Religion Readings from Wikipedia e & fr Khalid Chraibi01 April 2011w000ReligionFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopediaJumpto:navigation,searchThisarticleisaboutageneralsetofbeliefsaboutlife,purpose,etc..Forotheruses,seeReligion(disambiguation)."Religious"redirectshere.ForamemberofaCatholicreligiousorder,seeReligious(Catholicism).

Symbolsrepresentingsomeworldreligions,fromlefttoright:row1:Christianity,Judaism,Hinduismrow2:Islam,Buddhism,Shintorow3:Sikhism,Bahai,JainismReligionsbycountryNorthAmerica [show] CanadaUnitedStatesMexicoCubaHaitiDominicanRepublicTrinidadandTobagoNicaraguaSouthAmerica[show]ArgentinaChileColombiaPeruBoliviaBrazilParaguayEurope [show] IcelandIrelandUnitedKingdomPortugalSpainItalyFranceNetherlandsBelgiumGermanySwitzerlandLuxembourgAustriaDenmarkSwedenNorwayFinlandPolandLithuaniaMoldovaRussiaAlbaniaBosniaandHerzegovinaCroatiaMacedoniaMontenegroSerbiaSloveniaBulgariaRomaniaGreeceCyprusMaltaTurkeyMiddleEast[show]EgyptIsraelLebanonJordanArmeniaAzerbaijanIranIraqSyriaCyprusTurkeyReligionisaculturalsystemthatcreatespowerfulandlong-lastingmeaning,byestablishingsymbolsthatrelatehumanitytobeliefsandvalues.[1]Manyreligionshavenarratives,symbols,traditionsandsacredhistoriesthatareintendedtogivemeaningtolifeortoexplaintheoriginoflifeortheuniverse.Theytendtoderivemorality,ethics,religiouslawsorapreferredlifestylefromtheirideasaboutthecosmosandhumannature.Thewordreligionissometimesusedinterchangeablywithfaithorbeliefsystem,butreligiondiffersfromprivatebeliefinthatithasapublicaspect.Mostreligionshaveorganizedbehaviors,includingclericalhierarchies,adefinitionofwhatconstitutesadherenceormembership,congregationsoflaity,regularmeetingsorservicesforthepurposesofvenerationofadeityorforprayer,holyplaces(eithernaturalorarchitectural),and/orscriptures.Thepracticeofareligionmayalsoincludesermons,commemorationoftheactivitiesofagodorgods,sacrifices,festivals,feasts,trance,initiations,funeraryservices,matrimonialservices,meditation,music,art,dance,publicservice,orotheraspectsofhumanculture.Thedevelopmentofreligionhastakendifferentformsindifferentcultures.Somereligionsplaceanemphasisonbelief,whileothersemphasizepractice.Somereligionsfocusonthesubjectiveexperienceofthereligiousindividual,whileothersconsidertheactivitiesofthereligiouscommunitytobemostimportant.Somereligionsclaimtobeuniversal,believingtheirlawsandcosmologytobebindingforeveryone,whileothersareintendedtobepracticedonlybyacloselydefinedorlocalizedgroup.Inmanyplacesreligionhasbeenassociatedwithpublicinstitutionssuchaseducation,hospitals,thefamily,government,andpoliticalhierarchies.Someacademicsstudyingthesubjecthavedividedreligionsintothreebroadcategories:worldreligions,atermwhichreferstotranscultural,internationalfaiths;indigenousreligions,whichreferstosmaller,culture-specificornation-specificreligiousgroups;andnewreligiousmovements,whichreferstorecentlydevelopedfaiths.[2]Onemodernacademictheoryofreligion,socialconstructionism,saysthatreligionisamodernconceptthatsuggestsallspiritualpracticeandworshipfollowsamodelsimilartoChristianity,andthusreligion,asaconcept,hasbeenappliedinappropriatelytonon-Westerncultures.Contents[hide] 1Etymology 2Religiousbelief 2.1ReligiousbeliefinChristianity 2.2ReligiousbeliefinJudaism 2.3ReligiousbeliefinIslam 3Religiousmovements 3.1Typesofreligion 4Modernissuesinreligion 4.1Interfaithcooperation 4.2Secularismandirreligion 5Relatedformsofthought 5.1Religionandphilosophy 5.2Religionandsuperstition 5.3Myth 6Religionandviolence 7Religionandthelaw 8Religionandscience 8.1Christianityandscience EtymologyReligion(fromO.Fr.religion"religiouscommunity,"fromL.religionem(nom.religio)"respectforwhatissacred,reverenceforthegods,"[3]"obligation,thebondbetweenmanandthegods"[4])isderivedfromtheLatinreligi,theultimateoriginsofwhichareobscure.Onepossibilityisderivationfromareduplicated*le-ligare,aninterpretationtracedtoCiceroconnectinglego"read",i.e.re(again)+legointhesenseof"choose","gooveragain"or"considercarefully".ModernscholarssuchasTomHarpurandJosephCampbellfavorthederivationfromligare"bind,connect",probablyfromaprefixedre-ligare,i.e.re(again)+ligareor"toreconnect,"whichwasmadeprominentbySt.Augustine,followingtheinterpretationofLactantius.[5] [6] Themedievalusagealternateswithorderindesignatingbondedcommunitieslikethoseofmonasticorders:"wehearofthe'religion'oftheGoldenFleece,ofaknight'ofthereligionofAvys'".[7]AccordingtothephilologistMaxMller,therootoftheEnglishword"religion",theLatinreligio,wasoriginallyusedtomeanonly"reverenceforGodorthegods,carefulponderingofdivinethings,piety"(whichCicerofurtherderivedtomean"diligence").[8] [9] MaxMllercharacterizedmanyotherculturesaroundtheworld,includingEgypt,Persia,andIndia,ashavingasimilarpowerstructureatthispointinhistory.Whatiscalledancientreligiontoday,theywouldhaveonlycalled"law".[10]Manylanguageshavewordsthatcanbetranslatedas"religion",buttheymayusetheminaverydifferentway,andsomehavenowordforreligionatall.Forexample,theSanskritworddharma,sometimestranslatedas"religion",alsomeanslaw.ThroughoutclassicalSouthAsia,thestudyoflawconsistedofconceptssuchaspenancethroughpietyandceremonialaswellaspracticaltraditions.MedievalJapanatfirsthadasimilarunionbetween"imperiallaw"anduniversalor"Buddhalaw",buttheselaterbecameindependentsourcesofpower.[11] [12] Thereisnopreciseequivalentof"religion"inHebrew,andJudaismdoesnotdistinguishclearlybetweenreligious,national,racial,orethnicidentities.[13]Oneofitscentralconceptsis"halakha",sometimestranslatedas"law"",whichguidesreligiouspracticeandbeliefandmanyaspectsofdailylife.Theuseofotherterms,suchasobediencetoGodorIslamarelikewisegroundedinparticularhistoriesandvocabularies.[14]Religious beliefMajordenominationsandreligionsoftheworldMainarticles:ReligiousbeliefandCreedReligiousbeliefusually[citationneeded]relatestotheexistence,nature,andworshipofadeityordeitiesanddivineinvolvementintheuniverseandhumanlife.Alternately,itmayalsorelatetovaluesandpracticestransmittedbyaspiritual[citationneeded]leader.[15]Insomereligions,liketheAbrahamicreligions,itisheldthatmostofthecorebeliefshavebeendivinelyrevealed.Religious belief in ChristianityDifferentreligionsattachdifferingdegreesofimportancetobelief.Christianityputsmoreemphasisonbeliefthanotherreligions.TheChurchhasthroughoutitshistorysetoutcreedsthatdefinecorrectbeliefforChristiansandwhichidentifyheresy.LukeTimothyJohnsonwritesthat"Mostreligionsputmoreemphasisonorthopraxy(rightpractice)thanonorthodoxy(rightbelief).JudaismandIslamhaveeachcreatedsophisticatedsystemsoflawtoguidebehaviour,buthaveallowedanastonishingfreedomofconvictionandintellectualexpression.Bothhavebeenabletogetalongwithcomparativelyshortstatementsofbelief.BuddhismandHinduismconcentrateonthepracticesofritualandtransformationratherthanonuniformityofbelief,andtribalreligionsexpresstheirviewofrealitythroughavarietyofmyths,nota'ruleoffaith'fortheirmembers."Christianitybycontrastplacesapeculiaremphasisonbeliefandhascreatedevermoreelaborateandofficialstatementsinitscreeds.[16]SomeChristiandenominations,especiallythoseformedsincetheReformation,donothavecreeds,andsome,forexampletheJehovah'sWitnesses,[17]explicitlyrejectthem.Religious belief in JudaismWhetherJudaismentailsbeliefornothasbeenapointofsomecontroversy.Somesayitisdoesnot,[18]somehavesuggestedthatbeliefisrelativelyunimportantforJews."TobeaJew,"saysdeLange,"meansfirstandforemosttobelongtoagroup,theJewishpeople,andthereligiousbeliefsaresecondary."[19]Others[who?]saythattheShemaprayer,recitedinthemorningandeveningservices,expressesaJewishcreed:"HearOIsrael,theLordisourGod,theLordisOne."[Deut. 6:4 ]Maimonides'sThirteenPrinciplesoftheFaitharesometimestakenasthestatementofJudaism'fundamentalbeliefs,especiallybyOrthodoxJews.Theymaybesummarisedasfollows: GodistheCreator. Godisaunity. Godisincorporeal. Godisthefirstandthelast. ItisrighttopraytoGodandtonoother. Thewordsoftheprophetsaretrue. TheprophecyofMoseswastrue. TheTorahwasgiventoMoses. TheTorahwillneverchange. Godknowsallthedeedsofhumanbeingsandalltheirthoughts. GodrewardsthosewhokeepHiscommandmentsandpunishesthosethat transgressthem. TheMessiahwillcome. Thedeadwillberesurrected.However,theseprincipleshavebeensubjecttodisputeevenwithinOrthodoxy.[20]Religious belief in IslamMuslimsdeclaretheshahada,ortestimony:"IbearwitnessthatthereisnothingworthyofworshipexceptAllah,andIbearwitnessthatMuhammadistheslaveandmessengerofAllah."[21]Religious movementsMainarticle:MajorreligiousgroupsInthe19thand20thcenturies,theacademicpracticeofcomparativereligiondividedreligiousbeliefintophilosophicallydefinedcategoriescalled"worldreligions."However,somerecentscholarshiphasarguedthatnotalltypesofreligionarenecessarilyseparatedbymutuallyexclusivephilosophies,andfurthermorethattheutilityofascribingapracticetoacertainphilosophy,orevencallingagivenpracticereligious,ratherthancultural,political,orsocialinnature,islimited.[22] [23] [24] Thecurrentstateofpsychologicalstudyaboutthenatureofreligiousnesssuggeststhatitisbettertorefertoreligionasalargelyinvariantphenomenonthatshouldbedistinguishedfromculturalnorms(i.e."religions").[25]Thelistofreligiousmovementsgivenhereisthereforeanattempttosummarizethemostimportantregionalandphilosophicalinfluencesonlocalcommunities,butitisbynomeansacompletedescriptionofeveryreligiouscommunity,nordoesitexplainthemostimportantelementsofindividualreligiousness.Thefourlargestreligiousgroupsbypopulation,estimatedtoaccountforbetween5and6billionpeople,areChristianity,Islam,BuddhismandHinduism.FourlargestreligionsAdherents[citationneeded]%ofworldpopulationArticleWorldpopulation 6.8billion[26] [27] Figurestakenfromindividualarticles:Christianity1.9billion2.1billion29%32%ChristianitybycountryIslam1.3billion1.57billion[28]19%21% IslambycountryBuddhism500million1.5billion7%21%BuddhismbycountryHinduism950million1billion14%15%HinduismbycountryTotal4.65billion6.17billion68.38%90.73%

ThepatriarchAbraham(byJzsefMolnr) Abrahamicreligions aremonotheisticreligionswhichbelievetheydescendfromtheJewishpatriarchAbraham. Judaism istheoldestAbrahamicreligion,originatinginthepeopleofancientIsraelandJudea.JudaismisbasedprimarilyontheTorah,atextwhichJewsbelievewashandeddowntothepeopleofIsraelthroughtheprophetMosesin1,400BCE.ThisalongwiththerestoftheHebrewBibleandtheTalmudarethecentraltextsofJudaism.TheJewishpeoplewerescatteredafterthedestructionoftheTempleinJerusalemin70CE.Todaythereareabout13millionJews,about40percentlivinginIsraeland40percentintheUnitedStates.[29] Christianity isbasedonthelifeandteachingsofJesusofNazareth(1stcentury)aspresentedintheNewTestament.TheChristianfaithisessentiallyfaithinJesusastheChrist,theSonofGod,andasSaviorandLord.AlmostallChristiansbelieveintheTrinity,whichteachestheunityofFather,Son(JesusChrist),andHolySpiritasthreepersonsinoneGodhead.MostChristianscandescribetheirfaithwiththeNiceneCreed.AsthereligionofByzantineEmpireinthefirstmillenniumandofWesternEuropeduringthetimeofcolonization,Christianityhasbeenpropagatedthroughouttheworld.ThemaindivisionsofChristianityare,accordingtothenumberofadherents: CatholicChurch ,headedbythePopeinRome,isacommunionoftheWesternchurchand22EasternCatholicchurches. Protestantism ,separatedfromtheCatholicChurchinthe16th-centuryReformationandsplitinmanydenominations, EasternChristianity whichincludeEasternOrthodoxy,OrientalOrthodoxyandtheChurchoftheEast.Thereareothersmallergroups,suchasJehovah'sWitnessesandtheLatterDaySaintmovement,whoseinclusioninChristianityissometimesdisputed.

MuslimsprayingaroundKaaba,themostsacredsiteinIslam Islam referstothereligiontaughtbytheIslamicprophetMuhammad,amajorpoliticalandreligiousfigureofthe7thcenturyCE.IslamisthedominantreligionofnorthernAfrica,theMiddleEast,andSouthAsia.AswithChristianity,thereisnosingleorthodoxyinIslambutamultitudeoftraditionswhicharegenerallycategorizedasSunniandShia,althoughthereareotherminorgroupsaswell.WahhabiisthedominantMuslimschoolsofthoughtintheKingdomofSaudiArabia.TherearealsoseveralIslamicrepublics,includingIran,whichisrunbyaShiaSupremeLeader. TheBah'Faithwasfoundedinthe19thcenturyinIranandsincethenhasspreadworldwide.ItteachesunityofallreligiousphilosophiesandacceptsalloftheprophetsofJudaism,Christianity,andIslamaswellasadditionalprophetsincludingitsfounderBah'u'llh. SmallerregionalAbrahamicgroups,includingSamaritanism(primarilyinIsraelandtheWestBank),theRastafarimovement(primarilyinJamaica),andDruze(primarilyinSyriaandLebanon).HindustatueofRamainKalaramTemple(India) Indianreligions arepracticedorwerefoundedintheIndiansubcontinent.Conceptsmostofthemshareincommonincludedharma,karma,reincarnation,mantras,yantras,anddarana. Hinduism isasynecdochedescribingthesimilarphilosophiesofVaishnavism,Shaivism,andrelatedgroupspracticedorfoundedintheIndiansubcontinent.Conceptsmostofthemshareincommonincludekarma,caste,reincarnation,mantras,yantras,anddarana.[30]HinduismisnotamonolithicreligionintheRomanicsensebutareligiouscategorycontainingdozensofseparatephilosophiesamalgamatedasSantanaDharma. Jainism ,taughtprimarilybyParsva(9thcenturyBCE)andMahavira(6thcenturyBCE),isanancientIndianreligionthatprescribesapathofnon-violenceforallformsoflivingbeingsinthisworld.JainsarefoundmostlyinIndia. Buddhism wasfoundedbySiddhatthaGotamainthe6thcenturyBCE.BuddhistsgenerallyagreethatGotamaaimedtohelpsentientbeingsendtheirsuffering(dukkha)byunderstandingthetruenatureofphenomena,therebyescapingthecycleofsufferingandrebirth(sasra),thatis,achievingNirvana. Theravada Buddhism,whichispracticedmainlyinSriLankaandSoutheastAsiaalongsidefolkreligion,sharessomecharacteristicsofIndianreligions.ItisbasedinalargecollectionoftextscalledthePaliCanon. UndertheheadingofMahayana(the"GreatVehicle")fallamultitudeofdoctrineswhichbegantheirdevelopmentinChinaandarestillrelevantinVietnam,inKorea,inJapan,andtoalesserextentinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.MahayanaBuddhismincludessuchdisparateteachingsasZen,PureLand,andSokaGakkai. Vajrayana Buddhism,sometimesconsideredaformofMahayana,wasdevelopedinTibetandisstillmostprominentthereandinsurroundingregions. TwonotablenewBuddhistsectsareHaHoandtheDalitBuddhistmovement,whichweredevelopedseparatelyinthe20thcentury. Sikhism isamonotheisticreligionfoundedontheteachingsofGuruNanakandtensuccessiveSikhGurusin15thcenturyPunjab.SikhsarefoundmostlyinIndia. TherearedozensofnewreligiousmovementswithinIndianreligionsandHindureformmovements,suchasAyyavazhiandSwaminarayanFaith.ZoroastrianFireTemple Iranianreligions areancientreligionswhichrootspredatetheIslamizationoftheGreaterIran.Nowadaysthesereligionsarepracticedonlybyminorities. Zoroastrianism isareligionandphilosophybasedontheteachingsofprophetZoroasterinthe6thcenturyBC.TheZoroastriansworshiptheCreatorAhuraMazda.InZoroastrianismgoodandevilhavedistinctsources,witheviltryingtodestroythecreationofMazda,andgoodtryingtosustainit. Mandaeism isamonotheisticreligionwithastronglydualisticworldview.Mandaeansaresometimelabeledasthe"LastGnostics". Kurdishreligions includethetraditionalbeliefsoftheYazidi,Alevi,andAhl-eHaqq.SometimesthesearelabeledYazdnism.IncenseburnerinChina Folkreligion isatermappliedlooselyandvaguelytoless-organizedlocalpractices.Itisalsocalledpaganism,shamanism,animism,ancestorworship,matriarchalreligion,ortotemism,althoughnotalloftheseelementsarenecessarilypresentinlocalbeliefsystems.Thecategoryof"folkreligion"cangenerallyincludeanythingthatisnotpartofanorganization.Modernneopaganmovementdrawsonfolkreligionforinspirationtovaryingdegrees. Africantraditionalreligion isacategoryincludinganytypeofreligionpracticedinAfricabeforethearrivalofIslamandChristianity,suchasYorubareligionorSanreligion.TherearemanyvarietiesofreligionsdevelopedbyAfricansintheAmericasderivedfromAfricanbeliefs,includingSantera,Candombl,Umbanda,Vodou,andOyotunji. FolkreligionsoftheAmericasincludeAztecreligion,Incareligion,Mayareligion,andmodernCatholicbeliefssuchastheVirginofGuadalupe.NativeAmericanreligionispracticedacrossthecontinentofNorthAmerica. AustralianAboriginalculture containsamythologyandsacredpracticescharacteristicoffolkreligion. Chinesefolkreligion ,practicedbyChinesepeoplearoundtheworld,isaprimarilysocialpracticeincludingpopularelementsofConfucianismandTaoism,withsomeremnantsofMahayanaBuddhism.MostChinesedonotidentifyasreligiousduetothestrongMaoistinfluenceonthecountryinrecenthistory,butadherencetoreligiousceremoniesremainscommon.NewreligiousmovementsincludeFalunGongandI-KuanTao. TraditionalKoreanreligionisasyncreticmixtureofMahayanaBuddhismandKoreanshamanism.UnlikeJapaneseShinto,KoreanshamanismwasnevercodifiedandBuddhismwasnevermadeasocialnecessity.Insomeareasthesetraditionsremainprevalent,butKorean-influencedChristianityisalsoinfluentialinsocietyandpoliticsinSouthKorea. TraditionalJapanesereligionisamixtureofMahayanaBuddhismandancientindigenouspracticeswhichwerecodifiedasShintointhe19thcentury.JapanesepeopleretainnominalattachmenttobothBuddhismandShintothroughsocialceremonies,butirreligioniscommon.AmodernstyleUnitariansanctuary AvarietyofnewreligiousmovementsstillpracticedtodayhavebeenfoundedinmanyothercountriesbesidesJapanandtheUnitedStates,including: Shinshky isageneralcategoryforawidevarietyofreligiousmovementsfoundedinJapansincethe19thcentury.Thesemovementssharealmostnothingincommonexcepttheplaceoftheirfounding.ThelargestreligiousmovementscenteredinJapanincludeSokaGakkai,Tenrikyo,andSeicho-No-Ieamonghundredsofsmallergroups. Caoi isasyncretistic,monotheisticreligion,establishedinVietnamin1926. UnitarianUniversalism isareligioncharacterizedbysupportfora"freeandresponsiblesearchfortruthandmeaning." Eckankar isareligionwiththepurposeofmakingGodaneverydayrealityinone'slife.Sociologicalclassificationsofreligiousmovementssuggestthatwithinanygivenreligiousgroup,acommunitycanresemblevarioustypesofstructures,including"churches","denominations","sects","cults",and"institutions".TheHindupopulationofSouthAsiacomprisesabout2,000castes.[31]AccordingtosomeHinduliterature,thereare330million(includinglocalandregional)Hindudeities.[32]Types of religionReligioushistoryfoundingfiguresOriginsDevelopmentAnthropologyPsychologyComparativereligionNeurotheology/GodgenePrehistoricAncientNearEastAncientEgyptSemiticIndo-EuropeanVedicHinduismGreco-RomanCelticGermanicAxialAgeVedantaShramanaDharmaTaoHellenismMonismDualismMonotheismChristianizationIslamizationRenaissanceReformationAgeofReasonNewreligiousmovementsGreatAwakeningFundamentalismNewAgePostmodernismAbrahamicJudaismChristianityIslamBah'FaithIndicHinduismBuddhismJainismSikhismAyyavazhiTaoismNeopaganWiccaFurtherinformation:HistoryofreligionsSomescholarsclassifyreligionsaseitheruniversalreligionsthatseekworldwideacceptanceandactivelylookfornewconverts,orethnicreligionsthatareidentifiedwithaparticularethnicgroupanddonotseekconverts.[33]Othersrejectthedistinction,pointingoutthatallreligiouspractices,whatevertheirphilosophicalorigin,areethnicbecausetheycomefromaparticularculture.[34] [35] [36] Modern issues in religionInterfaith cooperationBecausereligioncontinuestoberecognizedinWesternthoughtasauniversalimpulse,manyreligiouspractitionershaveaimedtobandtogetherininterfaithdialogueandcooperation.ThefirstmajordialoguewastheParliamentoftheWorld'sReligionsatthe1893ChicagoWorld'sFair,whichremainsnotableeventodaybothinaffirming"universalvalues"andrecognitionofthediversityofpracticesamongdifferentcultures.The20thcenturyhasbeenespeciallyfruitfulinuseofinterfaithdialogueasameansofsolvingethnic,political,orevenreligiousconflict,withChristian-JewishreconciliationrepresentingacompletereverseintheattitudesofmanyChristiancommunitiestowardsJews.Recentinterfaithinitiativesinclude"ACommonWord",launchedin2007andfocusedonbringingMuslimandChristianleaderstogether,[37]the"C1WorldDialogue",[38]the"CommonGround"initiativebetweenIslamandBuddhism,[39]andaUnitedNationssponsored"WorldInterfaithHarmonyWeek".[40][41]Secularism and irreligionMainarticles:SecularismandCriticismofreligionSeealso:Agnosticism,Atheism,Irreligion,andAntireligionAsreligionbecameamorepersonalmatterinwesternculture,discussionsofsocietyfoundanewfocusonpoliticalandscientificmeaning,andreligiousattitudes(dominantlyChristian)wereincreasinglyseenasirrelevantfortheneedsoftheEuropeanworld.Onthepoliticalside,LudwigFeuerbachrecastChristianbeliefsinlightofhumanism,pavingthewayforKarlMarx'sfamouscharacterizationofreligionas"theopiumofthepeople".Meanwhile,inthescientificcommunity,T.H.Huxleyin1869coinedtheterm"agnostic,"atermsubsequentlyadoptedbysuchfiguresasRobertIngersollthat,whiledirectlyconflictingwithandnoveltoChristiantradition,isacceptedandevenembracedinsomeotherreligions.Later,BertrandRusselltoldtheworldWhyIAmNotaChristian,whichinfluencedseverallaterauthorstodiscusstheirbreakawayfromtheirownreligiousuprbringingsfromIslamtoHinduism.Theterms"atheist"(lackofbeliefinanygods)and"agnostic"(beliefintheunknowabilityoftheexistenceofgods),thoughspecificallycontrarytotheistic(e.g.Christian,Jewish,andMuslim)religiousteachings,donotbydefinitionmeantheoppositeof"religious".Therearereligions(includingBuddhismandTaoism),infact,thatclassifysomeoftheirfollowersasagnostic,atheistic,ornontheistic.Thetrueoppositeof"religious"istheword"irreligious".Irreligiondescribesanabsenceofanyreligion;antireligiondescribesanactiveoppositionoraversiontowardreligionsingeneral.Criticsofreligioussystemsaswellasofpersonalfaithhaveposedavarietyofargumentsagainstreligion.[clarificationneeded]Somemodern-daycriticsholdthatreligionlacksutilityinhumansociety;theymayregardreligionasirrational.[42]Some[who?]assertthatdogmaticreligionsaremorallydeficient,elevatingastheydotomoralstatusancient,arbitrary,andill-informedrules.[43]Related forms of thoughtReligion and philosophyMainarticle:PhilosophyofreligionThissectionrequiresexpansion.Thissectiondoesnotciteanyreferencesorsources.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(September2010)Religionandphilosophymeetinseveralareasnotablyinthestudyofmetaphysicsandcosmology.Inparticular,adistinctsetofreligiousbeliefswilloftenentailaspecificmetaphysicsandcosmology.Thatis,areligionwillgenerallyofferanswerstometaphysicalandcosmologicalquestionsaboutthenatureofbeing,oftheuniverse,humanity,andthedivine.Religion and superstitionFurtherinformation:Superstition,Magicalthinking,andMagicandreligionSuperstitionhasbeendescribedas"theincorrectestablishmentofcauseandeffect"orafalseconceptionofcausation.[44]Religionismorecomplexandincludessocialinstitutionsandmorality.Butreligionsmayincludesuperstitionsormakeuseofmagicalthinking.Membersofonereligionoftenthinkotherreligionsassuperstition|superstitious.[45] [46] Someatheists,agnostics,deists,andskepticsregardreligiousbeliefassuperstition.Religiouspracticesarelikelytobelabeled"superstitious"whentheyincludebeliefinmiraclesorextraordinaryevents,supernaturalinterventions,apparitions,charms,omens,incantations,anafterlifeortheefficacyofprayer.[citationneeded].GreekandRomanpagans,whosawtheirrelationswiththegodsinpoliticalandsocialterms,scornedthemanwhoconstantlytrembledwithfearatthethoughtofthegods(deisidaimonia),asaslavemightfearacruelandcapriciousmaster.TheRomanscalledsuchfearofthegodssuperstitio.[47]EarlyChristianitywasoutlawedasasuperstitioIudaica,a"Jewishsuperstition",byDomitianinthe80sAD.InAD425,whenRomehadbecomeChristian,TheodosiusIIoutlawedpagantraditionsassuperstitious.TheRomanCatholicChurchconsiderssuperstitiontobesinfulinthesensethatitdenotesalackoftrustinthedivineprovidenceofGodand,assuch,isaviolationofthefirstoftheTenCommandments.TheCatechismoftheCatholicChurchstatesthatsuperstition"insomesenserepresentsaperverseexcessofreligion"(para.#2110)."Superstition,"itsays,"isadeviationofreligiousfeelingandofthepracticesthisfeelingimposes.ItcanevenaffecttheworshipweofferthetrueGod,e.g.,whenoneattributesanimportanceinsomewaymagicaltocertainpracticesotherwiselawfulornecessary.Toattributetheefficacyofprayersorofsacramentalsignstotheirmereexternalperformance,apartfromtheinteriordispositionsthattheydemandistofallintosuperstition.Cf.Matthew23:16-22"(para.#2111)MythMainarticle:MythologyThewordmythhasseveralmeanings.1. Atraditionalstoryofostensiblyhistoricaleventsthatservestounfoldpartoftheworldviewofapeopleorexplainapractice,belief,ornaturalphenomenon;2. Apersonorthinghavingonlyanimaginaryorunverifiableexistence;or3. Ametaphorforthespiritualpotentialityinthehumanbeing.[48]

Urarinashaman,1988Ancientpolytheisticreligions,suchasthoseofGreece,Rome,andScandinavia,areusuallycategorizedundertheheadingofmythology.Religionsofpre-industrialpeoples,orculturesindevelopment,aresimilarlycalled"myths"intheanthropologyofreligion.Theterm"myth"canbeusedpejorativelybybothreligiousandnon-religiouspeople.Bydefininganotherperson'sreligiousstoriesandbeliefsasmythology,oneimpliesthattheyarelessrealortruethanone'sownreligiousstoriesandbeliefs.JosephCampbellremarked,"Mythologyisoftenthoughtofasotherpeople'sreligions,andreligioncanbedefinedasmis-interpretedmythology."[49]Insociology,however,thetermmythhasanon-pejorativemeaning.There,mythisdefinedasastorythatisimportantforthegroupwhetherornotitisobjectivelyorprovablytrue.ExamplesincludethedeathandresurrectionofJesus,which,toChristians,explainsthemeansbywhichtheyarefreedfromsinandisalsoostensiblyahistoricalevent.Butfromamythologicaloutlook,whetherornottheeventactuallyoccurredisunimportant.Instead,thesymbolismofthedeathofanold"life"andthestartofanew"life"iswhatismostsignificant.Religiousbelieversmayormaynotacceptsuchsymbolicinterpretations.Religion and violenceMainarticle:ReligiousviolenceSeealso:Christianityandviolence,Judaismandviolence,andIslamandviolence

TheCrusadeswereaseriesofamilitarycampaignsfoughtmainlybetweenChristian Europe andMuslims.ShownhereisabattlescenefromtheFirstCrusade.TheywereinspiredatthejihadoftheIslamcivilization.CharlesSelengutcharacterizesthephrase"religionandviolence"as"jarring",assertingthat"religionisthoughttobeopposedtoviolenceandaforceforpeaceandreconciliation.Heacknowledges,however,that"thehistoryandscripturesoftheworld'sreligionstellstoriesofviolenceandwarastheyspeakofpeaceandlove."[50]HectorAvalosarguesthat,becausereligionsclaimdivinefavorforthemselves,overandagainstothergroups,thissenseofrighteousnessleadstoviolencebecauseconflictingclaimstosuperiority,basedonunverifiableappealstoGod,cannotbeadjudicatedobjectively.[51]Somecriticsofreligion(ingeneral)suchasChristopherHitchensandRichardDawkinsgofartherandarguethatreligionsdotremendousharmtosocietyinthreeways:[52][page needed ][53][page needed ] Religionssometimesusewar,violence,andterrorismtopromotetheirreligiousgoals Religiousleaderscontributetosecularwarsandterrorismbyendorsingorsupportingtheviolence ReligiousfervorisexploitedbysecularleaderstosupportwarandterrorismReginaSchwartzarguesthatallmonotheisticreligionsareinherentlyviolentbecauseofanexclusivismthatinevitablyfostersviolenceagainstthosethatareconsideredoutsiders.[54]LawrenceWechslerassertsthatSchwartzisn'tjustarguingthatAbrahamicreligionshaveaviolentlegacy,butthatthelegacyisactuallygenocidalinnature.[55]ByronBlandassertsthatoneofthemostprominentreasonsforthe"riseofthesecularinWesternthought"wasthereactionagainstthereligiousviolenceofthe16thand17thcenturies.Heassertsthat"(t)hesecularwasawayoflivingwiththereligiousdifferencesthathadproducedsomuchhorror.Undersecularity,politicalentitieshaveawarranttomakedecisionsindependentfromtheneedtoenforceparticularversionsofreligiousorthodoxy.Indeed,theymayruncountertocertainstronglyheldbeliefsifmadeintheinterestofcommonwelfare.Thus,oneoftheimportantgoalsofthesecularistolimitviolence."[56]Nonetheless,believershaveusedsimilarargumentswhenrespondingtoatheistsinthesediscussions,pointingtothewidespreadimprisonmentandmassmurderofindividualsunderatheiststatesinthetwentiethcentury:[57] [58] [59] AndwhocandenythatStalinandMao,nottomentionPolPotandahostofothers,allcommittedatrocitiesinthenameofaCommunistideologythatwasexplicitlyatheistic?Whocandisputethattheydidtheirbloodydeedsbyclaimingtobeestablishinga'newman'andareligion-freeutopia?Theseweremassmurdersperformedwithatheismasacentralpartoftheirideologicalinspiration,theywerenotmassmurdersdonebypeoplewhosimplyhappenedtobeatheist.DineshD'Souza [59] Religion and the lawThissectionrequiresexpansion.Therearelawsandstatutesthatmakereferencetoreligion.[60]ThishasledscholarWinnifredSullivantoclaimsthatreligiousfreedomisimpossible.[61]OthersarguethattheWesternlegalprincipleofseparationofchurchandstatetendstoengenderanew,moreinclusivecivilreligion.[62]Religion and scienceMainarticles:RelationshipbetweenreligionandscienceandEpistemologyReligiousknowledge,accordingtoreligiouspractitioners,maybegainedfromreligiousleaders,sacredtexts(scriptures),and/orpersonalrevelation.Somereligionsviewsuchknowledgeasunlimitedinscopeandsuitabletoansweranyquestion;othersseereligiousknowledgeasplayingamorerestrictedrole,oftenasacomplementtoknowledgegainedthroughphysicalobservation.Somereligiouspeoplemaintainthatreligiousknowledgeobtainedinthiswayisabsoluteandinfallible(religiouscosmology).Thescientificmethodgainsknowledgebytestinghypothesestodeveloptheoriesthroughelucidationoffactsorevaluationbyexperimentsandthusonlyanswerscosmologicalquestionsaboutthephysicaluniverse.Itdevelopstheoriesoftheworldwhichbestfitphysicallyobservedevidence.Allscientificknowledgeissubjecttolaterrefinementinthefaceofadditionalevidence.Scientifictheoriesthathaveanoverwhelmingpreponderanceoffavorableevidenceareoftentreatedasfacts(suchasthetheoriesofgravityorevolution).Christianity and scienceEarlysciencesuchasgeometryandastronomywasconnectedtothedivineformostmedievalscholars.Thecompassinthis13thcenturymanuscriptisasymbolofGod'sactofcreation.Manyscientistshaveheldstrongreligiousbeliefs(seeListofChristianthinkersinscienceandListofRomanCatholicscientist-clerics)andhaveworkedtoharmonizescienceandreligion.IsaacNewton,forexample,believedthatgravitycausedtheplanetstorevolveabouttheSun,andcreditedGodwiththedesign.IntheconcludingGeneralScholiumtothePhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica,hewrote:"ThismostbeautifulSystemoftheSun,PlanetsandComets,couldonlyproceedfromthecounselanddominionofanintelligentandpowerfulbeing."Nevertheless,conflicthasrepeatedlyarisenbetweenreligiousorganizationsandindividualswhopropagatedscientifictheoriesthatweredeemedunacceptablebytheorganizations.TheRomanCatholicChurch,forexample,hasinthepast[63]reservedtoitselftherighttodecidewhichscientifictheorieswereacceptableandwhichwereunacceptable.Inthe17thcentury,Galileowastriedandforcedtorecanttheheliocentrictheorybasedonthechurch'sstancethattheGreekHellenisticsystemofastronomywasthecorrectone.[64] [65] Today,religiousbeliefamongscientistsislessprevalentthanitisinthegeneralpublic.Surveysonthesubjectgivevaryingresults.ThePewResearchCenterfoundin2009that33%ofAmericanscientistsand83%ofthegeneralpublicbelieveinGod,another18%ofscientistsand12%ofthepublicbelievemoregenerallyinahigherpower,and41%ofscientistsand4%ofthepublicbelieveinneither.[66]AmailedsurveytomembersoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesfoundthat7%ofrespondentstobelievedinapersonalGod.[67]ElaineHowardEcklundfoundthatabouttwo-thirdsofscientistsateliteresearchuniversitiesbelievedinGod[68]andthatnearly50percentofthemwerereligious.[69] [70] Thephilosophicaltheoryofpragmatism(firstpropoundedbyWilliamJames)hasbeenusedtoreconcilescientificwithreligiousknowledge.Pragmatismholdsthatthetruthofasetofbeliefsisindicatedbyitsusefulnessinhelpingpeoplecopewithaparticularcontextoflife.Thus,thefactthatscientificbeliefsareusefulinpredictingobservationsinthephysicalworldcanindicateacertaintruthforscientifictheoriesandthefactthatreligiousbeliefscanbeusefulinhelpingpeoplecopewithdifficultemotionsormoraldecisionscanindicateacertaintruthforthosebeliefs.(Forasimilarpostmodernview,seegrandnarrative.)TheCatholicChurchhasalwaysconcurredwithAugustineofHippowhoexplicitlyopposedaliteralinterpretationoftheBiblewhenevertheBibleconflictedwithscience.TheliteralwaytoreadthesacredtextsbecameespeciallyprevalentaftertheriseoftheProtestantreformation,withitsemphasisontheBibleastheonlyauthoritativesourceconcerningtheultimatereality.[71]Thisviewisoftenshunnedbybothreligiousleaders(whoregardliterallybelievingitaspettyandlookforgreatermeaninginstead)andscientistswhoregarditasanimpossibility.SomeChristians[who?]havedisagreedwiththevalidityofKeplerianastronomy,thetheoryofevolution[citationneeded],thescientificaccountofthecreationoftheuniverseandtheoriginsoflife.However,StanleyJakihassuggestedthattheChristianworldviewwasacrucialintheemergenceofmodernscience.[clarificationneeded]HistoriansaremovingawayfromtheviewthatChristianitywasalwaysinconflictwithsciencetheso-calledconflictthesis.[72] [73] GaryFerngreninhishistoricalvolumeaboutscienceandreligionstates:"Whilesomehistorianshadalwaysregardedtheconflictthesisasoversimplifyinganddistortingacomplexrelationship,inthelate20thcenturyitunderwentamoresystematicreevaluation.Theresultisthegrowingrecognitionamonghistoriansofsciencethattherelationshipofreligionandsciencehasbeenmuchmorepositivethanissometimesthought.AlthoughpopularimagesofcontroversycontinuetoexemplifythesupposedhostilityofChristianitytonewscientifictheories,studieshaveshownthatChristianityhasoftennurturedandencouragedscientificendeavour,whileatothertimesthetwohaveco-existedwithouteithertensionorattemptsatharmonization.IfGalileoandtheScopestrialcometomindasexamplesofconflict,theyweretheexceptionsratherthantherule."[74]Other religions and scienceIntheBah'Faith,theharmonyofscienceandreligionisacentraltenet.[75]Theprinciplestatesthatthattruthisone,andthereforetruescienceandtruereligionmustbeinharmony,thusrejectingtheviewthatscienceandreligionareinconflict.[75]`Abdu'l-Bah,thesonofthefounderofthereligion,assertedthatscienceandreligioncannotbeopposedbecausetheyareaspectsofthesametruth;healsoaffirmedthatreasoningpowersarerequiredtounderstandthetruthsofreligionandthatreligiousteachingswhichareatvariancewithscienceshouldnotbeaccepted;heexplainedthatreligionhastobereasonablesinceGodendowedhumankindwithreasonsothattheycandiscovertruth.[76]ShoghiEffendi,theGuardianoftheBah'Faith,describedscienceandreligionas"thetwomostpotentforcesinhumanlife."[77]ProponentsofHinduismclaimthatitisnotafraidofscientificexplorations,norofthetechnologicalprogressofmankind.Accordingtothem,thereisacomprehensivescopeandopportunityforHinduismtomolditselfaccordingtothedemandsandaspirationsofthemodernworld;ithastheabilitytoalignitselfwithbothscienceandspiritualism.Thisreligionusessomemodernexamplestoexplainitsancienttheoriesandreinforceitsownbeliefs.Forexample,someHinduthinkershaveusedtheterminologyofquantumphysicstoexplainsomebasicconceptsofHinduismsuchasMayaortheillusoryandimpermanentnatureofourexistence.

StmonkinArashiyama,KyotoEvolutionary theory and religionAtonetime,evolutionistsexplainedreligionassomethingthatconferredabiologicaladvantagestoitsadherents.[citationneeded]Morerecently,RichardDawkinshasexplaineditintermsoftheevolutionofself-replicatingideas,ormemesashecallsthem,distinctfromanyresultingbiologicaladvantagestheymightbestow.[78]SusanBlackmoreregardsreligionsasparticularlytenaciousmemes.[79]ChrisHedgesregardsmemetheoryasamisleadingimpositionofgeneticsontopsychology.Analyzedasanaspectofculturearisingfromthenatureofmanandsubjecttotheprocessesofevolutionandnaturalselectionreligionhasbothadaptiveandmaladaptivecharacteristics.[80]Religion as a Christian conceptFurtherinformation:Reification(fallacy)The social constructionistsInrecentyears,someacademicwritershavedescribedreligionaccordingtothetheoryofsocialconstructionism,whichconsidershowideasandsocialphenomenadevelopinasocialcontext.AmongthemainproponentsofthistheoryofreligionareTimothyFitzgerald,DanielDubuissonandTalalAssad.ThesocialconstructionistsarguethatreligionisamodernconceptthatdevelopedfromChristianityandwasthenappliedinappropriatelytonon-Westerncultures.Dubuisson,aFrenchanthropologist,saysthattheideaofreligionhaschangedalotovertimeandthatonecannotfullyunderstanditsdevelopmentbyrelyingonetymology,which"tendstominimizeorcancelouttheroleofhistory".[81]"WhattheWestandthehistoryofreligionsinitswakehaveobjectifiedunderthename'religion'",hesays,"is...somethingquiteunique,whichcouldbeappropriateonlytoitselfanditsownhistory."[81]HenotesthatSt.Augustine'sdefinitionofreligiodifferedfromthewayweusedthemodernword"religion".[81]Dubuissonpreferstheterm"cosmographicformation"toreligion.Dubuissonsaysthat,withtheemergenceofreligionasacategoryseparatefromcultureandsociety,therearosereligiousstudies.Theinitialpurposeofreligiousstudieswastodemonstratethesuperiorityofthe"living"or"universal"Europeanworldviewtothe"dead"or"ethnic"religionsscatteredthroughouttherestoftheworld,expandingtheteleologicalprojectofSchleiermacherandTieletoaworldwideidealreligiousness.[82]Duetoshiftingtheologicalcurrents,thiswaseventuallysupplantedbyaliberal-ecumenicalinterestinsearchingforWestern-styleuniversaltruthsineveryculturaltradition.[83]CliffordGeertz'sdefinitionofreligionasa"culturalsystem"wasdominantformostofthe20thcenturyandcontinuestobewidelyacceptedtoday.AccordingtoFitzgerald,thehistoryofothercultures'interactionwiththereligiouscategoryisnotaboutauniversalconstant,[clarificationneeded]butratherconcernsaparticularideathatfirstdevelopedinEuropeundertheinfluenceofChristianity.[84]Fitzgeraldarguesthatfromaboutthe4thcenturyCEWesternEuropeandtherestoftheworlddiverged.AsChristianitybecamecommonplace,thecharismaticauthorityidentifiedbyAugustine,aqualitywemighttodaycall"religiousness",exertedacommandinginfluenceatthelocallevel.ThissystempersistedintheeasternByzantineEmpirefollowingtheEast-WestSchism,butWesternEuroperegulatedunpredictableexpressionsofcharismathroughtheRomanCatholicChurch.AstheChurchlostitsdominanceduringtheProtestantReformationandChristianitybecamecloselytiedtopoliticalstructures,religionwasrecastasthebasisofnationalsovereignty,andreligiousidentitygraduallybecamealessuniversalsenseofspiritualityandmoredivisive,locallydefined,andtiedtonationality.[85]Itwasatthispointthat"religion"wasdissociatedwithuniversalbeliefsandmovedclosertodogmainbothmeaningandpractice.Howevertherewasnotyettheideaofdogmaaspersonalchoice,onlyofestablishedchurches.WiththeEnlightenmentreligionlostitsattachmenttonationality,saysFitzgerald,butratherthanbecomingauniversalsocialattitude,itnowbecameapersonalfeelingoremotion.[86]FriedrichSchleiermacherinthelate18thcenturydefinedreligionasdasschlechthinnigeAbhngigkeitsgefhl,commonlytranslatedas"afeelingofabsolutedependence".[87]HiscontemporaryHegeldisagreedthoroughly,definingreligionas"theDivineSpiritbecomingconsciousofHimselfthroughthefinitespirit."[88]WilliamJamesisanespeciallynotable19thcenturysubscribertothetheoryofreligionasfeeling.Asadarguesthatbeforetheword"religion"cameintocommonusage,Christianitywasadisciplina,a"rule"justlikethatoftheRomanEmpire.ThisideacanbefoundinthewritingsofSt.Augustine(354430).Christianitywasthenapowerstructureopposingandsupersedinghumaninstitutions,aliteralKingdomofHeaven.Itwasthedisciplinetaughtbyone'sfamily,school,church,andcityauthorities,ratherthansomethingcallingonetoself-disciplinethroughsymbols.[89]TheseideasaredevelopedbyN.Balagangadhara.IntheAgeofEnlightenment,BalagangadharasaysthattheideaofChristianityasthepurestexpressionofspiritualitywassupplantedbytheconceptof"religion"asaworldwidepractice.[90]Thiscausedsuchideasasreligiousfreedom,areexaminationofclassicalphilosophyasanalternativetoChristianthought,andmoreradicallyDeismamongintellectualssuchasVoltaire.MuchlikeChristianity,theideaof"religiousfreedom"wasexportedaroundtheworldasacivilizingtechnique,eventoregionssuchasIndiathathadnevertreatedspiritualityasamatterofpoliticalidentity.[22]InJapan,whereBuddhismwasstillseenasaphilosophyofnaturallaw,[91]theconceptof"religion"and"religiousfreedom"asseparatefromotherpowerstructureswasunnecessaryuntilChristianmissionariesdemandedfreeaccesstoconversion,andwhenJapaneseChristiansrefusedtoengageinpatrioticevents.[92]

Confucianism,Taoism,andBuddhismareone,apaintinginthelitangstyleportrayingthreemenlaughingbyariverstream,12thcentury,SongDynastyOther writersSimilarviewshavebeenputforwardbywriterswhoarenotsocialconstructionists.GeorgeLindbeck,aLutheranandapostliberaltheologian,saysthatreligiondoesnotrefertobeliefin"God"oratranscendentAbsolute,butratherto"akindofculturaland/orlinguisticframeworkormediumthatshapestheentiretyoflifeandthought...itissimilartoanidiomthatmakespossiblethedescriptionofrealities,theformulationofbeliefs,andtheexperiencingofinnerattitudes,feelings,andsentiments.[93]NicholasdeLange,ProfessorofHebrewandJewishStudiesatCambridgeUniversity,saysthat"ThecomparativestudyofreligionsisanacademicdisciplinewhichhasbeendevelopedwithinChristiantheologyfaculties,andithasatendencytoforcewidelydifferingphenomenaintoakindofstrait-jacketcuttoaChristianpattern.Theproblemisnotonlythatother'religions'mayhavelittleornothingtosayaboutquestionswhichareofburningimportanceforChristianity,butthattheymaynotevenseethemselvesasreligionsinpreciselythesamewayinwhichChristianityseesitselfasareligion."[94]See alsoReligionportalSpiritualityportalMainarticles:OutlineofreligionandIndexofreligion-relatedarticles Belief Economicsofreligion Faith Lifestance Listofreligiouspopulations Listofreligioustexts Nontheisticreligions Philosophyofreligion Prayer Priest Religionandbusiness Religionsbycountry Religionandhappiness Religiousconversion Sociologyofreligion Temple Theocracy Wealthandreligion Worldview ReferencesNotes1. ^ Whilereligionisdifficulttodefine,onestandardmodelofreligion,usedinreligiousstudiescourses,wasproposedbyCliffordGeertz,whosimplycalledita"culturalsystem"(CliffordGeertz,ReligionasaCulturalSystem,1973).AcritiqueofGeertz'smodelbyTalalAsadcategorizedreligionas"ananthropologicalcategory."(TalalAsad,TheConstructionofReligionasanAnthropologicalCategory,1982.)2. ^ Harvey,Graham(2000).IndigenousReligions:ACompanion.(Ed:GrahamHarvey).LondonandNewYork:Cassell.Page06.3. ^ Harper,Douglas."religion".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=religion.4. ^ ShorterOxfordEnglishDictionary5. ^ InThePaganChrist:RecoveringtheLostLight.Toronto.ThomasAllen,2004.ISBN0-88762-145-76. ^ InThePowerofMyth,withBillMoyers,ed.BettySueFlowers,NewYork,AnchorBooks,1991.ISBN0-385-41886-87. ^ JohanHuizinga,TheWaningoftheMiddleAges(1919)1924:75.8. ^ MaxMller,NaturalReligion,p.33,18899. ^ Lewis&Short, ALatinDictionary 10.^ MaxMller.Introductiontothescienceofreligion.p.28.11.^ Kuroda,ToshioandJacquelineI.Stone,translator."TheImperialLawandtheBuddhistLaw."JapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies23.3-4(1996)12.^ NeilMcMullin.BuddhismandtheStateinSixteenth-CenturyJapan.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984.13.^ HershelEdelheit,AbrahamJ.Edelheit,HistoryofZionism:AHandbookandDictionary,p.3,citingSolomonZeitlin,TheJews.Race,Nation,orReligion?(Philadelphia:DropsieCollegePress,1936).14.^ ColinTurner.IslamwithoutAllah?NewYork:Routledge,2000.pp.11-12.15.^ ReligionExplained:TheEvolutionaryOriginsofReligiousThought,PascalBoyer,BasicBooks(2001)16.^ LukeTimothyJohnson,TheCreed:WhatChristiansBelieveandWhyitMatters,Doubleday,200317.^ "CreedsAnyPlaceinTrueWorship?",Awake!,October8,198518.^ MenachemKellner,MustaJewBelieveAnything?,LittmanLibraryofJewishCivilisation19.^ NicholasdeLange,Judaism,OxfordUniversityPress,1986.20.^ MarcB.Shapiro,TheLimitsofOrthodoxTheology:Maimonides'ThirteenPrinciplesReappraised,TheLittmanLibraryofJewishCivilization,200421.^ "ProclaimingtheShahadaistheFirstStepIntoIslam."[deadlink]IslamicLearningMaterials.Accessed:17May200922.^a

bBrianKemblePenningtonWasHinduismInvented?NewYork:OxfordUniversityPressUS,2005.ISBN019516655823.^ RussellT.McCutcheon.CriticsNotCaretakers:RedescribingthePublicStudyof Religion.Albany:SUNYPress,2001.24.^ NicholasLash.Thebeginningandtheendof'religion'.CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.ISBN052156635525.^ JosephBulbulia."AreThereAnyReligions?AnEvolutionaryExplanation."Method&TheoryintheStudyofReligion17.2(2005),pp.71-10026.^ http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf27.^ CIA-TheWorldFactbook28.^ MappingtheGlobalMuslimPopulation-PewForumonReligion&PublicLife29.^ [1]30.^ Hinduismisvariouslydefinedasa"religion","setofreligiousbeliefsandpractices","religioustradition"etc.Foradiscussiononthetopic,see:"Establishingtheboundaries"inGavinFlood(2003),pp.1-17.RenGunoninhisIntroductiontotheStudyoftheHinduDoctrines(1921ed.),SophiaPerennis,ISBN0-900588-74-8,proposesadefinitionoftheterm"religion"andadiscussionofitsrelevance(orlackof)toHindudoctrines(partII,chapter4,p.58).31.^ India Caste .EncyclopdiaBritannica.32.^ JeffreyBrodd(2003).WorldReligions:AVoyageofDiscovery.SaintMary'sPress.p.45.ISBN9780884897255.http://books.google.com/?id=vOzNo4MVlgMC&pg=PA45&dq=%22330+million%22:'[..]manygodsandgoddesses(traditionally330million!)[...]Hinduismgenerallyregardsits330millionasdeitiesasextensionsofoneultimatereality,manynamesforoneocean,many"masks"foroneGod.'33.^ Hinnells,JohnR.(2005).TheRoutledgecompaniontothestudyofreligion.Routledge.pp.439440.ISBN0415333113.http://books.google.com/?id=IGspjXKxIf8C.Retrieved2009-09-17.34.^ TimothyFitzgerald.TheIdeologyofReligiousStudies.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPressUSA,2000.35.^ CraigR.Prentiss.ReligionandtheCreationofRaceandEthnicity.NewYork:NYUPress,2003.ISBN081476701X36.^ TomokoMasuzawa.TheInventionofWorldReligions,or,HowEuropeanUniversalismWasPreservedintheLanguageofPluralism.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005.ISBN022650988537.^ ACommonWord38.^ C1WorldDialogue39.^ IslamandBuddhismCommonGround40.^ WorldInterfaithHarmonyWeek41.^ UNresolution42.^ BryanCaplan."WhyReligiousBeliefsAreIrrational,andWhyEconomistsShouldCare".http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/bcaplan/ldebate.htm.Thearticleaboutreligionandirrationality.43.^ NobelPeaceLaureate,MuslimandhumanrightsactivistDrShirinEbadihasspokenoutagainstundemocraticIslamiccountriesjustifying"oppressiveacts"inthenameofIslam.SpeakingattheEarthDialogues2006conferenceinBrisbane,DrEbadipronouncedhernativeIran-aswellasSaudiArabia,KuwaitandYemen"amongothers"-guiltyofviolatinghumanrights."Inthesecountries,Islamicrulerswanttosolve21stcenturyissueswithlawsbelongingto14centuriesago,"shesaid."Theirviewsofhumanrightsareexactlythesameasitwas1400yearsago."44.^ KevinR.FosterandHannaKokko,"Theevolutionofsuperstitiousandsuperstition-likebehaviour", Proc.R.Soc.B (2009)276,3137 [deadlink]45.^ Boyer(2001)."WhyBelief".ReligionExplained.http://books.google.com/books?id=wreF80OHTicC&pg=PA297&lpg=PA297&dq=%22fang+too+were+quite+amazed%22&source=web&ots=NxCB1FWq5v&sig=SuHHSm8zvnJd8_I2cKp5Zc090R0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result.46.^ Fitzgerald2007,p.23247.^ Veyne1987,p211[clarificationneeded]48.^ JosephCampbell,ThePowerofMyth,p.22ISBN0-385-24774-549.^ JosephCampbell,ThouArtThat:TransformingReligiousMetaphor.Ed.EugeneKennedy.NewWorldLibraryISBN1-57731-202-3.50.^ Selengut,Charles(2008-04-28).Sacredfury:understandingreligiousviolence.p.1.ISBN9780742560840.http://books.google.com/?id=mOqtEkGlq0cC&pg=PR7&dq=%22sectarian+violence%22+%22religious+violence%22#v=onepage&q=%22sectarian%20violence%22%20%22religious%20violence%22&f=false.51.^ Avalos,Hector(2005).FightingWords:TheOriginsofReligiousViolence.Amherst,NewYork:PrometheusBooks.52.^ Hitchens,Christopher(2007).GodisnotGreat.Twelve.53.^ Dawkins,Richard(2006).TheGodDelusion.BantamBooks.54.^ TheCurseofCain:TheViolentLegacyofMonotheismByReginaM.Schwartz.UniversityofChicagoPress.1998.55.^ Wechsler,Lawrence."MayhemandMonotheism".http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/2490/PDF/mayhem.pdf.56.^ Bland,Byron(May2003)."EvilEnemies:TheConvergenceofReligionandPolitics".p.4.http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/centers/scicn/papers/religion_and_political_violence.pdf.57.^ JohnS.Feinberg,PaulD.Feinberg."EthicsforaBraveNewWorld".CrosswayBooks.http://books.google.com/books?id=Nl-f5SKq9mgC&pg=PA697&dq=Aleksandr+Solzhenitsyn+But+if+I+were+asked+today+to+formulate+as+concisely+as+possible+the+main+cause+of+the+ruinous+revolution+that+swallowed+up+some+60+million+of+our+people,+I+could+not+put+it+more+accurately+than+to+repeat:+'Men+have+forgotten+God;+that's+why&hl=en&ei=poxYTfTSHcTflgfhpOjHBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false.Retrieved20071018."Overahalfcenturyago,whileIwasstillachild,IrecallhearinganumberofoldpeopleofferthefollowingexplanationforthegreatdisastersthathadbefallenRussia:'MenhaveforgottenGod;that'swhyallthishashappened.'SincethenIhavespendwell-nigh50yearsworkingonthehistoryofourrevolution;intheprocessIhavereadhundredsofbooks,collectedhundredsofpersonaltestimonies,andhavealreadycontributedeightvolumesofmyowntowardtheeffortofclearingawaytherubbleleftbythatupheaval.ButifIwereaskedtodaytoformulateasconciselyaspossiblethemaincauseoftheruinousrevolutionthatswallowedupsome60millionofourpeople,Icouldnotputitmoreaccuratelythantorepeat:'MenhaveforgottenGod;that'swhyallthishashappened.'"58.^ GregoryKoukl."TheRealMurderers:AtheismorChristianity?".StandToReason.http://www.str.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5527.Retrieved20071018.59.^a

bDineshD'Souza."AnsweringAtheistsArguments".CatholicEducationResourceCenter.http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0214.htm.Retrieved20071018.60.^ AnexampleistheEstablishmentClauseintheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution.HowevertheUSSupremeCourthasintentionallynotpinneddownapreciselegaldefinitiontoallowforflexibilityinpreservingrightsforwhatmightberegardedasareligionovertime.[2]61.^ WinnifredFallersSullivan,TheImpossibilityofReligiousFreedom.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2005.62.^ RonaldC.WimberleyandJamesA.Christenson."CivilReligionandChurchandState".TheSociologicalQuarterly,Vol.21,No.1(Winter,1980),pp.35-4063.^ Quotation:"TheSecondVaticanCouncilaffirmedacademicfreedomfornaturalscienceandotherseculardisciplines".FromtheessayofTedPetersaboutScienceandReligionat"LindsayJones(editorinchief).EncyclopediaofReligion,SecondEdition.ThomsonGale.2005.p.8185"64.^ ByDrPaulMurdin,LesleyMurdinPhotographsbyPaulNew.SupernovaeAstronomyMurdinPublished1985,CambridgeUniversityPressScience,256pages,ISBN052130038Xpage18.65.^ Godfrey-Smith,Peter.2003.Theoryandreality:anintroductiontothephilosophyofscience.Scienceanditsconceptualfoundations.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Page14.66.^ PewResearchCenter:"PublicPraisesScience;ScientistsFaultPublic,Media",Section4:Scientists,PoliticsandReligion.July9,2009.67.^ EdwardJ.LarsonandLarryWitham,LeadingscientistsstillrejectGod,inNatureJuly23,199868.^ Scientists'faithvariesstarklybydiscipline-Technology&science-Science-LiveScience-msnbc.com69.^ OxfordUniversityPress:Sciencevs.Religion:ElaineHowardEcklund70.^ ElaineHowardEcklund(2010).ScienceVs.Religion:WhatScientistsReallyThink.OxfordUniversityPressUS.ISBN9780195392982.http://books.google.com/books?id=v6Pn1kbYjAEC.Retrieved25August2010.71.^ StanleyJaki.BibleandScience,ChristendomPress,1996(pages110-111)72.^ Spitz,Lewis(1987).(TheRiseofmodernEurope)TheprotestantReformation1517-1559..HarperTorchbooks.p.383.ISBN[[Special:BookSources/0-06-132069-2Forexample,LewisSpitzsays"Tosetupa'warfareofscienceandtheology'isanexerciseinfutilityandareflectionofanineteenthcenturymaterialismnowhappilytranscended"|0-06-132069-2Forexample,LewisSpitzsays"Tosetupa'warfareofscienceandtheology'isanexerciseinfutilityandareflectionofanineteenthcenturymaterialismnowhappilytranscended"]].73.^ Quotation:"Theconflictthesis,atleastinitssimpleform,isnowwidelyperceivedasawhollyinadequateintellectualframeworkwithinwhichtoconstructasensibleandrealistic historiographyofWesternscience."(p.7),fromtheessaybyColinA.Russell"TheConflictThesis"on"GaryFerngren(editor).Science&Religion:AHistoricalIntroduction.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2002.ISBN0-8018-7038-0".74.^ GaryFerngren(editor).Science&Religion:AHistoricalIntroduction.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2002.ISBN0-8018-7038-0.(Introduction,p.ix)75.^a

bEsslemont,J.E.(1980).Bah'u'llhandtheNewEra(5thed.).Wilmette,Illinois,USA:Bah'PublishingTrust.ISBN0-87743-160-4.76.^ `Abdu'l-Bah(1982)[1912].ThePromulgationofUniversalPeace(Hardcovered.).Wilmette,Illinois,USA:Bah'PublishingTrust.ISBN0-87743-172-8.http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/.77.^ Effendi,Shoghi(1938).TheWorldOrderofBahullh.Wilmette,Illinois,USA:Bah'PublishingTrust.ISBN0-87743-231-7.http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/index.html.78.^ Dawkins1989,p.35279.^ Blackmore199980.^ [|Dennett,DanielC.](2006).BreakingtheSpell:ReligionasaNaturalPhenomenon.Viking.ISBN067003472X.https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/books/review/19wieseltier.html.RetrievedDecember8,2010.81.^a

b

cDanielDubuisson,TheWesternConstructionofReligion82.^ DanielDubuisson."ExportingtheLocal:RecentPerspectiveson'Religion'asaCulturalCategory",ReligionCompass,1.6(2007),p.792.83.^ TomokoMasuzawa,TheInventionofWorldReligions.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2007.84.^ Fitzgerald,Timothy(2007).DiscourseonCivilityandBarbarity.OxfordUniversityPress.pp.4546.85.^ Fitzgerald2007,p.19486.^ Fitzgerald2007,p.26887.^ HuestonA.Finlay."Feelingofabsolutedependenceorabsolutefeelingofdependence?Aquestionrevisited".ReligiousStudies41.1(2005),pp.81-94.88.^ MaxMller."Lecturesontheoriginandgrowthofreligion."89.^ TalalAsad,GenealogiesofReligion.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniv.Press,1993p.34-35.90.^ S.N.Balagangadhara.TheHeatheninHisBlindness...NewYork:BrillAcademicPublishers,1994.p.159.91.^ JasonnandaJosephson."WhenBuddhismBecamea'Religion'".JapaneseJournalof ReligiousStudies33.1:143168.92.^ IsomaeJunichi."Deconstructing'JapaneseReligion'".JapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies32.2:235248.93.^ GeorgeA.Lindbeck,NatureofDoctrine(Louisville:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1984),33.94.^ NicholasdeLange,Judaism,OxfordUniversityPress,1986Bibliography SaintAugustine;TheConfessionsofSaintAugustine(JohnK.Ryantranslator);Image(1960),ISBN0-385-02955-1. Descartes,Ren;MeditationsonFirstPhilosophy;Bobbs-Merril(1960),ISBN0-672-60191-5. Barzilai,Gad;LawandReligion;TheInternationalLibraryofEssaysinLawandSociety;Ashgate(2007),ISBN978-0-7546-2494-3 Durant,Will(&Ariel(uncredited));OurOrientalHeritage;MJFBooks(1997),ISBN1-56731-012-5. Durant,Will(&Ariel(uncredited));CaesarandChrist;MJFBooks(1994),ISBN1-56731-014-1 Durant,Will(&Ariel(uncredited));TheAgeofFaith;Simon&Schuster(1980),ISBN0-671-01200-2. MarijaGimbutas 1989.TheLanguageoftheGoddess.ThamesandHudsonNewYork Gonick,Larry;TheCartoonHistoryoftheUniverse;Doubleday,vol.1(1978)ISBN0-385-26520-4,vol.II(1994)ISBN#0-385-42093-5,W.W.Norton,vol.III(2002)ISBN0-393-05184-6. Haisch,BernardTheGodTheory:Universes,Zero-pointFields,andWhat'sBehindItAll--discussionofsciencevs.religion(Preface[deadlink]),RedWheel/Weiser,2006,ISBN1-57863-374-5 LaoTzu;TaoTeChing(VictorH.Mairtranslator);Bantam(1998). Marx,Karl;"IntroductiontoAContributiontotheCritiqueofHegelsPhilosophyofRight",Deutsch-FranzsischeJahrbcher,(1844). Saler,Benson;"ConceptualizingReligion:ImmanentAnthropologists,TranscendentNatives,andUnboundedCategories"(1990),ISBN1-57181-219-9 TheHolyBible,KingJamesVersion;NewAmericanLibrary(1974). TheKoran;Penguin(2000),ISBN0-14-044558-7. TheOriginofLive&Death,AfricanCreationMyths;Heinemann(1966). PoemsofHeavenandHellfromAncientMesopotamia;Penguin(1971). TheWorldAlmanac(annual),WorldAlmanacBooks,ISBN0-88687-964-7. TheSerotoninSystemandSpiritualExperiences -AmericanJournalofPsychiatry160:1965-1969,November2003. UnitedStatesConstitution SelectedWorkMarcusTulliusCicero TheWorldAlmanac(fornumbersofadherentsofvariousreligions),2005 Religion[FirstEdition].WinstonKing.EncyclopediaofReligion.Ed.LindsayJones.Vol.11.2nded.Detroit:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2005.p7692-7701. WorldReligionsandSocialEvolutionoftheOldWorldOikumeneCivilizations:ACross-culturalPerspectivebyAndreyKorotayev,Lewiston,NY:EdwinMellenPress,2004,ISBN0-7734-6310-0. Brodd,Jefferey(2003).WorldReligions.Winona,MN:SaintMary'sPress.ISBN978-0-88489-725-5.Onreligiondefinition: Thefirstmajorstudy:Durkheim,Emile(1976)TheElementaryFormsoftheReligiousLife.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin(inFrench1912,Englishtranslation1915). WilfredCantwellSmith TheMeaningandEndofReligion(1962)notesthattheconceptofreligionasanideologicalcommunityandsystemofdoctrines,developedinthe15thand16thcenturiesCE. AdistillationoftheWesternfolkcategoryofreligion:Geertz,Clifford.1993[1966].Religionasaculturalsystem.pp.87125inCliffordGeertz,TheInterpretationofCultures: SelectedEssays.London:FontanaPress. Anoperationaldefinition:Wallace,AnthonyF.C.1966.Religion:AnAnthropologicalView.NewYork:RandomHouse.(p.62-66) Arecentoverview:AScientificDefinitionofReligion.ByPh.D.JamesW.Dow.Studiesofreligioninparticulargeographicalareas: A.Khanbaghi.TheFire,theStarandtheCross:MinorityReligionsinMedievalandEarlyModernIran(IBTauris;2006)268pages.Social,politicalandculturalhistoryofreligiousminoritiesinIran,c.226-1722AD.External linksWikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedto:ReligionWikiquotehasacollectionofquotationsrelatedto:Religion ReligionStatistics fromUCBLibrariesGovPubs Religion attheOpenDirectoryProject MajorReligionsoftheWorldRankedbyNumberofAdherents byAdherents.comAugust2005 IACSR-InternationalAssociationfortheCognitiveScienceofReligion StudyingReligion -Introductiontothemethodsandscholarsoftheacademicstudyofreligion AContributiontotheCritiqueofHegelsPhilosophyofRight -Marx'soriginalreferencetoreligionastheopiumofthepeople. TheComplexityofReligionandtheDefinitionofReligioninInternationalLaw HarvardHumanRightsJournalarticlefromthePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege(2003)[hide]vdeReligiontopicsMajorgroupsAbrahamic Bah'FaithChristianityDruzeIslamJudaismIndian AyyavazhiBuddhismHinduismJainismSikhismIranianAhl-eHaqqBah'FaithManichaeismMazdakMithraismYazidiZoroastrianismTaoic ConfucianismTaoismShintoZenRecentCaoDaiCheondoismDiscordianismI-KuanTaoNeopaganismNewAgeRastafariSeicho-No-IeTenrikyoUnitarianUniversalismFolk AfricanAfro-AmericanIndigenousAustralianChineseFinnish-EstonianJavaneseMalagasyNativeAmericanOdinaniPhilippinePolynesianVodouYorubaAncientreligionsPrehistoric PaleolithicNearEast EgyptianSemiticMesopotamianIndo-EuropeanCelticGermanicIllyro-thracianGreek(GnosticismNeoplatonism)MithraismRomanSlavicVedicHinduismTurkic TengriismTheismAnimismDeismMonotheismPanentheismPantheismNontheismPolytheismTranstheismReligiousstudiesAnthropologyComparisonDevelopmentHistoryOriginPhilosophyPsychologySociologyTheologyTheoriesTimelineWomenandreligionReligion DemographicsAbrahamicprophetstableEducationClergyandsociety(MonasticismOrdination)FanaticismFundamentalismGrowthMinoritiesNationalchurchNeo-FascismConversion(ProselytismEvangelismMissionary)Religiousfreedom(TolerationPluralismSyncretismUniversalism)ReligionandagricultureReligionandbusinessReligionandpoliticsReligionandhappinessReligionandhomosexualityReligionandscienceSchismStatereligionTheocracyViolence(persecutionterrorismwar)ReligionandwealthSecularismandirreligionAtheismAgnosticismCriticismofreligionDeconstructionIrreligionbycountrySeculartheologySecularizationSeparationofchurchandstateListsTopics(basictopics)ReligionsandSpiritualTraditionsDeitiesDeificationFoundersMassgatheringsNewreligiousmovementsScholarsOrganizationsReligionportal[hide]vde Philosophyofreligion Related CriticismofreligionExegesisHistoryofreligionsReligionReligiousarticlesphilosophyTheologyRelationshipbetweenreligionandsciencePoliticalscienceofreligionFaithandrationalitymore...ConceptsinreligionAfterlifeEuthyphrodilemmaFaithIntelligentdesignMiracleProblemofevilReligiousbeliefSoulSpiritTheodicyTheologicalvetoTheoriesofreligionAcosmismAgnosticismAnimismAntireligionAtheismDharmismDeismDivinecommandtheoryDualismEsotericismExclusivismExistentialism(Christian,Agnostic,Atheist)FeministtheologyFundamentalismGnosticismHenotheismHumanism(Religious,Secular, Christian)InclusivismMonismMonotheismMysticismNaturalism(Metaphysical,Religious,Humanistic)NewAgeNondualismNontheismPandeismPantheismPolytheismProcesstheologySpiritualismShamanismTaoicTheismTranscendentalismmore...PhilosophersofreligionAlbrechtRitschlAlvinPlantingaAnselmofCanterburyAntonyFlewAnthonyKennyAugustineofHippoAverroesBarond'HolbachBaruchSpinozaBlaisePascalBertrandRussellBoethiusD.Z.PhillipsDavidHumeDesideriusErasmusEmilBrunnerErnstCassirerErnstHaeckelErnstTroeltschFriedrichSchleiermacherFriedrichNietzscheGauniloofMarmoutiersGeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegelGeorgeSantayanaHaraldHffdingHeraclitusJean-LucMarionLevShestovLoyalRueMartinBuberMirceaEliadeImmanuelKantJ.L.MackieJohannGottfriedHerderKarlBarthLudwigFeuerbachMaimonidesPaulTillichPavelFlorenskyPeterGeachPicodellaMirandolaReinholdNiebuhrRenDescartesRichardSwinburneRobertMerrihewAdamsRudolfOttoSrenKierkegaardSergeiBulgakovThomasAquinasThomasChubbVladimirSolovyovWalterKaufmannWilliamAlstonWilliamJamesWilliamLaneCraigW.K.CliffordWilliamL.RoweWilliamWhewellWilliamWollastonmore...ExistenceofgodForBeautyChristologicalConsciousnessCosmologicalDegreeDesireExperienceLoveMiraclesMoralityOntologicalPascal'sWagerProperbasisReasonTeleological(Naturallaw)TranscendentalWitnessAgainst747GambitAtheist'sWagerEvilFreewillHellInconsistentrevelationsNonbeliefNoncognitivismOccam'srazorOmnipotencePoordesignRussell'steapotFateoftheunlearnedPortalCategory[hide]vde Philosophy WesternphilosophyEasternphilosophyHistoryAncientBuddhistChineseGreekHellenisticIndian(HinduJain)PersianMedievalChristian(Scholasticism)Islamic(EarlyIslamic)Jewish(Judeo-Islamic)ModernEmpiricismRationalismContemporaryAnalyticContinentalLists OutlineIndexSchoolsGlossaryPhilosophersMovementsPublicationsBranches MetaphysicsEpistemologyLogicEthicsAestheticsPhilosophyofActionArtBiologyChemistryEducationEconomicsEngineeringEnvironmentFilmGeographyInformationHealthcareHistoryHumannatureHumorLanguageLawLiteratureMathematicsMindMusicBeingPhilosophyPhysicsPoliticsPsychologyReligionScienceSocialscienceTechnologyWarSchoolsofthoughtAfricanaAnarchismAristotelianismAustralianrealismAverroismAvicennismClassicalliberalismCriticaltheoryCynicismDeconstructionDeismDeontologyDialecticalmaterialismDualismEgoismEpicureanismEpiphenomenalismExistentialismFeminismFunctionalismHedonismHegelianismHermeneuticsHumanismIdealismKantianismKyotoSchoolLegalpositivismLogicalpositivismMarxismMaterialismModernismMonismNaturalismNeoplatonismNewPhilosophersNihilismOrdinarylanguageParticularismPeripateticPhenomenologyPlatonismPosthumanismPostmodernismPost-structuralismPragmatismPresocraticProcessSolipsismRealismRelativismScholasticismSkepticismStoicismStructuralismThomismUtilitarianismmore...PortalCategoryWikiProjectchangesRetrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"Categories:ReligionW000ReligionUnarticledeWikipdia,l'encyclopdielibre.Aller:Navigation,rechercherLareligionatdfiniepourlapremirefoisparCicroncommelefaitdes'occuperd'unenaturesuprieurequel'onappelledivineetdeluirendreunculte[1].Dansleslanguesoletermeestissudulatinreligio,lareligionestleplussouventenvisagecommecequiconcernelarelationentrel'humanitetDieu.DansleCoran,letermedn,quipeuttreconsidrcommequivalentdeceluidereligion,dsigneavanttoutlesprescriptionsdeDieu [2] .Enchinois,letermezngjio( ) ,inventaudbutduXX e sicle pourtraduireceluidereligion,estconnotdel'ided'unenseignementpourunecommunaut[3].Enfin,lebouddhismeestconsidrcommeunereligionalorsqu'ilsemblen'ytrequestionnideDieu,nidenaturedivine[4].Iln'existepasaujourd'huidedfinitionquiconviennetoutcequel'usagepermetd'appelerreligion[5].Lareligionpeuttrecomprisecommeunemaniredevivreetunerecherchederponsesauxquestionslesplusprofondesdelhumanit,encesenselleserapportelaphilosophie [6] .Maisellepeutaussitrevuecommecequilyadepluscontrairelaraisonetjugesynonymedesuperstition.Ellepeuttrepersonnelleoucommunautaire,priveoupublique,lielapolitiqueouvouloirsenaffranchir.Ellepeutaussisereconnatredansladfinitionetlapratiquedunculte,dunenseignement,dexercicesspirituelsetdecomportementsensocit.Lareligionfaitlobjetderecherchesuniversitairesenscienceshumaines.Lesdisciplinestellesquel'histoire,lasociologie,l'anthropologieoulapsychologie,tudientdesphnomnesoudesfaitsditsreligieuxsanspourautants'appuyersurunedfinitionquicorrespondraitdemanirehomognetoutcequiestainsitudi.SelonPierreGisel,laquestiondesavoircequestunereligionestunequestionouverte:faut-ilsecontenterdepenserquelesreligionsonttoujoursuneformeinstitutionnelleavecunclerg,despasteurs,desimams,desmoinesoudesgourous,ouconsidreraussicommedelareligionlespratiquesdedveloppementpersonneltouchantdesdomainesallantdusportlaphilosophie,ainsiquecequeleslibrairesregroupentsousletermegnriqued'sotrisme [7] ?Laquestiondesavoircequ'estlareligionestaussiunequestionphilosophique,laphilosophiepouvantyapporterdeslmentsderponse,maisaussicontesterlesvidencesdesdfinitionsquiensontproposes.Lanotiondereligionpeuttreenfinlobjetdlaborationsthologiques,chaquereligionpouvantavoirsapropreapprciationdecequilconvientdappelerreligion.

ReligiondominantedanschaquepaysdumondeChristianismeCatholicisme Orthodoxie ProtestantismeIslamSunnisme Chiisme autresCourantsdubouddhismevajrayna Theravada MahayanaDiversReligionschinoises Hindouisme JudasmeReligionstraditionnellesafricaines autresSommaire[masquer] 1Dfinitionsdelareligion 1.1Origineduconcept 1.2Dfinitionsdurkheimiennesetwbriennes 1.3Remiseencausedesdfinitions 1.4Faut-ildfinirlareligion ? 2Origineslatinesduconceptreligion 2.1L'hellnisationdelapensedansl'Antiquitgrco- romaine 2.2Lafindutoutpolitique 2.3DfinitiondelareligionparCicron 2.4Religionromaineetchristianisme 2.5LareligiondesPresdel'glise 2.6Ecolesdephilosophieetcommunautsreligieuses 3Thologiesmdivalesdelareligion 3.1L'islam 3.2Raisonetrvlation 3.3LareligionselonThomasd'Aquin 3.4Reformesetdivisionsdelareligion 4Philosophiedelareligion Dfinitions de la religion[modifier]Origine du concept[modifier]LatourdeBabel,Bruegel.IllustreunpassagedelaGensevoquantunepoqueoToutelaterreavaitunseullangageetlesmmesmots.Siletermereligionestattestdsl'AntiquitdanslesuvresdePlauteetdeTerenceauIIIeetIIesicleav.J.-C[8].,ilfautattendrelesuvresdeLucrce [9] etdeCicron [10] pourqu'ilfassel'objetd'critsphilosophiques.Cetterflexionseraprolongepardesauteurschrtienslatinsdurantl'Antiquittardiveaveclethmedelavraiereligion.Durantlapriodemdivaleunereligionpouvaitdsignerunecongrgationreligieuse,danslesensoentrerenreligionsignifiaitrejoindreunordrereligieux[11].cettepoque,Thomasd'Aquindfinitlareligioncommeunevertumorale,c'est--direunedispositionhumainefairelavolontdeDieu[12].laRenaissance,lesgrandesdcouvertesontamenlesEuropenss'interrogersurlaspcificitduchristianismeetsursesressemblancesparrapportauxreligionsnonmonothistes.AuXVIIIesicledbuteunenouvellephasedelarflexionsurlanaturedelareligion,notammentavecLockeetHumedansl'uvredesquelss'tablituneoppositionentrereligionnaturelleetreligionpositive,c'est--direentrelareligiontellequ'elledevraittreselonlaraisonhumaineetlareligiontellequ'elleseprsentel'observation.leursuite,autournantdesXVIIIeetXIXesicles,unephilosophiedelareligionatdveloppedanslesuvresdeKant [13] ,Hegel[14]etSchleiermacher.CettephilosophieaautantmarqucelledeKarlMarxquelathologiechrtienne[15].Lathorisationdelareligion,sontudeetsadfinitionmodernedanslesscienceshumainesdpenddesdfinitionsquienonttdonnesparceuxquisontconsidrscommetantl'originedelasociologie,enparticuliermileDurkheimetMaxWeber.Cesontdecesdiffrentestapeshistoriquesquedcoulentlesconceptionsmodernesdelareligionutilisesaujourd'huidanslesscienceshumaines.Cependantl'universalitoulapertinencedesdfinitionsquionttproposesdelareligionestremiseencause,notammentenraisondeladifficultatrouverunquivalentlacatgoriedereligionquisembled'inventionoccidentale[16].Bienquel'idedereligionsembleavoirunehistoireproprel'Occident,cetermeaaujourd'huidesquivalentsdanstoutesleslangues.Lecas,chant,desnologismesonttcrs.Cestermesdisposentdeleurpropretymologieetilsn'ontpasncessairementexactementlesmmesconnotationsnilammeported'unelanguel'autre,delammemanirequeletermereligionn'apastoujourseuexactementlammesignificationdansl'histoireoccidentale.Parexempleletermesanskrit (dharma)peutsignifierfoi,religionouloi;tandisquelesinogrammezngjio,decrationplusrcente,estconnotdel'ided'unenseignement.EnChine,c'estenemployantcetermequelaloireconnatcinqreligions:lebouddhisme,letaosme,l'islam,leprotestantismeetlecatholicisme.Ainsilareligion,quellequ'ensoitl'origine,n'estpasunequestionuniquementoccidentale.Encesens,denombreusestudesproposentaujourd'huid'tudiernonplusseulementlareligionpartirdel'histoiredececonceptdanslacultureoccidentale,maisaussiens'intressantl'histoiredesesquivalentsdansd'autrescultures.Cestudespeuventaussivisermontrerl'impactqu'aeulaprojectiondel'ideoccidentaledereligiondansd'autressocits,parexempledansl'inventiondel'hindouismeenInde,oudanscelled'uncertainconfucianismeenChine.Encesens,tudierl'histoiredel'idedereligionetdesesquivalentsrevienteffectueruntravaildedconstruction.Danslemmetempscestudespeuventpermettreauxoccidentauxd'apprendrecequepeuttrelareligionenleurmontrantquelquesaspectsdelamaniredontelleestenvisagepard'autres.Dfinitions durkheimiennes et wbriennes[modifier]Lesdisciplinesuniversitaires,tellesquelasociologie,l'anthropologie,lapsychologieoul'histoire,prennentlareligionoulesreligionspourobjetd'tude.Danslamesureoellesrevendiquentunescientificit,ellesdoiventncessairementenproposerunedfinition[17].

mileDurkheimLesdfinitionsquionttproposesreprennentleplussouventlideselonlaquellelareligionestunsystmedecroyances.Cestermessontempruntsladfinitionqu'avaitposen1912lesociologuemileDurkheim(1858-1917),pourquilareligionestunsystmesolidairedecroyancesetdepratiquesrelativesdeschosessacres,cest--direspares,interdites,croyancesetpratiquesquiunissentenunemmecommunautmorale,appeleglise,tousceuxquiyadhrent[18].Danscettedfinition,lidedesacr,nerevientpasreconnatrequelesacrestintrinsquementsacr,niquelescroyancespuisserevendiquesdtrecruesdemanireabsoluecarDurkheimentendmontrerquecequitaitcruoutenupoursacrdansungroupesocialparticulier,quilappelleglise,neltaitpasdansunautre[19].D'autrepart,selonDurkheim,lesacrsereconstituetoujourscarcestaunomdecequunecommunauttientpoursacr,quellerepousseunautresacr.Lamultitudedevariantesauxquellesadonnlieucettedfinitionatentdattnuerlecaractrechrtienqueluidonnelemploidutermeglise,toutenluiconservantdtreunsystmedecroyances[20].Lautrefaond'aborderlareligionayantfaitautoritdanslesscienceshumainesfutcelledeMaxWeber(1864-1920)quienvisageait,lammepoquequeDurkheim,lareligioncommeunerglementationdelaviedansunmondeollmentirrationnelesttoujoursprsent,sanstrepropreauxreligions[20].PourWeberlareligionrpondauxbesoinsdessocits.Ellenestpasparprincipeirrationnellemaisleprocessusderationalisationqueconnaissentlessocitspeutterme,selonMaxWeberconduitundsenchantement,celui-citantlliminationdelamagieentantquetechniquedesalut[21].Selonleursdoctrines,lesreligionspeuventjouerdesrlesdiversdansceprocessus.Cependantlarationalisationprogressivequiconduittermeaudsenchantementpeutaussiconduireunrefluxdesreligionsdansledomainedelirrationnel[22].Cesdeuxdfinitionsontprofondmentmarquesltudedesreligions.LadfinitiondeDurkheimestplusaxesurcequelesreligionsproposentdecroiretandisqueladfinitiondeMaxWeberestelletourneplusdirectementverscequiestobservable,c'est--diredespratiquessociales[20].Remise en cause des dfinitions[modifier]Lesdfinitionsdelareligionquil'envisagentpartirdel'idedecroyancesoudelaprsencedunlmentsurnatureldanslemondetablissentunedistinctionentrecequid'unctseraitdel'ordredesavoirscientifiquesetvrifisetdel'autreundonninaccessiblelaraison.Cettedistinctioncorrespondavecplusoumoinsdenuancescelledelaraisonetdelafoioubiend'uneconnaissancenaturelledeDieuetd'uneconnaissancervledanslesthologiesdediffrentesreligions.Lapremireobjectioncesdfinitionsestquel'oppositionsurlaquelleellesfonctionnentsereprefacilementdanslesdoctrinesmonothistesdujudasme,duchristianismeetdel'Islam,maisbeaucoupplusdifficilementdanslesautrestraditionsnotammentlestraditionsasiatiques.Ainsicesmaniresd'envisagerlareligion,basessurl'idedelaprsencedanslemondedundonninaccessiblelaraison,semblentforgessurunmodleparticulierdereligion,cellesquisupposentlarvlationsurnaturelled'unDieuquin'estpaslemonde,etilparatdouteuxquel'onpuisseabordertouteslesreligionspartirdetellesdfinitions.PourdesauteurstelsqueDanielDubuisson [23] ouTimothyFitzgerald,lareligion,estunecatgorieintellectuelleinoprante,ned'undsird'affirmerlecaractretranscendantd'uneculturemondialeidale;endfinitive,iln'yapasdefondementthoriquenon-thologiquecohrentpourl'tudedelareligioncommeunedisciplineuniversitairel'exceptiondedfinitionsquiendernierressortrenvoientunthismechrtien[24].LasecondeobjectioncettedfinitionvientdecequelephilosopheJacquesBouveressenommeunebrchedansnoscertitudeslesplusfondamentalesenmatiresdelathoriedelaconnaissanceetd'pistmologie[25],brchedanslaquelledesreligionsrisquentdesengouffrer.Laquestionestdesavoirsil'tudescientifiquedesreligionsquiaborderaitparlaraisoncequiapriorinestpasjugcommeunphnomnepurementrationnel,estelle-mmeindemnedecroyancesetdirrationnel.Cenestdoncpasseulementlarationalitdelareligionquiestencausedansunetelleapprochemaisaussicelledelasciencequiprtendl'tudiercarelleprtendlgitimerl'irrationnelparundiscoursrationnel.Toutdificerationnelreposencessairementsurunsystmed'axiomeset/oudepostulatsqui,pardfinition,nepeuventpaseux-mmestrerationnellementdmontrs.Cettebrchepeutconduiresoitl'idequ'aucuneconnaissancecertainen'estpossible,pasplusenmatiredereligionquedansunautredomaine,oubienquetouslesdiscoursquisontacceptsparunecommunautoummeunseulindividu,sontvraisdupointdevuequilessoutient[26].Ainsil'apprciationngativequeportentlessciencessurlesreligionslorsqu'elleslesabordententermesdecroyancesestretournesurcequelasciencepourraitaffirmerdanslecadred'unedmarcherationnelle.Toutdiscourspeuttretenupourrecevabledemmequetoutecroyancereligieuseesttenuepourrespectable.Encesenscertainsacteursdudbatsactuelssurlesreligion,telqueRgisDebrayavancentquelacritiquedelareligionnevisequ'auremplacementd'unereligionparuneautrequiresteraitunsystmedecroyancespasplusvrifiablesqueceluiauquelilsuccde[27].JacquesBouveresseappellecelaleremplacementautomatiquedelareligionquidisparatpourunenouvellereligionetilsinquitedecequecetteiderevient,dansdesdiscoursrationalistes,consacrerlillusion,pournepasdirelefaux,commencessairedanstouteformedepense,tandisquelaprtentionallaborationdesavoirsvrifiablesselonlescritresduneraisonuniverselledeviendraitunproblmedarrirs[28].Latroisimeobjectionestenfincelledel'impossibilitdedfinirunchampd'tudequicorrespondraitlareligion:faut-ilsecontenterd'tudierlesreligionsquiontuneformeinstitutionnelleavecunclerg,despasteursdesimams,desmoinesoudesgourous,ouplaceraussidanscechampd'tudeceluidespropositionsdepratiquesdedveloppementpersonneltouchantdesdomainesallantdusportlaphilosophie,ainsiquecequeleslibrairesregroupesousletermegnriqued'sotrisme [7] ?Faut-il dfinir la religion ?[modifier]En1987,DanileHervieu-Lger,dansunarticleintitulFaut-ildfinirlareligion?,s'interrogeaitsurl'intentiondedtruirelareligionqu'ontputavoircertainesdfinitionsdelareligionensociologie,etsurcequipourraitpermettred'envisagerunenouvelledfinition[29].Ainsilacatgoriedereligionafaitdepuislesannes1980,l'objetdenombreusespublicationsquicontestentlapertinencedesdfinitionsquienonttproposes.Cependant,pourleschercheursquirevendiquentunescientificitdeleurapproche,poserunedfinitiondecequiestprispourobjetd'tuden'estpasfacultatif[30].Encesens,pourJonathanZ.Smith,lemotreligionestuntermecrparleschercheurspourleurproprebesoin[31].Aujourd'hui,iln'yaplusguredepublicationsuniversitairesquiprennentlerisqued'avancerunedfinitiondelareligionsansfournirdelargesexplicationsurleslimitesetlesproblmesqueposentleurdfinition,tantilparatimpossibledeplacersousunemmedfinitiontouslescourants,lesformesdepensesetlesphnomnessociauxquiserapportentlareligion.Etlareligionpeutsevoirrefuserunedfinitiongnraleauprofitd'unensembledecatgories[32].Ilexistedoncdeslmentsdedfinitionschezcertainschercheurs,maisilssontadoptssansuniformit,tandisqued'autresrefusentdeconsidrerqu'ilsoitpossibled'tudierscientifiquementlesphnomnesditsreligieux,dslorsqu'ilsontabordsavecl'uneoul'autreidedereligion.RichardDawkinsen2008Destudesdesscienceshumainesportentsurdesphnomnesdesocitoudescomportements,dansunlieu,ungroupeetunmomentdonns.Ladfinitiondel'objetdelarecherchepeutportersurceslmentstandisquelefaitqu'ils'agisseounomdereligionresteunequestionouverte.D'autresapprochesportentsurl'ideselonlaquellelareligionestunsocledeconvictionssurlesquelssefondeunecohrencesocialeetdfinitlechampsdescomportementsquisontacceptablesounondansunesocit.Aveccetteapprocherevientlemodledelareligioncivilequiaalimentunrenouvlementdel'tudedelareligiondesRomainsdansl'Antiquit[33],maisaussid'envisageraujourd'huiladimensionpolitiquedelareligiondanstouteslessocits[34].Enfin,ilexisteaussidesdmarchesphilosophiquesouthologiquess'engagentsurleterraindecequidoittretenupourvrai.Ceuxquidnoncentlafaussetdesreligionsetrevendiquentunathismefontpartiedesacteursdecedbat.ParexempleRichardDawkinsvenudumondescientifiqueproposdesthoriessurl'originedesreligions.Celles-ciontdonnlieuxlammtique,disciplinedontlestatutdesciencenefaitpasl'unanimit.EnFrance,MichelOnfraymilitedemaniretoutaussicombativepourunathismeetcontretouteslesreligions.D'autresauteursabordentlareligionpartirdeleurtraditionreligieuse.Lesapprocheschrtiennesdelareligionoudesreligionsserpartissentdansunegammetrslargequivadesthologiesditespluralistes,procdantdel'tudedesreligionssansdfinitionpralabledelareligion[35],destravauxquisontplusdirectementcentrssurl'tudeduconceptdereligiontellequelaphilosophiedelareligiondePaulTillich [36] .EnfincertainsphilosophestelsquePierreHadotproposentderedcouvrirlaphilosophiecommeunengagementdevieetunepratiqued'exercicespirituels,cequiplacelaphilosophiedirectementsurleterraindelareligion,etpermetdesesouvenirquelesreligionsseprsententaussicommedelaphilosophie[37].Origines latines du concept religion[modifier]Articledtaill:tymologiedereligion.L'hellnisation de la pense dans l'Antiquit grco-romaine[modifier]L'empereurAugustevtudelatogedepontifesuprme,ditAugustedelaviaLabicana,Rome,env.20av.J.-C.Cequenousappelonsaujourd'huietrtrospectivementreligiondesRomains,neconsistaitpas,selonJohnScheid,enunsoucid'ordrethologiquedelanaturedesdieuxmaisenl'effectuationderitesetlaclbrationdecrmoniesquifaisaientpartieintgranted'uneviesocialenonthorise[38].Encesens,l'tudedelareligiondesRomainsamontrqueceux-ciavaienttrspeud'intrtpourlaquestiondelanaturedesdieux[39].Leurreligionseraitpluttcomprendrecommeunereligioncivile.Lareligionestintimementlielapolitiquedontellervlelastructureprofonde[40].ElleapourfinlesuccsdeRome.C'estunereligionlaquelleonappartientdeparsacitoyennetetnonpasparconviction[41].Lasignificationqu'auraiteutletermereligiondanslalanguelatineavantqu'ilnefassel'objetdespculationsphilosophiquesestd'autantplusdifficileatablirquelessourcesanciennessontpeunombreusesetqu'ellenedonnentpasdedfinition.Deplus,lesuvresdeTrenceetdePlautedanslesquellessetrouventquelquesoccurrencesanciennessontdestraductionsd'uvresgrecques.L'tymologiequedonneCicrondutermereligionen44av.JCn'estpasnonplusd'ungrandsecourscarellesetrouvedansuneuvreentirementdestineprsenterauxLatinsdiffrentspointdevuesphilosophiques.Decequ'ilestpossibled'enconnatredeplusancien,larflexionsurlanaturedelareligiondanslalittraturelatineesttroitementlieladiffusiond'idesphilosophiquesvenuesdeGrce.Lalittraturelatineelle-mmes'estconstituedansl'effortentreprisparleslatinspouradapterleurlanguelapensedesgrecsettraduireleursuvres.L'originedumotoudel'idedereligionn'estencesenspaspluslatinequegrecque.Cicronet,dansunemoindremesure,Lucrce,onttlespremiersauteurslatinsparlerobjectivementdereligion.Or,leurscritsdatentd'unepoquequeleshistoriensenvisagentaussicommemarquantledbutd'unecrisereligieusedanslasocitromaine.PourYvesLehmancettecriseestdueunemanipulationdelareligionparlepolitique[42].Cettecrisereligieusetantconcomitanted'uneinventiondelareligiondanslalittraturelatine,ilestaussipossibledepenserquel'volutiondel'attitudedespolitiques,quisemanifesteclairementdansprisedefonctiondepontifesuprmeparCsaretlapolitiquereligieused'Auguste,estlielanaissanced'uneidedereligionchezlesRomains.Lareligiondevenantquelquechose,ildevientpossibledeladcrire,delacritiquer,deladfendre,delacombattreoud'enfaireusage.La fin du tout politique[modifier]coledephilosophie,mosaquedePompi.SelonHannahArendt,lapolitiqueausensgrecpeutsecomprendrecommecentresurlalibert[43].Chezlesgrecs,lalibertestavanttoutlestatutsociald'uneminoritd'individus:L'hommelibreestceluiquin'estpassoumislacontrainted'unautre[44]..Lesfemmes,lesmineursetlesesclavesensontexclut.Lapolitique,commediscussionsurlamaniredegouvernerlacit,apourfindegarantirauxhommeslibresdene-pas-gouverner-ni-tre-gouvern[43].SelonJean-JolDuhot,cemodedegouvernementn'estpasparticulirementpacifique.Athnestaitunecitconstammentenguerreaveclescitsvoisines.Ladmocratieelle-mmetaitagitedeconflitsviolents.Danslejeuconstantdesalliances,desngociations,desdfections,desretournementsentrecits,leshommespolitiquessontfrquemmentsouponns.Lespassionss'exacerbentetlesractionssontparfoisviolentes.[45]HannahArendtvoitdanscettesituationl'origined'unecertaineinstitutionnalisationdelaphilosophie.Ceuxquitaientconvaincusqueladiscussionproposdequoiquecesoitproduitnonpluslaralitmaislatromperie,nonpluslavritmaislemensonge,ontvouluunespacedelibertauseindedbatspubliquesdanslesquelstousinterviennent.Laviephilosophique,tellequ'elleestposedanslacrationparPlatondel'coledel'Acadmie,estainsil'institutionauseindelapolisd'unespacedelibertdeparolepourunpetitnombred'individu,libredelalibrediscussionentretous.Decettemaniretaitcre,ctdulibredomainedupolitique,unnouvelespacedelibertbeaucoupplusrel,quifonctionneencoreaujourd'huisouslaformedelalibertdesuniversitsetdelalibertacadmique.(p.95)LaconqutedelaGrceparAlexandrelegrandn'apasmisfinlaphilosophiegrecquecommeundomainelafoisfondsurlalibertpolitiquemaisaussiaffranchidecettelibertcommune.LesAthnienssesontrapidementaccommoddeladominationmacdonnienne.Intgrauroyaume,leurcitperdaitenimportancepolitique,maisellegardaituneautonomiedansunroyaumequileurgarantissaitdenepaspassersousdominationtrangre.L'empired'Alexandre,marqueledbutd'unenouvelleformederayonnementpourAthnes.Provincialisepolitiquement,ellerestepourdessiclesunecapitaleintellectuelle,surtoutphilosophique.LesarmesMacdoniennesontainsifaitrentrertoutleMoyen-Orientetl'gyptedanslasphredel'hellnisme.LorsqueRometendsonEmpiresurl'ensembledelaMditerrane,elles'estlaissesontourenvahirdelatraditionphilosophiquegrecque.Cettehellenisationdelacultureromaineestparfoisqualifiederevanchedesvaincus,danslesensoladominationmilitaireetpolitiquedesRomains,corresponduneincontestablesuprioritculturelledesGrecs.Rometenantenmainlavictoire.LorsquelapensedesGrecsagagnelesRomains,elleaconduitauneremiseencausedel'unitdelareligioncommeralitenglobante.AucoursduIersicleav.J.-C.,diffrentsintellectuelslatinsayantfaitleurslesargumentsphilosophiquesdesGrecs,vontainsitenterderendrecomptedelalgitimitdelareligionciviledesRomainsface,d'unepart,auxpratiquesmystiquesd'interprtationdesmytheset,d'autrepart,auxcourantsrationalistesdelaphilosophie.Lareligionperdantsonunit,ellenesetrouvepasplusparticulirementdansl'unoul'autredesdomainessparsquiseconstituentsuitecetteperted'unit.Ainsi,onnepeutaffirmersanshsitationquelareligiondesRomainssoitpluttdel'ordredelapolitique,oudel'interprtationdesmythesouencorequ'ellesesituedansledomainedelaphilosophie.Ilexistedanslesuvresdel'antiquitdesargumentstrsdveloppsquipermettentdesituertouratourlareligiondansl'unoul'autredecestroisdomaines.Scvolaaparldetroisgenresdedieux,lesdieuxdespotes,ceuxdeshommesd'tatetceuxdesphilosophes.[rf.souhaite]Ildfendaitlecultedesdieuxdelacitetlerespectdestraditionsencartantdansunmmerejetlecultedesdieuxdespotesetceluidesdieuxdesphilosophes.Varronquantluisembleavoirtentdeprservercequ'ilappelaitlathologiecivileenlarapprochantdelarationalitphilosophiqueaudtrimentdelathologiedemythique.Cicronpoursapartdistingutroismanirephilosophiquesd'interprtertoutcequitaitlachargedespontifesdanslasocitromaine,parmicesresponsabilit,celledelareligion.Danscecontexte,l'idedereligionparatencorerelativementmaldfinie.Mmeletermequ'ilconvientd'employerpourladsignern'estpasconstant.Parmilesauteurs,CicronetLucrcesontlesseulsavoirparlnommmentdereligion.VarronetDenysd'Halicarnasseparlentpluttdethologie,tandisqueletermereligionestencoreemploydansunsensqu'ilestdifficiledediscernerchezd'autresauteurstelsqueVirgileouTite-Live.ChezCicron,lareligionpeutserapporterl'organisationsocialeetpolitiquedesromains,maiselleestaussiclairementdfiniecommelefaitdes'occuperd'unenaturedivine.DansleTraitdelanaturedesdieux,ellefaitl'objetd'unerflexionselontroiscolesdephilosophies.TandisqueCicronlareligionestconsidrecommeunequalit,Lucrcel'attaquedemanirevirulentedansleDeRerumNatura.Iln'identifieaucunementlareligionlaphilosophiemaisuniquementauxcultesmettantenscnedesmythesetauxvaleurspatriotiques,l'crasementdelareligionparpicuretant,selonsespropresmot,lavictoirequinouslveversleciel.Dfinition de la religion par Cicron[modifier]MarcusTulliusCiceroCettemanired'envisagerlareligionenrapportlacitoyennetapparataplusieursreprisesdansl'uvredeCicron.C'estnotammentlecasdanslePlaidoyerpourFlacusoilcritchaquecitasareligion,nousavonslantre.Aveccetteaffirmation,Cicronentendfairevaloirdevantlesjugesqueletmoignaged'uncitoyenRomainestbeaucoupplusfiablequeceluid'unGrecoud'unJuif.Cequidonnecetargumentunevaleurjuridiqueestl'idedetestimoniumreligionemoudejurisjurandis,c'est--dired'unsermentfaitdevantlesdieux.EtlesRomainsseconsidraientcommelesmeilleursdesreligieuxcarRomedominaitlemondegrcelafaveurdesdieuxquesavaitluiobtenirl'excellencereligieusedesescitoyens.CetteideselonlaquellelesortdeRomedpendaitderitesaccomplisfidlementetconformmentlatraditiondesanctretaitdifficilementrfutabledansl'Antiquit.C'estladimensionprofondmentrituelledelareligiondesRomainsquerenvoieleverberelireindiquparCicroncommetymologiedereligion.Ils'agissait,enfaitrelirelesritesaccomplispours'assurerqu'ilavaittfaitselonlesnormesetpouvoirseconsidrerquitte.Iln'estpasdemanddecroire,maisdefaire,etfairelesritesducultecommeilfautestuneobligation.C'est,encorelarfutationdecetteidequesaintAugustinconsacreradenombreusespagesdelaCitdeDieu.Bienquediversemploisdutermereligiondansl'uvredeCicronrelved'uneconceptionciviqueettraditionnelledelareligion,ladfinitionqu'ilenadonnelaprsentecommeconcernantessentiellementlanaturedivine:lareligionconsistes'occuper(curam)d'unenaturesuprieure,quel'onappelledivineetluirendreunculteCicron,Del'inventionoratoire.Ils'agitdeladfinitionlaplusanciennequenouspossdions.CicronladonnedansletraitDelinventionoratoirerdigen84av.JCalorsquilavaitvingtans.Lefaitdes'occuperdelanaturedivinenerenvoiepasncessairementiciuneproccupationd'ordremtaphysiqueouspculatif.Ilpeuts'agirsimplementd'accomplirdesritestelsquelatraditionlesprescrits.Encesens,lepassageosetrouvecettedfinitionestdestinexpliquerqueledroitcoutumier(consuetudineius)serapporteaudroitnaturel(naturaeius),c'est--direquecequinestpascritetquisetransmetpartraditiondcouledecequiestrationneletquirponddelordredelanature.Cicrondfendainsilidequeledroitnedpendpasdopinionsmaisquilestfondsurcequelanaturenousenseigne,delammemanirequelanatureenseignelareligion.Danslapensestocienne,lanaturecestlordredivinducosmos.LamaniredontCicrondfinitlareligionrevientlaprsentercommeunrapportaucosmos,faitdesagesseetdemesure.Toutcequefontleshommesestrglparcetordredivin.Ainsi,cettedfinitiondelareligionparCicronrefltel'introductiondidesphilosophiquesd'originegrecquedanslasocitromaine.Icil'ideselonlaquellelecosmosestrgitparunenaturedivinepermetdechercherunelgitimationlareligiondesromainsetsescoutumes.Cependant,parmilesidesvenuesdeGrce,setrouventaussilestraditionsd'interprtationdesmythesetlesnombreusescritiquesdesphilosophessurlesdieux.Parexemplelvhmrisme,selonlequellesdieuxnesontpasdesdieuxmaisdespersonnageshistoriquesquionttprispourdesdieux.LarrivedesidesphilosophiquesvenuesdeGrcedanslacultureromaineposedoncunproblmequivaradicalementbouleverserlareligion:dunepart,ellespermettentdepenserquelareligionconsistesesoucierd'unenaturedivine,etdautrepartquelesdieuxnexistentpas.Religion romaine et christianisme[modifier]Suovetaurile,MuseduLouvre.Cesacrificed'unporc,d'unmoutonetd'unbuftaitpratiquRomedanslecadredecultespublicsetofficiels.LacitoyennetromaineaprogressivementttenduetousleshommeslibresdelEmpire,cequileurdonnaitconjointementdesdroitsciviquesetlesdevoirsdelareligion.Bienquedanslemmetemps,lesconceptionsreligieusesdesromainsnevontcesserdvoluer,lesmanquementsauxdevoirsreligieuxserontlemotifderpressionsofficiellesetlgalescommemanquementdesdevoirsciviques.LaccusationdecrimescontrelareligionoudecrimedimpitfutainsilamatricedesperscutionslgalesdelAntiquit[46].Eneffet,lavnrationdesdieuxromains,siellesaccomplissaitselonlesrgles,garantissaitlarussitedeRome:laxiome,mmepourleschrtiensdelafinduVesicledenotreretaitdifficilementrfutable[47].Larponsedesauteurschrtienslaccusationdecrimecontrelareligionconsista,nonpasrejeterlareligionentantquetelle,maisfairevaloirlesargumentsdesphilosophespourrenverserlaccusation:S'ilestcertainquevosdieuxn'existentpas,ilestcertainquevotrereligionn'existepasnonplus;ets'ilestcertainquevotrereligionn'enestpasune,parcequevosdieuxn'existentpas,ilestcertainaussiquenousnesommespasnonpluscoupablesdelse-religion.Mais,aucontraire,c'estsurvousqueretomberalereprochequevousnousfaites,survousquiadorezlemensongeetqui,noncontentsdengligerlavraiereligionduvraiDieu,allezjusqu'lacombattre,etquivousrendezainsivritablementcoupablesducrimed'unevritableimpitTertullien,Apologtique,24,9.CetargumentserareprispardenombreuxpresdelgliseLatine.Ilasibienfonctionnque,jusquunepriodercente,cestnonsanscertainesrservesquelonaccordaitlaviereligieusedesRomainsletitredereligion.Considreparlarecherchehistoriquecommetantessentiellementuncultedesdieux,lareligiondesRomainstaitvuecommeunereligionmdiocresansgrandeprofondeurniassisesthologiques.Ainsi,paradoxalement,letermereligionesthritdelaculturetraditionnelledesLatins,maisilsemblequ'ilydsignaitcommunmentunereligioncivilequineseraplusparlasuiteconsidrecommemritantauthentiquementletitredereligion[48].DansLacitdeDieu,Augustintmoignequsonpoqueletermenedsignaitpasencoredanslelangagecourant,lideselonlaquellelareligionconsistesoccuperdelanaturedivine,tellequelontpenslesphilosophesetlesauteurschrtiensleu