder stakeholder, illiteracy unemployment
Socio-economic profile
INTERVIEWEE People say you can’t bring people here you know we’re not working, we’re hungry so take us here so that we can be able to get money so we can feed our families...
Hunger
Socio-economic profile
Davies contends that the stage after transcriptions is most fundamental to a
successful research, but is not easy (2007:191-193). This is coding of the data.
56
2.10 AXIAL CODING
The identification of emergent themes from the transcripts provided the
framework for coding. Davies (2007:193) states that the shape of the coding is
established by responses of the participants. The perspectives from each
interviewee must then be compared and related (Creswell and Clark
2007:132). Mahomed (2003:6) claims that responses will then be grouped into
themes and categories and this information will further lead to patterns and
theories. Lichtman (2010:10) concurs that themes and coding are elicited
during the analysis process.
The responses provided by the principals who participated in this study
directed the division of information into sections. Each recorded response was
rechecked and relevant statements were coded. Coding was used to form
categories. Once the information was assembled into codes, broader themes
emerged. Prior literature reviewed, together with the data that was gathered
directed the emergence of themes.
2.11 ETHICS CONSIDERATION
Researchers must be cognisant of ethical principles when conducting
research. Ethics in research refers to moral principles, rules or standards that
guide the research. Gray (2009:192) maintains that during the process of
collecting and analysing data and publishing the findings researchers need to
respect the rights and dignity and privacy of the participants in the research
project.
Ethical clearance was acquired by the Ethics Committee in the Education
Faculty of the University of Johannesburg. A letter requesting permission to
conduct research was sent to the provincial department of education and to
the director of the district office where the schools are located (Appendix A). A
57
letter of consent was completed by each participant (Appendix B). This letter
also assured the participants that information gathered in the research will be
used for educational purposes only. Participants were guaranteed their
anonymity and confidentiality through the use of pseudonyms. The letter of
consent also ensured participants of the research that information gathered
from the research will be kept confidential.
Pseudonyms are also used to maintain the confidentiality and ensure
anonymity of schools used in this research. The three principals who
participated in this study are introduced and henceforth will be referred to as
Annah, principal of Daffodil High; Busisiwe, principal of Zinniah High; and
Cynthia, principal of Sunflower Primary.
After permission was granted by the relevant structures, I negotiated dates and
times with the principals of the three schools. The respective school governing
bodies and Institutional Development and Support Officers of the schools were
also informed of the research. A preliminary visit was made to each school to
inform the principal of the purpose and scope of the research. Participants
were informed prior to the interview what the interview would entail.
Permission was also sought to ‘shadow’ the participants in order to observe
them in practice. Participants were told that they could withdraw from the
research if they felt uncomfortable and they were assured that they will go
through the transcripts for member checks.
2.12 SUMMARY
This chapter outlined the methodology and my role as a researcher in the
research study. The rationale for choosing qualitative research was explained
and described. The sample size and reasons for purposive sampling were also
described. The methods of data collection, analysis of data, ethics and
trustworthiness were also key features in this chapter. I found that the use of
58
field notes, interviews and observations were valid and reliable methods of
data collection because I was able to elicit relevant information for the
research study.
Chapter Three describes the data gathered and a discussion of the findings of
the research.
59
CHAPTER THREE
WOMEN UNLOCKING THE DOORS TO LEARNING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter I analyse the data that I gathered during my exploration into the
leadership experiences of three women who are school principals in
disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District. The aim is to give
meaning to the data and draw conclusions from the research. Chapter Three
links the data gathered with the literature on the topic.
The research attempted to answer the critical questions outlined in the aims of
the research which were;
What are the challenges facing women principals in curriculum
leadership positions?
How does leading a school in a disadvantaged community impact
on curriculum leadership?
What leadership styles do these principals adopt?
How does the position of being female leaders affect their
personal and family lives?
The aim of this chapter is to outline the many experiences of women principals
as curriculum leaders within the school, around the school and in their private
lives. The following themes and sub-themes emerged from their responses in
relation to how these three female principals negotiate their roles as curriculum
leaders in disadvantaged communities.
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3.2 THEMES ELICITED FROM THE DATA ANALYSIS
(6) Exercising a successful leadership style
(7) The principal as a curriculum leader
(8) Socio-economic profile of community and its impact on curriculum
(9) Striking a balance between family and school
(10) Stakeholder participation and support
The potential of parental power
The development of community involvement
Co-operation of the school management team and staff
3.2.1 Exercising a Successful Leadership Style
During the interviews I asked the question, “How would you describe your
leadership style?” In their responses the three participants claimed that they
employ many leadership styles as principals. The situation dictated the
leadership style that was used. This confirms Hersey and Blanchard’s
assertion that each undertaking is different; hence it requires a different
leadership style (2001:4). This is what the participants said:
Annah: I’m using all the styles of leadership. It depends upon the situation if there are
matters that need democratic vision, I consult with the SMT but in cases of emergency, I apply
an autocratic leadership style.
Busisiwe: you cannot say you adhere to only one leadership style; you are a democratic
leader, at the end of the day there are situations that wants you to be an autocratic leader
when you give instructions.
Cynthia: It’s a combination, maybe it’s a combination but still democracy, it appears.
Shakeshaft (1989:166) contends that there is either a subtle or an obvious
leadership style that women may employ in their routine, which may be
different to that of men. Busisiwe and Annah assert that they use many
leadership styles in a day. These principals further indicated that policy
compliance necessitates the autocratic style of leadership. Late coming of
61
educators, teaching and attending to class on time are not negotiable. These
principals lead by ensuring that they are punctual at all curriculum related
activities of the school. This bears testimony to O’Sullivan and West-
Burnham’s statement that learner-centred leaders lead by example (2011:46).
Busisiwe comes across as being very stern but indicates that her teachers and
personnel staff are welcome to come and discuss any issue with her: Always
when you need my assistance my office door is open, come and ask.
The responses from the three participants in this research indicate that they
use the contemporary leadership styles in the execution of their duties and
responsibilities. These leadership styles are proving to be more effective.
This was confirmed during the staff meetings and morning briefings that I
observed at the three schools. The transformational style of leadership was
one method of empowering other stakeholders of the school. Busisiwe also
employed a laisezze-faire style of leadership in allowing teachers to run with
projects. The necessary resources were made available, but reports were
necessary. Cynthia at Sunflower Primary exercises an ethical type of
leadership as I observed that she exhibits humaneness and compassion to her
learners and community (Davies 2009:53-55). The ethical, strategic, learner-
centred and transformational styles were evidenced as these principals
empowered their stakeholders, encouraged collaboration and engaged in
dialogue with others.
The remarkable feature that emerged from these interviews was the moral and
spiritual aspect of these women principals. Cynthia said that cultural
background dominates at her school and prayer was part of that background.
This was confirmed in my observation at the school. I noted that Cynthia
begins the school day with hymn singing at assembly and draws inspirational
quotations from the Bible. This substantiates Klein et al’s claim that women
principals of African descent usually include a spiritual aspect in their
leadership (2007:116). Busisiwe talks about being prayerful and reminds
learners that when you are a prayerful person, you keep on praying. She indicated that
62
she is a Christian and she prays very hard. She also encourages learners to
pray, before the examinations and at home. She is also very involved in her
local church. The attributes of these participants find agreement with the view
of Cranwell-Ward, Bacon and Mackie who state that inspiration is drawn from
a spiritual aspect (2002:243). Eagly and Carli concur with the claim made by
Cranwell-Ward et al that women are perceived to be more religious and
empathetic towards the less-fortunate than men (2007:46). Background,
family, peers and experience of life generally help to shape that we are and
how we develop values in life (Duignan 2006:74). Like Busisiwe, Annah is also
an active member in her church. During her interview she indicated that her
father was a priest and he was very supportive of her schooling.
These principals also displayed a caring, nurturing aspect of their personality
in their association with learners. During the matriculation camp Annah
approached local companies to supply toiletries for the girls. Busisiwe decided
to stay over in the matriculation camp of 2011 with her learners to ensure that
feminine hygiene and health needs of learners were catered for. Like Annah,
she also took the initiative to approach local companies to secure toiletries for
her learners. In addition, she ensured that surplus from the school nutrition
programme was sent to child-headed homes and homes where parents were
unemployed. During this research study she was observed on the road in the
morning, urging learners to get to school punctually. This observation confirms
that the gender context of the workplace does make a difference in leadership
styles as contended by Klein et al (2007:116). They claim that women tend to
take a more personal interest in the workplace than men. Women are also
more inclined to engage in one-one contacts.
Traditionally women are expected to nurture and provide nourishment for
children. During this research I found this quality to be strength rather than a
weakness amongst the participants. In October 2011, when a tornado struck
the area, where Daffodil High is located, Annah took it upon herself to
63
establish if learners of her school were accounted for. In addition, she took a
roll call of all learners affected in the area. This praises the cultural feminist
theory that women lead by their caring and ethical nature. Gilligan (in Begley
1999:275) in support states that the moral development of women is shaped
by the knowledge and associations that they make and maintain in their private
life.
Cynthia shows concern for her learners and their well-being. This was
observed whilst I ‘shadowed’ her. She enquires if learners have food to eat at
home, reminds learners to thank God for the food they eat and on occasion
asks about the health of their grannies. This confirms the view of Grogan and
Shakeshaft (2011:14) that women leaders use their personal strengths and
their spirituality to understand the ‘world’ of others. This also supports Eagly
and Carli’s statement that women are more compassionate towards the less-
fortunate and are attentive to moral problems (2007:46). By infusing their
values based on religion and ethnicity into the curriculum, curriculum leaders
strengthen relationships with their communities (Busher and Harris 2000:95).
3.2.2 The principal as a Curriculum Leader
Cunningham and Cordeiro (2003:218-219) assert that curriculum as a whole is
“the school’s philosophy, what a curriculum looks like and putting the vision
into practice”. The interviews indicated that the three principals’ understanding
of curriculum was limited to academic programmes of syllabus completion and
school based assessment. This was Cynthia’s response, first you got to
understand the curriculum and department knowledge on child psychology and then know how
the child learns … you can plan your curriculum until you reach the optimum. I did not
understand what her response meant. Upon further probing, she understood
curriculum leadership to be about leading curriculum, understanding it and
understanding child psychology. In her view curriculum leadership is about
implementing whatever new techniques are learnt and brought to the institution
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whereas curriculum management is about managing what is already planned.
In order to manage curriculum she found it necessary to attend courses, she
discussed issues with the SMT and felt she needed to be knowledgeable
about national curriculum issues. This understanding finds alignment in
Glatthorn et al’s claim that curriculum leaders must acquaint themselves with
the structures, content, discourses and hierarchies in curriculum (2006:258).
According to Annah curriculum management was to ensure that there were
pace setters and a management plan to monitor syllabus completion and
workloads per educator according to policy. She further stated that it was
about strategies to curb teacher absenteeism, which was also part of
curriculum management. Annah maintained that a curriculum leader is one
that develops others, and exposes educators to new methods in curriculum
and one who gives others an opportunity to lead. This was confirmed in the
morning briefing which I observed. Teachers responsible for various aspects of
the curriculum were required to provide short reports during the briefing
session. A member of the SMT reported that the level of noise during change
of lessons was extremely high. She suggested that teachers, instead of
learners could move from class to class. This was discussed; the suggestion
voted on and then it was to be implemented. Annah also afforded support staff
the opportunity to report. A member of the maintenance staff reported the
frustration the cleaning staff experienced during the weekends. He indicated
that opportunities like this, where they were given a platform to speak made
them feel part of the school.
Busisiwe said curriculum leadership is about monitoring with regard to the
Curriculum Management Model (CMM). The CMM is a management tool that
was introduced in Gauteng East District by the District Director in 2009 to
monitor and track syllabus completion and school based assessment at a
school. It has levels of monitoring, development and support built into it so that
different levels of management can ascertain how much curriculum has been
covered and the level of competency per grade and per class. Busisiwe bases
65
her leadership on the use of this tool. When asked where or when she
developed the notion of curriculum leadership, she stated that she was a
Business Studies senior marker of the Grade 12 examinations. Her interaction
with other markers, the sharing of knowledge and the team spirit they shared
informed her opinion of curriculum leadership.
In their responses each participant indicated some notion of curriculum
leadership. A lot of emphasis was placed on the completion of syllabus and
school based assessment. There was a heavy reliance on the use of the CMM
tool. Although the participants performed other curriculum leadership roles
such as collaboration, holding developmental workshops, managing learner
welfare and resolving conflict at their schools only one of the participants was
aware that they form part of curriculum leadership. For example, one of the
participants said, I just tell them that you know we are here for the learners we are not here
to make friends or to be a family. In this firm statement she had performed one of
the curriculum leadership roles in ensuring that the value and behaviour
required to perform the task of teaching within the school context is met, as
stated by Earley and Weindling (2004:16).
Paying attention to belief systems and values (initiation of boys of Zinniah
High), encouraging positive behaviour and initiatives (community involvement
in cultivating flowers at Daffodil High), and catering for some basic needs
(ensuring the nutrition of learners at home at Sunflower Primary) constitute
curriculum. This is advocated by Joseph, who states that curriculum is affected
by influences from outside the school society (2011:141). The disadvantaged
communities in which these schools are situated are one such influence.
3.2.3 Socio-economic profile of Community and its Impact on
Curriculum
The social stigma associated with disadvantaged communities has manifested
itself in these schools. When asked the question what makes this a
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disadvantaged community Annah replied, I would think it is the standard of living,
around here. We got shacks, people who are staying in shacks, and those people staying in
RDPs and the level of education... . Busisiwe classified the community as
disadvantaged because most of the parents are illiterate. She stated that, the
community is not ‘enlightened. We had a problem with these classes, so the contractor
decided to bring skilled workers ... but, he was rebuked and told, “you can’t bring people here,
you know we’re not working!. In explaining the situation further Busisiwe indicated
that unemployment was so rife that the community would seize any opportunity
to find paid work. This confirms the view purported by Mayer (2003:3) that
people see themselves as disadvantaged when they are refused access to
autonomy, incentive, self-respect and responsibility, community of support,
health, education, information, employment, capital and support systems.
When Cynthia was asked if Sunflower Primary is located in a disadvantaged
community she replied that because there is a shopping complex and a taxi
rank close to the school, she would not label the community as disadvantaged.
In retrospect she changed her response and said ... but unemployment makes it a
disadvantaged area. She indicated further in the interview that learners lived in
shacks, did not receive support at home and were left in the care of their
grannies; hence the change in her response. (A shack is a type of small
house, usually in a state of disrepair).
The grim reality of these schools located in disadvantaged communities is that
they have to contend with issues relating to a challenging external
environment. The challenges experienced at these schools were
unemployment, child-headed families, children reared in foster care, teenage
pregnancy and substance abuse.
Busisiwe indicated that these characteristics of a disadvantaged community
have a negative impact on the curriculum because they do not contribute to
stimulation, support and academic aspirations of learners. This view finds
alignment with the assertion made by Ornstein, Pajak and Ornstein that a
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balance between the school, home and broader society would encourage
moral growth of a child. The school must commit to a higher purpose in
addition to promoting academic grades (2007:235&188).
Busisiwe said that parents are unaware of their children’s whereabouts; they
do not know when their children write examinations or what time they wake up
to go to school. Busisiwe indicated that the reason for this is that parents work
as domestic workers and miners away from home. They remain at their places
of work and only come home once a month. There is little parental support,
monitoring and motivation. Locating parents for their signatures and consent
on school related matters was a huge challenge in these communities. The
three participants in this research had to take on the added social
responsibility of ensuring that learners attend school regularly and have
sustenance.
Cynthia emphasised that the school nutrition programme initiated by the
government for learners is a huge help. The school nutrition programme is
especially geared to provide nutrition to learners who come from
disadvantaged communities. Cynthia said she usually sends the surplus food
from the nutrition programme home with the extremely poor learners because
the school meal is sometimes the only meal they have for the day. This was
confirmed during my observation, as I walked with her around the school and
she verbally reminded some learners not to forget to pick up their food parcels
after school. The sad truth is that Daffodil High is not on such a programme.
The principal had to appeal to local churches and to other schools in the area
to assist in providing some nutrition to the learners. Learners who are hungry
are often unmotivated, unhappy and lack self-esteem (Kamper 2008:2).
Annah related an incident when she had to drive to the neighbouring township
in search of a Grade 12 learner who missed her examination, only to discover
that she had no taxi fare to attend school. She drove her back home and
telephoned the examination section of the district office to report the absence
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of the learner at the examinations. She then secured a doctor’s note so that
the learner got an opportunity to write the supplementary examination. The
principal had informed the parent, but the parent did not understand the
seriousness of the situation. Bobbitt (in Jackson 1992:11) is of the view that
the school is an extension of society and those skills and knowledge lacking in
society must be addressed by the school. This view is emphasised by social
re-constructionists, who believe that it is the responsibility of curriculum to
ensure that society enjoys better opportunities (Jackson 1992:15).
Cynthia is of the opinion that infusing sexual education into the curriculum will
assist in educating the community about HIV/Aids and teenage pregnancy. As
she indicated in the interview teenage pregnancy is highly prevalent in the
community of Sunflower Primary.
Annah believed that the curriculum needs of the school must be informed by
the community. She said that there are Reconstruction and Development
Programme7 (RDP) houses within the community. These houses do not have
wardrobes and cupboards. If learners were encouraged to take subjects such
as woodwork and technical subjects they would gain the appropriate skills and
knowledge that would help create jobs and improve the standard of living. In
addition, Annah mentioned that other subjects such as entrepreneurship and
agriculture would be beneficial because the community spends a large sum of
money on flowers for funerals. Learners could engage in the production and
selling of these flowers. She further shared in the interview that she was
excited about a joint initiative between the community and the school where
the community can use the school yard to plant flowers for such occasions.
This corroborates the view of Crow et al that principals’ leadership has a
profound impact on learner achievement in schools located in low socio-
economic areas with high learner numbers. Knowing the community in which
7The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was an integrated strategy for growth and development that
was introduced by the South African Government in 1994 to address problems of poverty and inequality in South African society (Christie 2008:73).
69
the school is based, their social customs and the families of the learners can
assist curriculum planning and leadership (1996:12). Gray (in Chrispeels
2004:283) notes that while there is no conclusive research that disadvantaged
communities affect achievement and improvement, it is a contributory factor.
3.2.4 Striking a balance between Family and School
In order to ascertain if women principals are able to balance family
responsibilities and work I asked the question, “how does your professional
roles and responsibilities impact on your family, and on you?” These were the
responses from the interviewees.
Annah: I don’t consult a husband who says no you must attend this or you cannot do that, so
I’m independent I can do anything I want. She has the support of her sisters and
mother with whom she could leave her children the entire day to attend work or
church. Annah further revealed in the interview that, when I wake up in the morning
water is ready, they are so supportive ... if I got to do things like my involvement in the church,
at school and partly in the community, I’ll run around. Her position had brought many
comforts to her family, one of which was providing medical aid for her mother.
Her siblings were prepared to go to an extent that they would do anything to
make her life comfortable. When I said to my sisters to look for a person to do ironing for
me they said no you can bring your ironing to us and save that money. You are taking care of
our mother, paying the medical aid. Her achievement of being the only female in her
family to have matriculated, to teach, to have a stable job and have a house in
the suburbs has made her family proud of her. The moral quality of women, as
espoused by Eagly and Carli (2007:46) is once again demonstrated by the
attribute of Annah. However, she indicated that her time spent with her
children was very minimal. This affirms the statement made by Van der
Westhuizen that striking a balance between family lives and leadership roles
becomes controversial when women ascend to higher positions (1997:545).
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Busisiwe also does not have a husband to answer to. She has the support of
her mother and sister. Holding a leadership position in a school does impact
negatively on her family life. There were occasions when her son came home
from university to visit for the weekend, but she could not spend time with him
because of school related meetings and commitments. The responses of
Annah and Busisiwe indicate that they perceive husbands as restrictive in their
lives, refuting Bryson’s statement that women were dependent on their
husbands or fathers for a livelihood (2003: 240-241).
Cynthia has a husband who is understanding and knows what is expected of
her although she indicated there are times when there were problems at home
that impacted at school. She indicated that the vast amount of work that needs to be
done at school, it impacts on my family life, sometimes I’ve got to knock off late to cover up the
work, but I do make arrangements… . The family, they feel sometimes neglected, yes
sometimes they feel neglected. She has a daughter who is left to attend to the
duties normally expected of her at home.
The negative impact of climbing the career ladder also meant the loss of
friends for Annah, who said, the people I schooled with, the neighbours, my peers
unfortunately I’m the only one in my own street who managed to get a matric, go to university
and they just moved themselves away from me. I ended up not having friends.
The option of sacrificing family life in favour of work can be interpreted as
woman principals refusing to be judged as incompetent or failing to succeed.
Failure to succeed would mean propagating the perception that women are
less competent than men to hold leadership positions. Women principals in
this study were virtually absent mothers to their children, ultimately going
against the social and cultural expectation of women being relegated to
particular roles like child rearing and performing household chores (Kolb et al
2010:7 and Tyson 2006:85).
It is extremely difficult to maintain a balance between family and school life.
Although their marital status differed the three principals indicated that being
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principals meant sacrificing family time and duties in favour of school.
Regardless of their challenges, these principals still manage to chisel a
pathway forward in their careers and one of the reasons why they remain
steadfast is because they have drawn on inspiration and support from family
and their religious beliefs (Klein et al 2007:116).
It was interesting to note that teaching was not the preferred choice as a
career for any of the participants. The prospect of a bursary enticed two of
them to take teaching as an alternative career choice. Annah revealed in the
interview that she enrolled for a Bachelor of Commerce (B.COM) Degree.
However, she was offered a bursary from the Department of Education and
Training (D.E.T) and the condition of the bursary was that she sign a contract
with the D.E.T. Busisiwe recounted that initially she wanted to be a social
worker but unfortunately her family did not have money for tuition and
boarding. A student studying to be a social worker was supposed to go to a
residential university. A friend had persuaded her to pursue a career in
teaching. Cynthia had worked in the private sector first and became a teacher
after she studied as an Adult Based Education and Training learner.
From the interviews it emerged that all three women were motivated to enter
the teaching profession and to aspire to higher positions of leadership by
women. This is what they indicated in their interviews.
Busisiwe: I was inspired by my friend …she was a principal at Sun Secondary School
(pseudonym), she was the first Black principal … she was telling me about her challenges, I
was saying, I can handle such challenges.
Annah: you know what inspired me to be a principal, there was this … film… Iyzo, Iyzo… this
school was in tatters … There were no systems in place. Drugs. Learners were raped during
the day in the school premises. Until Nambita came and she just put order to the school and
the school became the best school in the township … you know female teachers can make it. I
can make it as well in the township … and I just told myself that one day I can make it and one
day I will be principal myself and practice what I have seen and it’s working.
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Cynthia: yes our pervious deputy. She encouraged us to learn, to improve our qualifications
tell us go to this meeting, go, it will empower you.
In addition, the three principals had a strong internal motivation and believed
that they have what it takes to make good principals. This concurs with Dalton
et al who state that an understanding of one’s inner strengths and weaknesses
enables one to overcome and address one’s limitations and instils self-belief
(2001:20).
3.2.5 Stakeholder Participation and Support
The term stakeholder refers to someone who has a vested interest in
something ‘or an important connection with and is affected by its success or
failure’ (Longman Dictionary 2006:1501). In the context of schools
stakeholders comprise parents and community, teachers, learners, SGBs and
the officials of the Department of Education. Parliament passed the South
African Schools Act, (SASA of 1996) which regulated the establishment of
SGBs because stakeholder participation and involvement is crucial in
addressing the needs of the school (MGSLG 2010:6&11). With the dawn of
democracy in South Africa, citizens have a say in how the government
responds to building better schools and supporting teaching and learning.
In the biographies of the three female principals there is an agreement that
stakeholder participation and support was almost absent during their schooling
in the 1970s and 1980s when they were learners. Annah recounted that during
her schooling stakeholder involvement was very minimal. She said, during our
schooling period the involvement of stakeholders was not as visible as it is now. Yes, we did
have school committees, but they had no legal status. You see parents were doing it out of
free will and they had the passion to help their children. Busisiwe indicated a similar
experience regarding stakeholder support during her schooling. She said, there
was no support at all to an extent that I cannot tell you who the inspector of the school was.
The welfare of learners was relegated to the duty of the school. During their
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schooling, between1970 to 1993, the three principals also shared similar
experiences of the existence of school parent committees which were not
legislated. This period was characterised by Apartheid, when education in
South Africa was racially divided according to different education departments.
The government was solely responsible for the administration and resource
allocation of schools. Parents belonged to parent committees, but did not have
the power to influence decisions of the school their children attended.
South African democracy saw the death of Apartheid and heralded
opportunities to constitute one unified national system of education. With
transformation arose many challenges which schools could not deal with
effectively on their own. A need for a broader and more integrated approach to
schooling developed. This included connecting the school to its community
and other stakeholders in order to improve teaching and learning (Witten
2009:18). There was a need to gain a better understanding of how the system
of education worked. This saw the development of school policies which are
rules and procedures, drawn up in line with the Constitution of the country to
assist schools deal with issues and situations pertaining to learners. SGBs
were vested with many decision-making powers, which included the
formulation of admissions policy, language policy and school fees policy
(Christie 2008:123). As mentioned in the literature review SGBs are crucial
because they are very influential in curriculum implementation, maintenance
as well as maintaining discipline. They provide the channel for articulating
parental concerns and soliciting support of the parents and community (Busher
and Harris 2000:96).
3.2.5.1 The potential of parental power
SASA provided the legislative framework for the establishment of
democratically elected SGBs, of which parents are in the majority. Conley
posits that the link between the school and parents are developed by the ‘glue’
74
of the SGBs (2003:185). Support from the SGBs is fundamental to curriculum
leadership. From the interviews it emerged that getting parents involved in the
schooling of their children was a huge challenge as it was not a practice in the
past. Christie contends that disadvantaged schools are least supported
because poverty is rife and in turn poor people are rendered powerless to
voice their opinions (2008:101). Annah remarked that at Daffodil High the
parents’ level of education is the reason for this, if you can see their level when they
attend meetings, they agree to everything ... but they don’t commit themselves to what they
have agreed upon. She further expounded that at meetings, parents listen
attentively and agree to suggestions and implementation of plans; however
when their assistance is required, they are absent. An example given by
Annah was the commitment of parents to assist with monitoring the punctuality
of learners. In the parents’ meeting unemployed parents agreed that they will
be on the road in the morning to urge learners to get to school on time. Only
the SGB chairperson and a member of the SGB did this, for one week only.
This supports the view expressed by Cunningham and Cordeiro who state that
parents who are not proficient in the official school language will expect the
school to have full control and influence over their children’s schooling
(2003:101).
At Zinniah High attendance at parents’ meetings was also very poor. The
similar experience of the other two schools in this study verifies that parents’
participation and attendance at parents’ meetings in schools in disadvantaged
communities is minimal (Lupton 2004:13). When asked how the principal
communicated with parents regarding memoranda, she said, you don’t give them
memos to read you read for them and explain the meaning. If their children get
homework they cannot help them because the level of parent literacy is low.
Parents refused to volunteer their services at school; Busisiwe said, they’ll tell
you that ... we cannot just come to school without getting anything. They expect that their
children will come out of the school being better whereas they don’t give support to their
children. Efforts by their children to study were thwarted, parents say, switch off the
light, we don’t have money for electricity. Parents of the community where this school
75
is situated do not actively participate in the education of their children. The
socio-economic status of parents in these communities influences the interest
they show in the education of their children. Hunger, lack of clothing and basic
amenities outweighs the benefits of schooling and learning in such
communities. These characteristics support the statements made by Homel et
al (2001:1) and Kamper (2008:3) who observe that the environmental
conditions of poverty are a challenge because learners are often hungry, are
not properly clothed, do not have parental support, proper study facilities, and
lack motivation to study.
Parents of Zinniah High joined the SGB with the hope that they could benefit
from the funds of the school. When they learnt that school funding is governed
by the South African Schools Act8 they became disinterested and eventually
resigned as members. When schools are allocated funds by the government,
government controls the manner in which funds must be utilised. This indicates
that parents, community and the school did not share the same meanings,
beliefs and norms of curriculum as purported by Cornbleth (1990:30) and
Conley (2003:198). Cornbleth and Conley claim that the school is influenced
by contextual factors which include parents and members of the SGB.
Cynthia declared that the caregivers of learners at Sunflower Primary school
are very old. Learners were left in the foster care of their grannies or relatives
whilst their mothers spent their time at a neighbouring settlement. The
grannies had taken on the added responsibility as caregivers; in spite of their
own need for medical attention. Cynthia also stated that they were prepared to
take on this added responsibility because they receive foster care grants for
these children. This supports the view of Kamper who states that
disadvantaged communities consist of parents who “are often in need of health
or other social care; have low educational qualifications or are illiterate and are
8Section 27.2 of the South African Schools Act (SASA of 1996) states that members of SGB cannot be remunerated
for duties performed.
76
often single or act as substitute parents” (2008:2). The principal indicated that
girls became pregnant as early as Grade 8 and she assumed that the father
could be a learner himself. The absence of parental involvement at Sunflower
School was very noticeable. These comments made by Cynthia bears
testimony to the statements made by Davidoff and Lazarus; that there are
many mothers who do not marry their children’s fathers, therefore the children
are left with their grandparents (2002:5). These unconventional effects of
family life can cause schools to become ‘stuck’ because disadvantaged
communities offer almost no support to the school in any way.
From the interviews with the principals at Daffodil High and at Zinniah High it
emerged that parents assumed the principal was a male and were astonished
to discover that the leadership was in the hands of a female. This affirms the
statement made by Beeka that authority is fundamental to a masculine style of
leadership (2008:161). At Zinniah High Busisiwe indicated that the chairperson
had remarked, “For Zinniah High to be a successful school, a male is needed, a female
cannot do anything with that school”. At Daffodil High a parent exclaimed, “oh that
woman was the principal ..., no things have changed, gone are those days by when you are
looking for a principal, you will get a huge man”. This also confirms previous literature
regarding the expectation of some ethnic groups that males are expected to
lead (Datta and Kornberg 2002:2-3).
3.2.5.2 The development of community involvement
All three participants commented on the negative effect that the community
has on curriculum. Drugs have invaded Daffodil High. Drug abuse had become
so rampant that teachers at the school could not distinguish the drug pedlars
from the drug users. Efforts to rehabilitate learners who abuse drugs were
futile because they returned to an environment that influenced the abuse of
drugs. In the interview with the principal, Annah stated that during parents’
meetings, parents indicated they were stressed about drug abuse, but did not
77
make the effort to prevent their children from becoming users. The principal
noted that the active involvement of social workers in this community was
almost non-existent.
The community, in which Zinniah High is located, is still steeped in the
traditional custom of sending boys to initiation schools. Traditionally, boys from
African cultural groups of Ndebele, Pedi and Xhosa are taken into the
mountain schools where they are circumcised and initiated into manhood by
traditional masters. Up until 2010, over half the number of boys enrolled for
Grade12 examinations could miss a whole term of school in order to attend
initiation school. The principal said, looking at this area most of the time they don’t take
education seriously, what they take serious is their culture just like taking the boys to the
initiation school. She further indicated that the community would save huge
amounts of money towards the purchase of furniture and clothing for their
sons’ transition to manhood, rather than using that savings to educate their
daughters. Busisiwe indicated that the community is unaware of the fact that if
they invest in their children’s education, the skills that are acquired can benefit
the community. This indication by the principal confirms the view by Kock and
Irby who state that many entrenched views on gender discrimination are still
evident (2002:23). It also confirms the beliefs that in some cultures men are
more privileged than women (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:2).
The interview with Cynthia revealed that community involvement at Sunflower
Primary is negligible and one of the reasons purported for this was that the
caregivers were elderly citizens. Cynthia indicated that whilst they were in the
process of still understanding policies, they could not actively contribute to the
decisions of the school. The parents indicated to Cynthia during her
interactions with them that they felt that they were too old to get involved in the
running of the school.
Managing people is always more difficult than managing the curriculum. The
definition of curriculum as mentioned earlier in the literature review
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encompasses all the activities and programmes that are taught to children at
school. Parents and community involvement is key in the choices and activities
of the school (Glatthorn et al 2006:258). The interviews confirm Cornbleth’s
view that curriculum is a product of social activity that is influenced by
contextual factors inside and outside the classroom. Curriculum is an
integrated interface of planning, performance, policy and socio-cultural
systems (1992:24&27). It is one of the responsibilities of principals to manage
teachers under their leadership and to create parental partnerships. The
strategy is to locate strength in the SGB and to empower them through
development (Busher and Harris 2000:111).
3.2.5.3 Co-operation of the school management team and staff
During the observations and interviews with the principals, I gathered that all
three of them experienced some resistance from the staff at their schools. The
degree of resistance from staff members at the three schools varies from open
defiance to subtle non-compliance. At Daffodil High one of the Heads of
Department did not honour a Saturday planning meeting. Annah remarked in
the interview of the incident, I don’t know if Mr March (pseudonym) is defiant or what, but
for example on Saturday he didn’t come, he didn’t say a word. The principal decided not
to pursue the issue for the sake of harmony but noted his behaviour. Busisiwe
said she felt demoralised by the gossiping she witnessed at Zinniah High, but
tried to channel this negative behaviour positively by expressing her
commitment to the vision of the school through her duties and responsibilities
as a principal. Initially, she experienced extreme resistance from her SMT. In
the interview she related incidents where SMT members distanced themselves
from decisions taken at management meetings and discussed these issues
outside the meetings with other teachers of the school. She had to call a
special meeting to address the need to work as a SMT instead of a school
management gang.
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Cynthia indicated that at Sunflower Primary resistance was also felt. She
stated, as educators sometimes you have this pull-down syndrome just to make you stress a
bit. During the visit of the Institutional Development and Support Officers to the
school, I observed that the deputy principal walked into the principal’s office
and used the telephone without any courtesy to those present. The principal
later remarked to the IDSOs that despite her addressing the issue previously,
he paid no heed. My observation of the staff meeting at the same school
confirmed what the principal said. The staff did not take the principal seriously,
confirming what the principal had said. Whenever the principal started to talk
she was interrupted by a member of staff. Although she remained calm, her
facial expression revealed her exasperation. During this meeting the deputy
principal, a male aged 39 years, insisted that the meeting should not proceed
until the other two male teachers were present. He expressed his wish to go
out and look for them. With much urging from the principal he resigned to his
chair and allowed the meeting to continue. He challenged the principal on
issues of communication and collaboration regarding submissions of reports
that were made to the district office. He stated he wanted accountability and
evidence from the district office that submissions were not made.
During the meeting I also observed that male staff members in particular
showed no respect or any form of professionalism towards the principal. They
were verbose in their approach, did not observe protocol and openly
challenged the principal on various issues (I got the impression that they
purposely did this because of my presence as an observer).The behaviour
exhibited by them lends credence to the claim made by Greyvenstein; that
females in leadership face disturbing resistance in the form of insubordination
and sabotage (2000:31). Feelings of isolation were felt by all three principals.
The deputy principal, other management team members and teachers were
not assisting to reduce this isolation.
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At Daffodil High Annah initially experienced a feeling of isolation because she
was trying to put systems in place. The members of staff were used to early
departure and late submission of learners’ assessment, hence their
resentment to Annah because she implemented policy and required them to
adhere to timeframes. She also felt alone because she was a new comer to
the school. At Zinniah High Busisiwe experienced a feeling of being alone in
school management team meetings. She indicated that she would discuss
certain issues with her management team and later would find them discussing
the issue out of the meeting. She felt excluded from the group. She also found
herself alone in the mornings to monitor punctuality of learners. At Sunflower
Primary I observed that members of staff were trying to intimidate Cynthia, the
principal. She was expected to respond to issues of communication and
submission and there was nobody that was willing to accept responsibility for
their negligence regarding the submission of work. According to Daresh and
Arrowsmith, heads of schools can feel very alone if they do not form
associations with key stakeholders of their institutions (2003:95).
3.3 CONCLUSION
In this chapter I presented the data collected during my research. I have tried
to use the data to understand how curriculum leadership is experienced by
women principals. What emerged from the analysis of the data gathered at the
three schools was that the participants’ experiences were influenced by a
variety of factors. These factors emanate from their experiences within the
school; in the community outside the school; and from their personal lives.
There are factors which encumber their leadership positions. Within the school
there are subtle stereotypical behaviours exhibited by some staff members
who ponder if women are ‘leadership material’ as questioned by Shakeshaft
(1989:49). It has also emerged that these women do not get the full co-
operation and support from all staff members which will enable them to
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effectively lead curriculum. There is agreement with all three principals that
stakeholder collaboration is necessary for successful curriculum leadership.
The data analysis also revealed that parents and the community do not
provide the necessary support needed for successful curriculum
implementation. As principals of schools in disadvantaged communities they
are clearly faced with challenges outside the school as well. The communities
are afflicted with unemployment, lack of adequate resources, poverty and a
high rate of teenage pregnancies, substance abuse and poverty. Community
morale is often low. The principal’s role is challenged to generate responsibility
and co-operation of parents and community, teachers and learners. Efforts to
involve parents and the community into the culture and management of the
schools have yielded very little success. Women principals in this research
often felt that they have to ride the journey alone.
The analysis from this study also uncovered that the support of families was
instrumental in women fulfilling their roles as principals. It was easier for two of
the participants to pursue their professional roles in the absence of a husband,
whilst the third participant has a supportive husband. This refutes the view
purported by Bryson (2003:240-241) that a woman can be powerless,
expected only to serve others. The participants in this research declared that
one cannot perform the role of mother and fulfil work obligations of a principal
without there being some sacrifice. It must be noted that they do feel guilty
because work commitments have resulted in them failing to fulfil their
conventionally prescribed roles as mothers to their own children. This affirms
the statement by Nohria and Khurana that prejudice is levelled at the way
women leaders are perceived and therefore women leaders have difficulty in
the way they perceive themselves (2010:379).
The information analysed in this study also assists one in understanding why
radical feminists believe that patriarchy can be defeated if women
82
acknowledge their own value and strength. The participants in this research
have also demonstrated another belief of radical feminism; that women have
more in common with other women regardless of race, ethnic group or class.
The positive female attributes of child-rearing, nurturing and domestic care as
advocated by cultural feminism have been demonstrated by these participants
(Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:462). In disadvantaged communities wherein
these schools are located, women’s morality and values are commended for
endeavouring to uplift society (as campaigned by cultural feminism).
Finally the data analysis revealed that the participants were determined to
succeed in spite all the challenges they faced.
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CHAPTER FOUR
THE LONG AND WINDING JOURNEY IS NOT COMPLETE
Chapter Four deals with the conclusion of the research study,
recommendations and suggestions for future research. The experiences
encountered by female principals in curriculum leadership positions have been
elucidated in this research.
This study revealed that females in curriculum leadership positions in schools
in disadvantaged communities do face similar challenges. The experiences of
women principals in their positions as curriculum leaders were expounded in
relation to their work and at home. The study highlighted that women rely on
their own values to assist them in their leadership. Stakeholder participation at
all levels is unavoidable and critical for curriculum implementation to be
successful. The three participants in this study encouraged and involved their
staff and members of the SGB in discussions and decision making relating to
the school, although support did not manifest itself tangibly. Their predicament
as curriculum leaders is further compounded because disadvantaged
communities are not well conversant of community roles at schools.
The study emphasised that female leaders have to make personal
compromises that impact on their family life. The participants of this study were
determined to maintain a balance between work and their personal lives. A
supportive spouse and family made this possible in this study. The three
women share the same curriculum leadership styles when it comes to policy
implementation and decision making. It was also evident from the data
analysis that they use transformational, ethical and learner-centred leadership
styles in the execution of their duties and responsibilities as curriculum
leaders. By infusing their values based on religion and ethnicity into the
84
curriculum, they were able to strengthen relationships at school and within the
school communities.
4.1 CONCLUSION
Although there is some progress, more still needs to be done in order to
balance the gender equality scales in school leadership. Women, as
curriculum leaders are creating environments within their schools where
inclusive curriculum implementation is becoming a reality. The fact that the
participants in this study see their challenges as room for improvement
indicate that they have confidence in themselves because they believe that
they ‘can make it’.
Social expectations of women need to change. Women should be judged by
what they can do, not by their gender. Women should not be pressured into
choosing between work and home. They can accomplish both with
encouragement and support. This study reveals that women principals will
continue to experience challenges within school; the community outside
school; and in their own personal lives as long as society does not give them
the support and continue to stereotype them. People who are less informed
can easily be led astray by stereotyping (Eagley and Carli 2007:84).
In conclusion, there are many misconceptions around women principals and
their abilities to lead. As long as society continues to ascribe negative
connotations such as gender to positions of leadership, disparity and
inequalities in relation to women being appointed to leadership and
management positions will continue to exist (Reynolds in Kgomo 2006:2).
Women principals will continue to face challenges in disadvantaged
communities, unless these communities are educated and willing to have a
change of mindset regarding cultural beliefs and practices that impede
progress and ultimately impact on curriculum. The concept of curriculum is
85
broad and has many facets. Its very nature invites stakeholder participation,
consultation, a vision, teamwork and commitment. Unless it is properly
understood by all those involved the benefits cannot be fully experienced.
Achieving gender equality in curriculum leadership positions in South African
schools is still an enormous task. This research has also revealed that it is
difficult to separate the borders between private and professional lives of
women in curriculum leadership.
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
As a member of this District Office this study has drawn my attention to the fact
that as a district we highlight the roles and responsibilities of principals
according to SASA. We have been remiss in acknowledging that the
curriculum aspect has many ramifications in the day-to-day operations of the
school. Hence;
the local district wherein these three schools are located should hold
workshops that promote the roles and responsibilities of the curriculum
leader.
stakeholder involvement must be encouraged. This can be done by
holding regular community and stakeholder meetings.
there is a dire need for disadvantaged communities to be educated. The
South African Government should therefore expand its social
endeavours in raising the level of community obligation to their role in
schools within their communities.
twinning schools located in disadvantaged communities with schools in
urban and ‘town’ communities is necessary for sharing knowledge on
curriculum and curriculum leadership.
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4.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES
This research study reveals that there is obviously a gap in literature on
women in curriculum leadership positions and the effect of disadvantaged
communities on curriculum in schools. Further research should therefore focus
on the following aspects.
1. The supporting role that community organisations, Non-Governmental
Organisations and government departments can play to highlight the
challenges confronted by women principals in disadvantaged
communities.
2. The impact of gender stereotyping prevalent in schools located in
disadvantaged communities.
3. Changing the mindsets concerning women principals who lead in
schools in disadvantaged communities.
4. The need for the South African government to be more proactive in their
gender transformation policies and ensure that it reaches as many
women in all spheres of life.
4.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The results of this research are only valid for the sample studied, it cannot be
generalised. Numerous limitations such as race, education, marital status and
leadership styles challenge it. Women in curriculum leadership positions
endure an array of optimistic and unconstructive experiences.
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APPENDIX: A LETTER OF REQUEST 21 Bennie Jacobs Avenue
Norkem Park Kempton Park
1618 19 September 2011
The District Director Gauteng East District Gauteng Department of Education Dear Madam This letter is to request permission to conduct interviews with 3 school
principals in Gauteng East District.
I am currently completing my Master’s Degree in Education at the University of
Johannesburg on a part time basis. My research study focuses on the
experiences of female principals in leading curriculum at their schools in
disadvantaged communities. In order to obtain relevant and valid information
on this study, the participation of female principals from schools in these
communities is essential.
My proposed research will be based on interviews and observations, which I
will arrange at times that would not impact on the teaching time of the
principals. The research would be conducted at the schools.
Confidentiality and anonymity will be respected in the interviews and the
report.
Should you have any further queries or questions, please contact me on
0845142158 or my supervisor Professor Juliet Perumal on 083 428 6355.
Hoping that you would consider my request favourably.
Thank you _________________ Bhaigiavathie Naidoo
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APPENDIX: B CONSENT AND CONFIDENTIALITY
Part A: Letter of Consent (To be signed by all research participants) I …………………………………………. have consented to participate as a research subject in Bhaigiavathie Naidoo’s MEd research. I understand that the data collected and analysed as a result of the research will form part of the main body of her Master’s Research Report to be submitted to the School of Education at the University of Johannesburg. I also understand that her study will be used for educational purposes. I understand that I will be guaranteed anonymity during the actual research process as well as the final research report. Pseudonyms will be used to guarantee anonymity. By signing this letter, I consent to the following – [Tick the relevant blocks]: The researcher observing school relationships The researcher taking field notes Taking part in interviews Engaging in ad hoc discussions with the researcher That the interviews will be audio-taped I expect to be given a copy of this consent form to keep. …………………………… ……………….. Signed: Research Participant Date: Part B: Guarantee of Confidentiality I, Bhaigiavathie Naidoo, hereby guarantee anonymity and confidentiality to …………………………………………. in her participation in my MEd research. This confidentiality will be guaranteed during and after the research process as well as in the final research report. ……………………………………. ……………...…… Researcher: Bhaigiavathie Naidoo Date:
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APPENDIX: C INTERVIEW QUESTIONS BIOGRAPHY: 1. How old are you? 2. When and where did you matriculate? 3. Do you see/find a difference in your schooling and schooling here today?
(ethnicity, environment, stakeholders etc) 4. How old were you when you became school principal? 5. Who/What inspired you to become a school principal? 6. In your schooling career did you meet any female in a leadership position
that had any impact on you, positive or negative? 7. How did you get involved with education? 8. What are your post -matric qualifications? 9. What did you think of your interview process? 10. What is the demographic profile of your school? (student and staff
composition)
LEADERSHIP 11. What are your conceptions on curriculum leadership? 12. Where did you develop the notion of curriculum leadership? 13. Do you see a difference in being a curriculum leader and a curriculum
manager? 14. What are you roles and responsibilities as a curriculum leader? 15. How would you describe your leadership style? 16. What in your opinion would be a leadership style that works? 17. Given that you are a female leader, is there a difference in the manner that
males and females respond to you? 18. How do you respond to this challenge? 19. What do you think attributes to this? 20. How does your professional roles and responsibilities impact on your
family and on you? DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITY 21. What in your opinion makes this a disadvantaged community? 22. Does a disadvantaged community affect you as a curriculum leader in any
way? 23. What would you say about the implementation of curriculum in a
disadvantaged community? 24. What are your views on the Government’s efforts on promoting equal
opportunity and fair treatment in the workplace?
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APPENDIX: D OBSERVATION SCHEDULE DATE: NAME OF SCHOOL:
TIME ACTIVITY COMMENTS
7:00-7:30 Observing morning activities of principal
7:30-7:45 Sit in on morning briefing ( staff or SMT) Observe principal’s handling of curriculum related issues during discussions. Observe her non-verbal reactions.
7:45-12:00 Shadowing of principal. Record field notes of her monitoring of curriculum. What styles of curriculum leadership does she employ during her monitoring? How does she communicate? Does the leadership style have any impact on managing curriculum at her school? Does she display any of the female attributes as mentioned in the literature review?
12:00-13:00 Reflection on and addition to notes
13:00-13:30 Conversation with principal for clarification
13:30 Departure
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APPENDIX: E OBSERVATION AND RECORD OF FIELD NOTES DATE: NAME OF SCHOOL:
TIME:
ACTIVITY OBSERVED: NOTES
Number in attendance
Designation of those in attendance
Aspect/ topic of meeting/ briefing
Atmosphere that prevailed
Procedure
Record of facial expressions, gestures and attitudes
Principal’s leadership style/s observed
Impact on the members of the meeting/briefing
Any undertones observed