Wild Turkey B&M B-6198

8/14/2019 Wild Turkey B&M B-6198

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Rio Grande

Wild Turkey

In Texas:

Biology and

Management

B-61

08-0


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James C. Cathey, Texas Cooperative Extension,The Texas A&M University System

Kyle Melton, Department o Wildlie and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University

Justin Dreibelbis, Department o Wildlie and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University

Bob Cavney, Department o Wildlie and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University

Shawn L. Locke, Texas Cooperative Extension,The Texas A&M University System

Stephen J. DeMaso, Caesar Kleberg Wildlie Research Institute,Kingsville, Texas

T. Wayne Schwertner, Texas Parks and Wildlie Department

Bret Collier, Department o Wildlie and Fisheries Sciences,Texas A&M University

Acknowledgements

This work stems rom a collaborative eort o the Department o Wildlie and FisheriesSciences at Texas A&M University, Texas Cooperative Extension, and the Caesar KlebergWildlie Research Institute in Kingsville, Texas. We would like to thank the Texas Parks

and Wildlie Department Upland Game Bird Program or unding or this work, and theInstitute o Renewable Natural Resources at Texas A&M University or their support.Photographs were provided by D. Lang Alord, James R. Cathey, James C. Cathey, KyleMelton, Justin Dreibelbis, Robert Caveny, Matthew Butler and Robert Sanders. Wethank Matthew Butler and Nova Silvy or their editorial review o this manuscript.


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Among the birds o NorthAmerica, it could be arguedhat ew rival the showmanship and

vibrant plumage o the wild turkey.The unmistakable gobble and showyail an o the tom turkey indicateompetition to pass on its genes to the

next generation. To many people, theight o strutting gobblers, as malesvie or the attention o hens, is anunorgettable scene in spring.

This scene was nearly lost whenover-hunting greatly reduced thenumber o Rio Grande wild turkeysMeleagris gallopavo intermedia) inhe late 1800s. By 1920, much o the

population was extirpated over itsoriginal range and the number o

urkeys in Texas ell to approximately00,000 birds. At that time there wereew restrictions on harvest and little

understanding o the birds biologynd habitat requirements. Through

harvest restrictions and restorationorts, Rio Grande wild turkey

numbers rebounded across Texas andhe United States. In Texas and othertates, turkeys were restored primarily

by trapping and transplanting themrom their stronghold in the Edwards

Plateau.However, even wild turkeys

n the Edwards Plateau were notmmune to population declines, as

one area in this stronghold had seendeclining numbers since the 1970sFig.1). Surprisingly ew studies

have evaluated the biology and lieequirements o Rio Grande wildurkeys, which prompted the Texas

Parks and Wildlie Department to

partner with university investigatorso examine Rio Grande wild turkeypopulations in dierent regions ohe state (Texas A&M University inhe Edwards Plateau, Texas Tech

University in the Rolling Plains, andTexas A&M University Kingsville inhe South Texas Plains; Fig. 2).

Turkeys in Texas are divided amonghree subspecies, each occupying

Figure 1. Number o Rio Grande wild turkeys observed during Texas Parks and Wildlie Department summer

production surveys in Bandera, Kerr and Real counties and the remainder o the Edwards Plateau, T

Figure 2. Because o dierences in climate, soil types, and communities o plants and animals, 11 natural reg

are commonly recognized in Texas: 1) Piney Woods, 2) Gul Coastal Prairies and Marshes, 3) Oak Wo

and Prairies, 4) Blackland Prairie, 5) Coastal Sand Plain, 6) South Texas Brush Country, 7) Edwards

Plateau, 8) Llano Uplit, 9) Trans-Pecos,10) Rolling Plains and 11) High Plains.


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ranges that best suit them (Fig. 3).An understanding o the liehistory, population dynamics,habitat requirements, and generalmanagement o the Rio Grandewild turkey will help land stewardenhance habitat to benet this bird

and many other wildlie species.

Life HistoryPhysical characteristics

Aside rom the sparsely eatherehead and bare legs and eet, thebodies o wild turkeys are coveredwith 5,000 to 6,000 eathers thatprovide insulation, lit during fightouch sensation and ornamentatio

eathers also shed water. Feathersare grown during ve moltingperiodsnatal, juvenile, rst basicalternate (rst winter) and basic(adult plumage). Feather color canbe quite dramatic or males, showiiridescent copper, bronze, red, greeand gold. Females have these samcolors but they are less pronounceand slightly duller, so that emalesappear browner overall (Fig. 4).

In addition to the eathers thatcover the body, toms also have abearda group o brous brittlesthat project rom the neck above thbreast. Unlike true eathers, the bedoes not molt. Instead, the beardgrows throughout the lie o thetom. Beards are rst visible at 6 to months o age as they grow past thbreast eathers. Females sometimehave beards also (Fig. 5). Beards inemales are typically much shorter

only about 7 inchesand usually sparsely bristled.

The legs and eet o both sexesare covered with scales rather thaneathers. As a turkey ages, less o tpigment melanin is deposited in thscales, making the legs look pink ored in older birds. A spur grows onthe lower third o the leg and, ovetime, develops rom a small, round

(A) (B)

(C) (D)gure 4. Dierence in color can be noted between emale and male Rio Grande wild turkeys. Females (A, B) are

much duller in appearance than the brightly colored males (C, D).

gure 3. O the ve subspecies o wild turkeys, only the Eastern, Rio Grande and Merriams wild turkeys occur in

Texas. Notice that Rio Grande and Merriams wild turkeys have hybridized in ar western Texas.

Wild Turkey Distribution In Texas


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ump to a sharp, pointed projectionup to 2 inches long. Spurs on emales

re small and blunted. The growtho the spur in males can be used as

n indicator o relative age; small,ounded spurs indicate an immatureom and long, pointed spurs indicate

mature male.Adult males weigh 17 to 21 pounds

nd adult hens weigh 8 to 11 pounds.Adult toms stand about 40 inches tall

nd emales stand about 30 incheswhen at ull alert. Surprisingly, poults

egin lie very small and weigh onlybout 2 ounces at hatching (Fig. 6).

Population DynamicsTo understand the actors that

nfuence Rio Grande wild turkeypopulations, scientists must gathernormation on survival, nesting,

production, and movement overime. Turkey movement is tracked

by attaching radiotransmitters tondividual birds (Figs. 7 and 8).

Signals are heard using an antennand receiver. Scientists monitorhe movement o turkeys and theirctivities over the annual cycle

breeding, reproduction). Oncencubation begins, scientists canpinpoint the location o the nest anddetermine, by repeated visits to theite, i the hen successully hatched

her clutch o eggs or i the nestwas destroyed by a predator. Eachransmitter has a mortality sensor thatends a aster signal i the transmitteremains motionless or 8 hours. This

prompts investigators to home in onhe mortality signal and determine

he cause o death or the turkeyFig. 9).

Nesting ecology

Beore breeding, male turkeysdisplay by strutting on a displayor gobbling ground to attract the

ttention o emale turkeys (Fig. 10A).Once a emale has selected a maleo breed with, she will lie close to

(A) (B)

Figure 5. Male turkeys grow beards throughout their lives (A). Although most emales do not have beards (n

the two emales in the background o photo A), some do grow beards that are smaller and more

sparsely bristled (B) than in males.

(A) (B)

Figure. 6. A Rio Grande wild turkey poult at 3 days o age (A). Note that the natal down is just beginning to b

replaced with fight eathers on its wing. Flight eathers grow rapidly and are much more develope

this poult at 8 days o age (B).

Figure 7. A radiotransmitter is about the size o D cell

battery (about 3 to 4 ounces) and is attached

to a 14-inch antenna. Radiotransmitters send

specic radio signals or tracking individual

turkeys.

Figure 8. A sock is placed over the head o the tu

to keep it calm while it is tted it with a

transmitter, which is worn much like a

backpack.

Figure 9. Transmitters are equipped to give a mortality signal. Oten, evidence at the kill site can be used to

determine the species o the predator. The turkey on the let was killed by an avian predator, while

turkey on the right was killed by a mammal.


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the ground in ront o the male anbreeding will take place (Fig. 10B)Breeding in Rio Grande wild turkein Texas usually begins in early spin southern Texas and continuesthrough July and August in centraand northern Texas (Table 1). Ater

breeding, hens seek out potentialnesting sites, such as thick grassclumps, brush piles and understorbrush, that oer both shade andvisual obstruction o the nest bowl(Fig. 11). Once a nesting location isselected, the hen scratches a shallodepression in the ground, but maklittle other nest preparation. Hensusually lay one egg per day. Clutchsize averages 10 to 11 eggs, but ranrom eight to 16 eggs. Eggs are creto tan in color, with some havingbrown speckles. Incubation beginswhen the last egg is deposited in tnest and continues or approximat28 days. Ater poults emerge, theyroost on the ground until fighteathers begin to replace natal dow(which is completed at about 2 weo age).

Reproduction

Successul reproduction andrecruitment in Rio Grande wildturkeys is a combination o 1) nestand renesting rate (proportion o hthat nest), 2) nest success (percentao hens that successully hatch theyoung, and 3) survival o poultsuntil the ollowing breeding seasoNest success is a critical componeno reproductive success and, whencombined with inormation on pouproduction and survival, it helps

dene the recruitment o youngturkeys into the adult population(Table 2).

As with most ground-nestingbirds, reproductive success is highdependent on weather, range andthe condition o individual birds.In Rio Grande wild turkeys, a largproportion o hens attempt to nesteach year, but during droughts tha

able 1. Rio Grande wild turkeys nest over several months. The condition o the habitat and the timing o spring

green-up likely infuence the nesting interval throughout the turkeys broad range.

Reference Nesting interval Region of state

Cook 1972 FebruaryAugust Edwards Plateau

Melton (unpublished data) AprilJuly Edwards Plateau

Hohensee and Wallace 2000 MarchAugust Rolling Plains

Human 2005 AprilJuly Rolling Plains

Bailey and Rinell 1967 AprilJune South Texas Plains

Beasom 1973 AprilAugust South Texas Plains

(A) (B)

gure 10. Following the males courtship behavior (strutting and displaying, A) a emale will select a mate (B).

Breeding primarily occurs in spring and summer (January to August) over the wide range o R io Grande

wild turkey habitat.

(A) (B)

gure 11. Little preparation goes into the construction o a Rio Grande wild turkey nest (A). (Note the digital

camera used to monitor the nest). A shallow depression in the lea litter, about the size o a dinner plate,

is typical (B).

Reference % Successfulnests

% Destroyedby predators

Regionof state

Cook 1972 39 44 Edwards Plateau

Reagan and Morgan 1980 23 56 Edwards Plateau

Randel 2003 38 Edwards Plateau

Melton unpublished data 15 63 Edwards Plateau

Hohensee and Wallace 2000 16 42 Rolling Plains

Human 2005 34 47 Rolling Plains

Ransom et al. 1987 12 58 South Texas Plains

able 2. Nest predation by reptiles, birds and mammals can limit the recruitment o young turkeys into the

population. Regional dierences in nest predation have been noted.


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proportion may drop drastically,usually with juveniles orgoingnesting. An investigation wasonducted to assess poult productionn relation to rainall in the Edwards

Plateau, Rolling Plains, Cross Timbersnd Prairies, Post Oak Savannah, and

South Texas Plains ecoregions (Fig. 2).Poult production was improved byumulative precipitation over many

months rather than by individualainall events. Seasonal comparisonsndicated that autumn and springains were better predictors o

poult production than was winterainall. Another investigation in the

Rolling Plains ound that pre-nestingprecipitation avorably infuencednest success, but rainall when hens

re initiating nests and incubatingggs tended to decrease nest success.

Movements

Poults leave the nest ater about 24hours, responding to the persistentalling o the hen. A hen and her

poults are known as a brood and theymove about in a group as they orageor ood. Foraging occupies the bulk

o the day. Poults gain weight rapidly,

veraging about 1.1 pounds permonth. Poults consume mostly insectsduring this stage o growth, but eateeds and greens also.

Daily movement seems to beandom in direction, yet purposeul inhe pursuit o ood. As turkeys orage,hey may move rom 300 yards to miles per hour. Typically, several

broods (hens and poults) join togetherter the poults grow larger and ormrood focks. Hens that bred movendependently o hens that did notreed, while males typically segregatehemselves rom the summer focksnto male-only groups independent

o juvenile males and non-breedingemales. In winter, Rio Grande wildurkeys establish winter roost sitesnd travel only 1 to 2 miles romhese locations. In spring, most hens

move less than 2 miles rom their

winter roosting sites, but some havebeen documented to travel as ar as26 miles, presumably to nd suitablenesting and brood-rearing locations.Research in the Rolling Plains oundmost dispersing hens were yearlings.

Survival

Although the Edwards Plateauregion o Texas represents the

stronghold and geographic center othe Rio Grande wild turkeys historicrange, there have been ew studieso the biology o this bird. A recentinvestigation o the survival o RioGrande wild turkeys in the EdwardsPlateau determined that there waslittle dierence between sex or ageclass (juvenile or adult) survival, with66 percent living throughout the year.However, work in the Texas RollingPlains ound that juvenile males had

a higher survival percentage thanadult males (59 versus 36 percent,respectively). That research alsoshowed that survival is lowest duringspring (50 to 63 percent) and highestduring autumn (96 to 100 percent).

Depredation effects

Many dierent reptilian, avianand mammalian species prey on Rio

Table 3. Animals that prey on Rio Grande wild turkeys and their nests in Texas.

Predator Prey on nests Prey on poultsPrey on juven

and adult turke

raven

striped skunk

spotted skunk

coachwhip snake

Texas rat snake

coyote

bobcat

raccoon

gray ox

great-horned owl

opossum

red-tailed hawk

nine-banded armadillo

eral pig

Grande wild turkeys and consumetheir eggs and poults (Table 3, Fig.12). From 2005 to 2007, turkey nestthe Edwards Plateau were monitorwith motion sensor-equipped digicameras. Photos implicated raccooand oxes as the most requent nespredators. There is evidence thatmore than one predator species wisometimes depredate a single nest

Occasionally a predator will eat onsome o the eggs and then leavethe nest. One hen was observed toresume the incubation o remainineggs ater some o her eggs weredestroyed, and the hen was believto have removed the damaged eggrom the area.

Many poults are lost to predatioduring the rst ew weeks becausethey are fightless and vulnerable;

however, once they grow fighteathers (fedge), mortality declineusually at about 10 to 14 days (Fig13). Survival increases as poultsbegin to fy into roost trees ratherthan roosting on the ground. Roostrees oer protection rom grounddwelling predators. While the annsurvival o juvenile and adult birdis relatively high, the loss o adult


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emales increases during the breedseason while they are incubatingeggs.

Diseases and parasites

Rio Grande wild turkeys, like thother subspecies, are susceptible

to a variety o diseases. In nature,diseases sometimes have to run thcourse, as there is no good way ogathering and treating wild animaFurthermore, the cost would be vehigh. It is important to separate wbirds rom domestic owl to saeguagainst disease transmission.

Mycoplasmosis, salmonellosisand aspergillosis are diseases thataect the poultry industry and als

may aect wild turkey populationIn 2001, reticuloendotheliosisvirus (REV) was ound in two o70 wild turkeys surveyed in theEdwards Plateau. This virus maysuppress the immune system, causabnormal internal growths, and leto lower body weights. Althoughairly common in domestic poultry2001 was the rst time REV wasdocumented in Rio Grande wildturkeys. For inormation about

these and other diseases, see TexasCooperative Extension publicationB-1031, Poultry Disease Manual.

Avian pox, a viral inection, isone o the most recognizable turkediseases. It is transmitted whenthe virus contacts the eyes, mouthrespiratory tract, or cuts on theskin. It can also be transmitted bymosquitoes. The virus causes wetlesions in the mouth or trachea or

dry, prominent lesions near the eyand/or mouth. Lesions may preveturkeys rom oraging, which causthem to lose weight and makes themore vulnerable to predators. Turkthat show signs o disease should be consumed.

(A) (B)

gure 12. Predators such as raccoons (A) gray oxes (B), Texas rat snakes (C), spotted and striped skunks (D), eral

hogs (E) and bobcats (F) can aect turkey populations by consuming eggs in nests, thus reducing

population productivity.

(C) (D)

(E) (F)

gure 13. Flightless Rio Grande wild turkey poults are easy prey or predators like this coachwhip snake (A). Two

poult transmitters were recovered rom this nest, where adult red-tailed hawks were eeding their chicks

(B).

(A) (B)


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Hunting effects

A major goal o game managements to make sure population numbersre not adversely aected by hunting

pressure. State agencies oten limithe number o turkeys that can beaken by individual hunters as a way

o prevent over-harvesting. Agenciesmbrace maximum sustainable yield

practices, which is the maximumnumber o Rio Grande wild turkeyshat can be harvested without

harming the populations ability toebound the next nesting season.

Until the early 1990s, hens wereprotected rom harvest in Texas. Thathanged rom 1990 to 1995 when4 o 146 counties were opened to

ither-sex hunting outside o thereeding season during the all o the

year. It is assumed that killing someemales beore nesting will not aecthe population number. A recentnvestigation examined dierences

between gobbler and hen harvests,based on turkey densities and unitso eort spent to harvest turkeys inhe all season. Modeling indicatedimilar outcomes or both sexesnd showed that the current level

o harvest (including hens) did notnegatively aect the population.

Hunting is oten considered themain limiting actor or Rio Grandewild turkeys in some regions oTexas. However, work in the EdwardsPlateau and Rolling Plains has shownhat harvest represents only a raction

o the total mortality. In the RollingPlains, 18.5 percent o mortality wasrom harvest during 20002002, while

n the Edwards Plateau, less than 5percent o total mortality was romhunting during 20012007. The eecto hunting on specic propertieswill depend on the intensity withwhich turkeys are managed (limits onhunter access, permits, etc.).

In the pursuit o Texas Rio Grandewild turkeys, hunters help pay or

Figure 14. Wild turkey hunters in Texas contribute

the conservation o the species by ees

hunting licenses and a ederal tax on ar

and ammunition.

Table 4. Important ood items used by Rio Gran

turkeys in the Rolling Plains and Edward

Plateau ecoregions o Texas.

animal matter little barley

bristlegrass hackberry

Texas cupgrass milk vetch

bumelia croton

skunkbush littlelea sumac

pricklypear squirreltail gra

white tridens grama

tasajillo plantagowild onion juniper

rescuegrass walnut

ground-cherry pigeonberry

laree wild mercury

silverlea nightshade ephedra

honey mesquite gaura

pecan agarita

sand dropseed green matter

lotebrush catnip nosebur

bladderpod tobosapanicgrass evening primro

broomweed

conservation eorts that benet bothnon-game and game species throughees on hunting licenses and excisetaxes on arms and ammunition.Through the Federal Aid in WildlieRestoration Act (popularly knownas the Pittman-Robertson Act), the

United States Fish and WildlieService returns a portion o thismoney (an average o $9.8 millionannually) to the state or conservationactivities conducted by Texas Parksand Wildlie. Overall, huntinggenerates about $3 billion or theeconomy o Texas each year andmoney spent in the counties to whichhunters travel is important to manytownships (Fig. 14).

Habitat RequirementsFood

It is not surprising to nd that thediets o Rio Grande wild turkeysare broad, given their widespreaddistribution across Texas and theU.S. (Fig. 3). Green oliage and seedsrom grasses and orbs (weeds), mast,and animal matter are all importantcomponents in the diets o these

birds. Seasonal dierences in ooditems have been noted (Tables 4 and5). Web tools or identiying plantscan be ound at Texas CooperativeExtensions natural resource site(http://texnat.tamu.edu/plant.htm) andTexas Parks and Wildlies Texas PlantIdentication Database (http://tpid.tpwd.state.tx.us).

Cover

Rio Grande wild turkeys are widelydistributed in Texas; consequently,they encounter an extensive arrayo habitat types. Turkeys need high-quality roosting sites. Large, healthyturkey populations have long beenassociated with major watercoursesin Texas because these areas have anample number o tall, hardwood treesthat are ideal or roosting habitat.

Turkeys tend to remain within mo riparian corridors in the RollingPlains because these are the placeswhere large trees are mostly oundin that ecoregion. Rio Grande wildturkeys are gregarious and someti


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green matter lime prickly ash

paspalum groundsel

animal matter crabgrass

signalgrass granjeno

bristlegrass condalia

lantana palaoxiawindmillgrass coreopsis

wild tobacco beggar-tick

panicgrass polytaenia

fat sedge pinnate tansy mustard

croton smallfower corydalis

oak acorns Texas virgins bower

honey mesquite yellow wood sorrel

alse dandelion buelgrass

euphorb Texas grass

ground-cherry dropseedmilk pea sida

pricklypear stistem fax

hackberry grape

able 5. Important ood items used by Rio Grande

turkeys in the South Texas Plains.

gure 15. Tall grasses like bluestem provide

concealment or nesting Rio Grande wild

turkeys.

Figure 16. Overfow rom windmills is an important

manmade water source or Rio Grande wild

turkeys.

nomadic, having separate summernd winter ranges. They are knowno gather into large focks o several

hundred birds in the winter. In the

Rolling Plains, turkey numbers atraditional roost sites peak in lateanuary and February. The large treesnd wary birds in the fock provideecurity or the turkeys during the

winter roosting period. Roost treesusually produce mast, an importantood source or turkeys. For roostingover, they tend to seek large trees40 eet tall) with broad canopiesnd many horizontal limbs, such as

was a key actor or poult survivalThis study ound that low-growinshrubs provided escape cover orprefight poults but that ater aboudays, when poults had gained figheathers, they relied less on groundcover or protection rom predator

and used other kinds o habitat.Water

Wild turkeys obtain water in thrormsree water, metabolic wateand perormed water. Free water(drinking water) is surace watertaken rom ponds, creeks, watertroughs and similar sources (Fig. 1Metabolic water is derived whenoods are broken down (digested)into their chemical components.

Perormed water is liquid that isbound within the ood itsel (e.g.,succulent leaves). Turkeys will drirom standing water sources, buthens and poults that are eeding osucculent plants and insects mayderive adequate water rom ooditems.

Management

ConsiderationsGrazing

The quality o rangeland can bedegraded by domestic and wildherbivores when their numbers arnot managed careully. Much owestern Texas has a long history oovergrazing and heavy browsingrom cattle, sheep and goats, andsome pastures still show signs ooveruse (Fig. 17). Land that was ondescribed as prairie is now describas scrubland because o the combieect o prolonged drought, resuppression and overgrazing. Theincreasing number o white-taileddeer and exotic herbivores makes problem worse.

Although the eect o wildherbivores on turkey populationsis not well understood, the eect

live oak, hackberry, pecan, elm andcottonwood. Gobblers may use winterroosts throughout the year, whereashens disperse in search o nestingcover and brood-rearing locations inthe spring and summer . Nesting hensand those with young poults rooston the ground. Otherwise, hens roostsingly or in small groups in trees.For additional inormation, see themanagement section that ollows.

One study in the Edwards Plateaureported that as emales let winterroost sites, they selected nest sitesnear roadways. It was suspectedthat the grass cover in these areasprovided better concealment than

adjacent areas that were overgrazed.Eighty-seven percent o nests wereplaced in grasses 18 inches high (Fig.15) and most were within mile oa water source. Researchers in theRolling Plains also ound that henswere attracted to areas near roadsduring the summer. Another studyin the Rolling Plains indicated thatground level vegetative structure


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o cattle grazing has been studied.Studies indicate that turkey nests can

e trampled by domestic livestock.Using articial nests in controlledxperiments, similar rates o loss were

detected under continual (19.6 acresper steer) and short-duration grazing

13 acres per steer) systems. It is likelyhat excessive grazing also increaseshe depredation o turkey nests.

Continuous grazing had more eecton nest predation than a our-pasture,deerred rotation system with eitherhigh or low intensity. Researchers inhe Rolling Plains ound that nesting

hens avoided grazed pastures andelected ungrazed pastures, but that

males did not show a preerence.Studies showed that high livestocknumbers negatively aected oodources, particularly the mast-

producing plants that are importantn the diets o Rio Grande wild turkey.

For this reason, low to moderatetocking rates would be wise whenrying to increase turkey numbers.

Roosts

Roosts are essential to wild turkeyurvival, especially outside the

reeding season. Rio Grande wildurkeys are nomadic and oten haveeparate summer and winter roostingreas. High-quality roost sites,ombined with large fock size, give

protection rom predators (Fig. 18).Also, roost trees oten produce mast,

n essential ood or turkeys in theall and winter. Roosts sites are airly

plentiul, but may be declining inome ecoregions. Roosts are typicallyound in hardwood trees along

iparian corridors in many regionso Texas, but in some parts o theSouth Texas Plains turkeys oten use

rticial roosts.

To protect turkey roosting sites, donot clear mature hardwoods and keep

ctivity around them to a minimum.The seeds rom understory brush aredeposited in bird droppings and ashese plants mature they may provide

Figure 17. Overgrazing and overbrowsing o livestock

and wild herbivores can adversely aect

the ood sources and nesting cover o Rio

Grande wild turkey.

Figure 18. When available, Rio Grande wild turkey

roost during the night in large, hardwo

trees.

Figure 20. Mechanical treatments are oten used

to reduce brush cover and structure.

Mechanical methods kill the tops o pla

but many brush species vigorously re-s

rom the roots. Prescribed burning or sp

treatments with herbicide can lengthen

lie o the original treatment.

Figure 19. When natural roost sites are scarce, as in the

South Texas Plains, turkeys will use articial

roosts like this converted windmill stand

with horizontal poles.

Figure 21. Shallow diskingbreaking the soil 2 to 4 inches deeppromotes the germination o adapted or

and grasses that provide orage or wild turkeys. Here, the natural seed bank yielded a stand largel

composed o dove weed.

ambush sites or predators. Work inthe Rolling Plains has shown thatturkeys preer to roost where there isan open understory. Invasive brushshould be removed mechanically orby using herbicides in individualplant treatments. This is usually done

on traditional winter roost sites whturkeys are not using the location,because roosting turkeys shouldnot be disturbed. Ground-appliedherbicides containing tebuthiuronor hexazinone should not be usedbecause they will kill live oak


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rees, thus destroying the roost sitesee Texas Cooperative Extension

publication B-1466, Chemical Weednd Brush Control Suggestionsor Rangeland, or herbicideecommendations).

In the South Texas Plains and the

Rolling Plains, where there may notbe enough suitable roosts, turkeysometimes use power poles as roostites. Birds in southern Texas oten

use live oak mottes as roostinghabitat and as a ood source. Birdsmay also use mottes or shadeduring the summer to assist withhermoregulation. When naturaloosts do not exist, articial sites cane built by setting horizontal boards

etween two poles approximately0 eet o the ground, leaving 3 eetetween the boards (Fig. 19). Thecacy o articial roosts is beingested in the South Texas Plains.

Brush

The encroachment o woodypecies on prairies in western Texas

probably aided the distribution o RioGrande wild turkeys over the last 200years. High-quality habitat should

have very diverse plant species,ncluding woody plants, grasses andorbs. Land dominated by densetands o juniper or mesquite are oess value to wild turkeys. Finding aalance in plant composition, using

habitat management techniques, isone goal o good land stewards.

It is unlikely that land managersan eradicate all brush and this

mindset should be avoided, as many

pecies vigorously re-sprout romoots. Texas Cooperative Extensionsange scientists advocate tacticalrush treatment systems (TBTS).

Under this strategy, individualherbicide treatments target lesser-valued brush species. The mostecent herbicide applicationecommendations can be ound inhe Texas Cooperative Extension

publication B-1466A, Chemical Weed

and Brush Control Suggestions orRangeland2007 Update.

Land managers are aced with thequestion o how much brush shouldbe removed (Fig. 20). The exactamount will depend on the site, butbiologists recommend that no more

than 50 percent be removed. Dierentbrush species have varying degreeso value to turkeys and other wildlie.For more inormation see TexasCooperative Extension publicationL-5332, Woody Plants and Wildlie:Brush Sculpting in South Texasand the Edwards Plateau. Whenconsidering brush managementoptions, leave mast-producing treesand shrubs and suitable roost trees.

Avoid clearing large blocks and leavemottes to connect ragmented habitat.

Water development

Wildlie managers should striveto increase the useable space o theproperty. Increasing the availabilityo water is an important way todo that. I there are too ew watersources, water collection devices suchas guzzlers can be constructed anddeployed to alleviate the problem.

Detailed plans and suggestions orplacement are available in TexasCooperative Extension publicationB-6182, Harvesting Rainwater orWildlie.

Farming practices, cultivated foodplots and soil disturbance

Clearing in the bottomlands orivers and streams has been reportedto be a major reason or the decline oRio Grande wild turkeys in Mexico.Although it is easy to recognize thatlarge-scale land alterations can reducewild turkey numbers, arming onsmaller acreages may add value toturkey habitat. Turkeys use a widevariety o plants, including cultivatedgrain crops.

Although natural areas sustainturkey populations, the cultivationo small-scale ood plots can be

benecial because it creates diversand alternative ood sources in thelandscape. However, there are nostudies indicating that ood plotsor supplemental eeding increaseturkey production or survival. Beimplementing this practice, land

managers should consider the costassociated with arming, ood plotpreparation, or supplemental eedThere may not be adequate rainalto sustain plants that are not adapto the area. I plots can be irrigatedplants to consider or warm-seasonood plots include lablab, soy beancowpeas and milo; or cold-seasonplantings, consider white clover, hvetch and wheat. These plants werevaluated as deer orage, but theyshould do well or Rio Grande wilturkeys as well. Recommendationsor planting times, seed depth, andseed-bed preparation can be oundin Wildlie Management Bulletin N3 published by the Caesar KlebergWildlie Research Institution.

One simple way to promote thegermination o benecial orbs thaare adapted to local weather is to ua technique called shallow disking

(Fig. 21). In areas with suitable soidepth, the ground is lightly diskedbreaking the surace 2 to 4 inchesdeep. This is usually done romJanuary to March. Disked stripsshould be near cover and should blong and narrow (length varies bysite; about 100 yards by 20 eet widStrips should be rereshed every oyear. A side benet to this techniquis that strips can double or re brewhen prescribed burning is used.

Prescribed burning

Rio Grande wild turkeys canbenet rom prescribed burning.Burning is best done in the all andwinter. I done in the spring or earsummer it would destroy nests ankill poults. Because turkey hens senesting areas that have ne uels, ibest to hold o summer burning u


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poults have gained fight eathers.Adult birds can move away romoncoming re easily. Winter burningtimulates orbs, which producemportant hard-coated seeds and

green oliage. Winter burning alsoan be benecial or invertebrates

grasshoppers, beetles and spiders),nother important ood source orurkeys, especially poults.

It is important to show locationso prescribed res on a detailed mapo that good records can be kept.

This is also useul when planninguture burns. Extremely hot andntense res should not be conducted

under roost trees, as the risk okilling high-quality hardwoods is

oo high. When planning prescribedres, it is a good idea to create apatchwork o burned and unburned

reas as this will leave some escapend nesting cover untouched. Oten

managers use the technique o backburning, by allowing the fames tomove against the wind. This keepshe re less intense and allows ito creep along, leaving a mixture

o burned and unburned areas. Oourse, back burning must meet

your goals, such as promoting orbgrowth. I the objective is to decreasebrush and open up rank grass or

rooding areas, then more requentnd more intense burns are required.

Using head res or burning with thewind will achieve these conditions.Prescribed burning takes practice,he right equipment, and avorable

weather conditions to do correctly.

In many Texas counties, prescribed

urning associations are growingmore popular as landownersecognize that burning rangeland

helps reduce brush, release nutrientsnto the soil, and promote the seed

germination o orbs and grasses. Byworking cooperatively, landownersgain valuable eld experience andearn more about using prescribed res a habitat management tool. Morenormation on prescribed burning

can be ound in Texas CooperativeExtension publication SP-248, Fireas a Tool or Managing WildlieHabitat.

Predator management

The eectiveness o removing

predators to enhance populationso game species has long beena controversial subject. Wildliemanagers look or correlationsbetween predator and preypopulations. It could be reasonedthat low harvest o predatorswould allow them to fourish andcause populations o Rio Grandewild turkeys to decline. Managersmight jump to the conclusion thatpredators are having the greatest

eect on turkey populations when,in act, predators are only one omany actors that limit turkeypopulations, and many o theseactors work in conjunction witheach other. Population declinescould be attributed to low rainall,overgrazing, disease, or changes inagricultural practices.

For example, the intensive controlo raccoons and oxes might increase

the survival o nests but have noeect on poult survival because opredation by hawks (which can notbe killed legally). In this case therewould be no benet to the turkeypopulation. Removing predatorssuch coyotes and oxes might createan overpopulation o herbivoressuch as rabbits, which would urtherexacerbate overgrazing problems andleave turkey nests and poults morevulnerable to remaining predators.

Studies evaluating the eecto intensive predator control onupland game birds have producedconficting results, making it dicultor managers to decide on a plan.Landowners and managers haveto ask themselves i the benet isworth the cost. Costs o personnel,uel and supplies are increasing tothe point that one must consider

whether unds could be spent in awiser way. For instance, developinhigh-quality nesting habitat, throuhabitat management, might increathe number o turkeys by givingthem better concealment. Andhabitat improvement might have a

longer lasting eect than predatormanagement. Some researchersbelieve that intensive predatorremoval could create a vacuum thawould be quickly lled by predatomoving in rom surrounding areasPredator management done overlarge areas, cooperatively withneighbors, seems like a better stratthan operating alone. Wildliecooperatives or associations aregaining in popularity; they helplandowners coordinate predatormanagement and other wildliemanagement activities. Approacheto an integrated pest managementstrategy or predators are describein Texas Cooperative Extensionpublication B-6146, Predator Conas a Tool in Wildlie Management.Most predator management measuwill likely have negligible results aan individual ranch level unless th

are highly intensive and conductedcontinuously.

SummaryRio Grande wild turkeys are

widely distributed across Texasso there is no one-size-ts-allmanagement strategy or this specIt is important to understand howturkey lie history directly infuencpotential management actions. Wi

this knowledge, managers can ocon implementing sound wildliemanagement plans. For example,ood availability is oten one othe rst items addressed by landmangers, when most ranges do nohave limited ood resources andneed better nesting and broodinghabitat instead. With a 60 to 75percent nest ailure rate and a pousurvival rate o just 12 to 50 percen


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t is easy to see that understandingurkey reproduction and recruitmentre critical to maintaining healthy

populations.

Clearly, the goal o habitatmanagement should be to improvenesting sites, brooding areas

nd roosting locations. Habitatmanagement techniques must be

dapted to t the ecosystem in whichhey are implemented, as dierencesn climatic conditions, soils and

vegetation communities will aectheir success.

All managers should strive toncrease the amount o useable space

on their properties. This meansncreasing the diversity, structure and

rrangement o plants to develop

sources o ood, water, shelter andspace. Shallow disking is a simpleway to get started and it promotesplants already conditioned to growin local areas. Water deciencies canbe addressed by deploying waterguzzlers in areas devoid o water

sources, thus increasing the use othose areas. On properties chokedwith brush, tactical brush treatmentsystems will allow managers toreduce brush species with little valueto turkeys and retain those withhigher value, like mast-producingspecies. On open range, it may benecessary to connect habitat blocks bykeeping brush in certain areas to ormtravel corridors. Prescribed burningis a tool that can reduce brush andrejuvenate rangelands.

In some cases, vegetation orturkeys can be enhanced with sligadjustments in plans geared towarlivestock management. Examplesinclude using rotational grazingrather than continuous grazing, oradjusting the deerment time o a

pasture to coincide with the turkeynesting season. Managing habitat lead to better turkey production thwill predator management alone. Ipredator removal is part o a plan,should be intensied rom JanuaryMarch just beore the nesting seasoBy developing a well-dened wildmanagement plan and a monitorinsystem to gauge results, hunters anland managers can have a positiveeect on Rio Grande wild turkeypopulations across Texas.


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5:158160.Hall, G.I. 2005. Relationships between

cattle grazing and Rio Grandewild turkeys in the SouthernGreat Plains. Thesis, Texas TechUniversity, Lubbock, Texas.

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Grande turkeys in north centraTexas. National Wild TurkeySymposium Proceedings 8:85

Holdstock, D.P., M.C. Wallace, W.BBallard, J.H. Brunjes, R.S. PhillB.L. Spears, S.J. DeMaso, J.D.Jernigan, R.D. Applegate and PGipson. 2006. Male Rio Grandeturkey survival and movemenin the Texas Pandhandle andSouthwestern Kansas.Journal o

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on the Rio Grande wild turkeyin the Texas Panhandle andsouthwestern Kansas. Thesis,Texas Tech University, LubbocTexas.

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Human, R.T., M.C. Wallace, W.B.Ballard, G. Hall, R. Houchin, RApplegate, S.J. DeMaso and P.SGipson. 2006. Nesting habitat oRio Grande wild turkeys. Page103111 in J. W. Cain III and P.RKrausman, editors. Managingwildlie in the southwest: new

challenges or the 21st centuryThe Southwest Section o TheWildlie Society, August 2005,Alpine, Texas.

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Glossary of Termsorridor a narrow strip or land path

used by animals to travel acrossopen landscape

brood the young o a amily group,including the emale and poults

brooding the act o caring or youngcoregion a unit o land having

similar soil types, climaticconditions, and communities oplants and animals

gobbler a mature adult male turkey

depredate to plunder or ransack

hen a emale bird

uvenile a young turkey less than 1year old

esion an open injury to the body ororgans, usually well-dened in acircular pattern similar to a blister

maximum sustained yield themaximum number o animalsor plants that can be harvestedwithout harming the populationsability to rebound the next season

natal down the sot, fuy,underdeveloped eathers o newly

hatched birdspoult a young turkey o either sex

production output o reproductiveeort, as in the number o eggs orpoults created

ecruitment the process oadding new individuals to thepopulation, as in growth byreproduction

oost a support or perch on which

birds rest or the nightpur a sti projection on the legso turkeys, much more elongatedand pronounced in males

om a male turkey

yearling a turkey between 1 and 2years old


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