Western Civilization IHIS-101

Unit 5 - The Roman Republic

Geography of Italy Three main regions:

Po Valley Latium Campania

Ideal for farming Large fertile plains More agriculturally productive than Greece Able to support a larger population

No good natural barriers Alps to the north had numerous passes Apennines Mountains were not as high as the Alps Miles of coastline on three sides

Geography of Italy Best harbors were located on the western side

of Italy Italy had some mineral resources

These were enough to attract outsiders Not enough to provide sufficient wealth to defend

the region People were attracted to Italy

But natives could not afford to protect themselves By first millennium BCE, Italy was inhabited by:

Latin speaking people on the plain of Latium To the north were the Etruscans To the south were the Greeks

Italy (c.500 BCE)

Etruscans Etruscan settled in the late Bronze Age

Their origins are unclear Cannot translate Etruscan language yet

Built towns and cities in north-central Italy Most famous city was Rome They also built the first roads in the area

By 650 BCE, dominant cultural and economic power in Italy They were skilled artisans, metal workers, and

architects Government was a thalassocracy

Their influence spread throughout the western Mediterranean

Etruscans Women had many rights

They participated in public events including politics and sporting events

By 480 BCE, they were on the decline They were challenged by the Greeks in southern Italy By 400 BCE, they were limited to Etruria

Early Rome was heavily influenced by the Etruscans Used Etruscan architecture in the building of their cities Enjoyed gladiatorial combat Wore the Etruscan style toga and cloak Latin alphabet was based on the Greek-derived

Etruscan one Adopted Etruscan-modified hoplite warfare

The Etruscans

Greeks in Italy Greek colonization of Italy (750-550 BCE)

Settled in southern Italy and Sicily They built fortified cities with harbors for trade

Influenced Rome Many philosophers resided in Italy at one point Included Plato, Archimedes, and Roman religion similar to the Greeks

Rome became the link to Near East It will develop as the link between Greek and Near

East culture and the rest of Europe

Ancient Rome

Rise of Rome Romans settled in Latium around 2nd

millennium BCE Region had many advantages Fertile, broad, flat plain Access to the Tiber River

Advantages of Rome: Located 12 miles inland on the Tiber River One of the first accessible crossings of the river On the land path between the Apennines to the

sea Far enough inland to be safe from sea attackers Built on the Seven Hills

Rise of Rome “Latin Rights”

A series of rights between all Latin communities Commercium – All contracts were good throughout

Latium Connubium – Latins could intermarry with legal

recognition Migratio – Latins could migrate and transfer citizenship

after one year Romulus and Remus

Founded the city according to legen Sons of Mars Had been set adrift on the Tiber River as babies and

raised by wolves Romulus eventually killed Remus and became the sole

king of Rome

Remus and Romulus

Regal Period (753-509 BCE) Regal Period (753-509 BCE)

Early Roman government was a monarchy There was a senate made up of the head of clans

Six Etruscan kings Helped transform Rome into an urban city Were city planners and organizers Built walls surrounding the city

Tarquin the Proud (534-509 BCE) Last Roman king Took the throne by murdering the previous king Ruled as an absolute despot and had many

senators executed

Regal Period (753-509 BCE) Rape of Lucretia (510 BCE)

Tarquin’s son raped Lucretia She was considered to be a “virtuous” Roman wife She committed suicide rather than “live in

dishonor” Led to overthrow Tarquin Probably a patriotic myth Shows Roman hatred of the Etruscan monarchs

Roman never adopted monarchy again

Western Mediterranean (c. 509 BCE)

Roman Republic (509-264 BCE) Characterized by military expansion and constant

warfare At first they were on the defensive As time went on they began conquering their neighbors Newly conquered territories were required to provide

soldiers Many were brought under the “Latin Rights” Also received many of the same benefits of Roman

citizens Roman government was practical

It evolved with new circumstances It was a “government on the fly” Three branches: Imperium, Senate, and Popular

Assemblies

Imperium Imperium

Executive branch Means “right to command” Originally was two consuls With expansion, more positions were added These included praetors, proconsuls, and

propraetors Consul

Highest position with imperium Responsible for the overall administration of the

government, military, and religion Positions limited by election and one year terms Served in Senate after term ended

Imperium Praetors

Added in 366 BCE Governed Rome when the Consuls were away in

battle Handled civil law of the Republic

Proconsuls and Propraetors Acted as provincial governors Were former consuls or praetors

Temporary Dictators In case of an emergency Only supposed to last for six months

Senate and Popular Assemblies Senate

Approximately 300 elders A lifetime appointment Not a legislative body until 3rd century BCE Counseled the Imperium

Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly) Made up of members of the Roman army Wealthiest always had the majority Elected the Consuls and passed laws

Concilium Plebis (Plebian Assembly) Not added until 471 BCE More democratic assembly made up only of

Plebeians

A Roman with imagines

Roman Society Paterfamilias

Roman society stressed family Head of the family Had complete power over the rest of the family Many families shared the same name They would also group together in social units

known as clans Rise of Patronage

In early Rome, not everybody enjoyed the benefits of citizenship

Thus did not have protection under the law Would seek protection from a citizen family

Roman Society Patronage and Clientage

The word “patron” is derived from pater meaning “father” “Client” is derived from cluere “to obey” Citizen family would act as the patron and provide aid Client would provide labor, military assistance, and votes

in the assembly Roman society was divided into two main classes:

Patricians and Plebeians Plebeians faced discrimination and unfair treatment

Forced to serve in the army but could not hold office Patricians and plebeians were not allowed to intermarry

Roman Families and Society

Struggle of the Orders Struggle of the Orders (494-287 BCE)

Series of struggles by the plebeians to gain more political rights

Started with plebeians acquiring large amounts of wealth

Secession from Rome (494 BCE) Plebeians seceded from Rome until they received more

rights They made up the military Patricians were forced to compromise

Tribunes of the Plebes Started with two Sacrosanct position Were able to protect any plebeian from arrest by

patrician magistrates

Struggle of the Orders Concilium Plebis was added in 474 BCE

Called by the Tribunes Only plebeians could serve on it Laws passed only affected the plebeian class Laws still had to be approved by the Senate Plebeians unfamiliar with legal proceedings

Decemviri (“ten men”) Commission to help clarify new legal codes in 452

BCE They were all members of the patrician class Published the new legal code for the plebeians

Struggle of the Orders Twelve Tables of Law (450 BCE)

New laws maintained the old traditions including debt slavery

Forbade the intermarriage between patricians and plebeians

Many of the plebeians were unhappy with these laws Pushed for greater reforms and more political equality

Lex Canuleia (445 BCE) Allowed intermarriage between patricians and plebeians

Lex Licinia Sextia (367 BCE) Allowed one of the two consuls to be a plebeian Only five plebeians were elected between 366-340 BCE Ended patrician monopoly over Senate

Struggle of the Orders Lex Genucia (342 BCE)

This allowed both consul positions to be held by plebeians

It also required that at least one had to be plebeian Lex Hortensia (287 BCE)

All laws passed by the Concilium Plebis affected both plebeians and patricians

No longer required the approval of the Senate Legally, all Roman citizens were now considered

equal Rise of Nobiles

A new elite class made up of the wealthy politicians Republic never saw complete democracy

Roman Conquest of Italy

Nature of Roman Imperialism Three stages of Roman imperialism:

Conquest of Italy Conflict with Carthage and expansion into western

Mediterranean Conflict with the Hellenistic kingdoms and

expansion into the eastern Mediterranean Goal was not to conquer

Took advantage of the opportunities given to it The more it expanded, the more threats Involvement into even more conflicts This led to more expansion

Not until the 2nd century BCE began to favor expansion Increased the glory of Rome and economic benefits

Early Italian Campaigns (458–396 BC) Roman was surrounded by potential enemies

To the north was the Etruscans To the east and south were various Italian tribes and

the Greeks Latin communities challenged the city for leadership

Peace with Latin communities (493 BCE) Republic made a defensive alliance Lasted long enough so Rome could focus on

Etruscans Fall of Veii (396 BCE)

First major victory over Etruscans City under siege for ten years

Celtic Invasion of Italy (390–387 BC) Next threat came from the north Invasion of the Celts (390-387 BCE)

Invaded northern Italy in 390 BCE They were known as the Gauls to the Romans

Battle of Battle of Allia River (c. 390 BCE) Led by Brennus, they defeated the 15,000 man

Roman army Chased them to Rome and sacked the city Only left after the Romans were forced to pay an

indemnity Celts would be a problem for next 200 years

This is until they are defeated by Julius Caesar

Western Mediterranean (c. 348 BCE)

Conquest of Italy Conquest of Italy began in 340 BCE Latin Revolts (340-338 BCE

Latin communities revolted against Rome’s dominance

Romans easily crushed the rebellion by 338 BCE Established complete supremacy over Latium

Roman Confederation Included the defeated Latins Three categories: full Roman citizens, municipal

status, and allies A state’s status could change All states remained mostly autonomous Only required to provide men for the Roman army

Conquest of Italy Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE)

Samnites were from Campania Rome was able to defeat them Defeated other Italian groups as well (Etruscans and

Umbrians) Allowed Rome to expand its own territory Again, these groups were allowed to be mostly autonomous They had to provide men to the Roman army Rome controlled their foreign policy

New territories were surrounded by Roman lands Lands were confiscated by Rome Roman veterans were encouraged to settle on these lands If any territory proved disloyal, a Roman army would be

sent in

Western Mediterranean (c. 279 BCE)

Conquest of Italy Next threat is from the Greeks to the south Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE)

Greeks hired mercenaries to fight One leader was King Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus invaded in 280 BCE with 25,000 troops and 20

war elephants He was able to defeat Rome twice at a huge cost Rome had an endless supply of soldiers while Pyrrhus

did not “Another such victory and I shall be lost” (“Pyrrhic

Victory”) Romans defeated them in the third battle These states were added to the Confederation Provided naval assistance instead of army

Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE) In 264 BCE, Rome defeated the last Etruscans

Rome had control of all of Italy Exception was the extreme northern region

Why was Rome so successful in its conquest of Italy?

Diplomacy Punished disloyal states but rewarded loyal ones

Using opportunities to their advantage Used these conquests as a way to increase their

security A practical sense of strategy

Created colonies in newly conquered regions Built up roads between these settlements Created a major communications network and an

easy path to send their military if necessary

Carthage (c. 264 BCE)

Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean Next biggest threat to Rome: Carthage

Settled by Phoenicians in the 9th century BCE Was the richest and largest state in the

Mediterranean Had a monopoly on the western Mediterranean

trade Rome wanted to acquire Sicily

Most was under the control of the Carthaginians Opportunity arose in 264 BCE

Involved the city of Messana Under the control of the Mamertines In 264 BCE, the city was besieged by Hiero, the

King of Syracuse

King Hiero II of Syracuse (270-215 BC)

Clash With Carthage Mamertines turned first to Carthage

Negotiated a settlement Carthage would keep a garrison in Messana and

stop Hiero Mamertines then turned to Rome for an alliance

Reasons are unknown Carthage saw this as a betrayal

Rome was at first hesitant This was their first military expedition outside of

Italy It would ultimately lead to a class with Carthage Messana was strategically important

Roman troops took the city easily Carthage saw this as just cause for war

Sicily

First Punic War (264-241 BCE) First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

Punic comes from the Latin word for Phoenician, punicus Both sides attempted to take control of Sicily Carthage used mercenaries to do most of their fighting War included north Africa as well

Roman naval strategy Rome knew it needed a good navy to win Within two months they had over 100 ships Rome knew the Carthaginian naval strategy Responded with Roman “assault bridges”

Battle of Tunis (255 BCE) Rome’s only major land defeat Cavalry was outnumbered 8:1 plus Carthage had

elephants

First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Carthage’s problem

As the war went on, they were losing troops Because they used mercenaries, they could not

find enough to fill its ranks Battle of Drepana (242 BCE)

Roman navy defeated the Carthaginians Western Sicily under the control of Carthage

surrendered Carthage sued for peace in 241 BCE

Carthage gave up all rights to Sicily Promised not attack Syracuse or her allies Had to pay a large indemnity (22,000 silver talents

= 66 tons of silver) over twenty years

First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Roman Senate did not approve of the payments

Wanted 23,000 talents over ten years instead Carthage was in a financial bind

It could not afford the indemnity and pay its soldiers This led to a revolt by its mercenaries, known as the

Mercenary War (240-238 BCE) Rome took advantage of this

Seized Corsica and Sardinia in 238 BCE Carthage could do nothing about it

According to legend, the leading Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, made his 9-year old son Hannibal swear that he would hate Rome forever

Hamilcar Barca (c. 270–228

BCE)

Carthage Between Wars Carthage turned its attentions to Iberia

Hamilcar hoped to gain riches to rebuild the army Southern Iberia is rich with copper and silver mines Provided enough revenue to make up for recent war

losses Also provided manpower for Carthage

Carthage could now rebuild its army Treaty of Ebro (226 BCE)

Signed by both Carthage and Rome Divided Iberia into respective spheres of influence

using the Ebro River In 221 BCE, Hamilcar was assassinated

He was replaced by his 25-year old son, Hannibal

Europe (c. 218 BCE)

Hannibal Barca (247-183

BCE)

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Leading up to war

In 219 BCE, Rome made an alliance with the city of Sanguntum

It was nervous about the growing power of Hannibal in Iberia

Hannibal attacked and lay siege to the city Many citizens actually committed suicide Rome did nothing in response

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Hannibal decided to attack Rome directly Had 75,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 36 war

elephants First he gained control of the Pyrenees mountains region Then he defeated the Gauls in southern France

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Crossing the Alps

Hannibal crossed the Alps with 40,000 men, 6,000 horses and his war elephants

Lost the elephants to the cold climate and he lost his siege engines as well

Invasion of Italy Took northern Italy easily

Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) Romans attempted to meet Hannibal’s forces

head on Hannibal devastated the Roman army, killing as

many as 40,000 men

Hannibal’s invasion route

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Revolt of southern Italy

After Cannae, many Italian communities rebelled against Rome

Allied with Carthage Rome was on the verge of collapse

Hannibal was unable to take Rome Could not lay siege without siege engines Also did not have enough troops to take the city This gave Rome the time it needed to rebuild its

army At the start of the war, Rome sent troops to

Iberia Were initially unsuccessful there

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Iberian forces were put under the command of

Publius Cornelius Scipio in 211 BCE Brilliant general who led Rome into a number of

victories By 206 BCE pushed Carthage out of Iberia

War in Africa (204-201 BCE Rome took the war directly to Carthage Forces were led by Scipio Carthage was forced to recall Hannibal from Italy

Battle of Zama (202 BCE) Scipio defeated Hannibal and his forces Scipio was given the name Scipio Africanus for this

victory This ended the war

Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Peace was signed in 201 BCE

Carthage gave up Iberia Iberia became a Roman province Carthage was forced to pay a indemnity of 10,000

talents over 50 years Was not allowed to raise an army or to declare war

without Rome’s permission Only allowed to keep 10 ships to protect the traders

from pirates Not all Romans were happy with the peace of

201 BCE Cato stated “I think that Carthage must be

destroyed” Livy stated “The hatred with which they fought also

was almost greater than their resources"

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC)

Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) In 151BCE, Carthage paid off its final debt to

Rome They believed the treaty was now expired Rome thought otherwise

That year, Numidia attacked Carthage Carthage in turn sent troops to attack Numidia Numidia was an ally of Rome

Rome saw this as a violation of their peace agreement

Sent an ultimatum to Carthage: Cease hostilities Surrender their weapons and disband its battlements Send 300 hostages to Rome Move the actual city of Carthage further inland

Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) Carthage refused to concede to the last demand

Rome declared war Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)

Romans unsuccessfully attacked Carthage in 149 BCE Laid siege to the city in 147 BCE Carthage finally fell in 146 BCE Almost 78% of the Carthaginian population died by

that point This was due to battle, disease, or starvation The survivors were sold into slavery

Rome now had control of the western Mediterranean

Greece and Macedonia (c. 200 BCE)

Conquest of Eastern Mediterranean Interest in the eastern Mediterranean began in

219 BCE Rome occupied parts of Illyria This was to stop pirates in the Adriatic Sea King Philip V of Macedonia did not like having Rome so

close After the Battle of Cannae (215 BCE), Philip V

made an alliance with Hannibal Rome responded by allying themselves with the

Aetolian League Rome wanted to keep the Macedonians from invading

Illyria First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC)

Rome was focusing its efforts on Carthage Treaty of Phoenice (205 BCE) Philip promised to give up his alliance with Hannibal

Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE) After the Second Punic War, Rome turned back to

Macedonia Wanted to punish them for allying with Hannibal

In 200 BCE, Rome got its opportunity Ambassadors from Rhodes and Pergamum approached

Rome Philip had made an alliance with the Seleucid king,

Antiochus III Then they attacked Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia Minor Rome saw this as empire building and a threat Rome allied with both the Aetolian and the Achaean

Leagues Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE)

Philip did not have many allies left in Greece by this time Forced to supplant his army with over 25,000 mercenaries

Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE) Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE)

Romans cleanly defeated Philip Philip sued for peace

Peace of Flamininus (197 BCE) Philip gave up any interests in Greece and his navy Had to pay a large indemnity to Rome

Rome announced that it would support the freedom of the Greek states Still kept garrisons in strategic points throughout

Macedonia Aetolain League was not happy with the peace

The little territory they got was not worth allying with Rome

Philip V of Macedonia

Seleucid War (192-188 BCE) Aetolain League allied itself with Antiochus

Hoped he would be able to free Greece from Rome Antiochus agreed as he was looking to gain a

foothold in Europe Seleucid War (192-188 BCE)

Seleucid troops landed in Greece in 192 BCE Antiochus stated he was “freeing Greece from

Rome” Rome responded by sending in a force of 30,000

troops They were led by Scipio Africanus Defeated the Seleucids at Thermopylae in 191 BCE

Seleucid War (192-188 BCE) Antiochus retreated back into Asia Minor

Roman troops followed him Defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Magnesia

(190 BCE_ Seleucids sued for peace

Peace of Apamea (188 BCE) Antiochus was forced to pay a large indemnity

(15,000 talents of silver) to Rome Also forced to abandon his territory west of the

Taurus Mountains Pergamum and Rhodes split that territory Rome took no land for itself

Antiochus III (222–187

BCE)

Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) In 179 BCE, Philip V of Macedonia died

He was replaced by his son Perseus Perseus wanted to bring back the glory of

Macedonia This included a continuation of “anti-Roman” policies

The Greek states again appealed to Rome for help They were fearing their freedom Rome agreed to help them out

Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) At first, Macedonian forces were winning the war Perseus offered a peace treaty but it was quickly refused The war began to turn in favor of the Romans in 168 BCE

Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) Battle of Pydna (June 22, 168 BCE)

Roman troops heavily defeated Perseus’s troops Out of 40,000 Macedonian troops, 25,000 were

either dead or captured Perseus fled but was captured soon after and sent

to Rome Macedonia was divided into four republics

Set up with puppet governments Rome seized its treasury Enslaved a large portion of the Macedonia

population In 167 BCE, Roman citizens no longer had to

pay direct property taxes This was because Rome had acquired so much

money from the wars

Perseus of Macedonia (179-166

BCE)

Seizing Control Fourth Macedonian War (149-148 BCE)

In 149 BCE, Andriscus rose up in revolt against Rome Rome responded quickly and sent in troops Revolt was quickly put down Macedonia was annexed by Rome as a province

Achaean War (146 BCE) Greeks were not happy with a Rome right next door Achaean League rose up in revolt in 146 BCE The revolt was quickly put down The city of Corinth was completely destroyed Greece became a Roman province

By 146 BCE, Rome’s empire extended throughout the Mediterranean

Roman Republic (146 BCE)

Fall of the Roman Republic Fall of the Roman Republic

While Rome had a secure hold on the Mediterranean by 133 BCE, it was not stable

Process of creating an empire actually weakened and threatened the internal stability of the Republic

Causes to decline included political, social, and economic

Political and Social Turmoil Caused by the growing power of the nobiles By this point, Senate had become the effective

governing body Was not through legislation Instead, it used its own initiative, which included

taking control of foreign affairs and leading wars

Political and Social Turmoil Senate was under increasing control of the

nobiles Wealthiest of both the patrician and plebeian

classes Ran for both political and personal gains

Divided into two groups: Optimates – (“The Best Men”) – They were the

nobiles in the Senate who wished to keep their oligarchic privileges

Populares – (“Favoring the People”) – These were the aristocrats who used the people’s assemblies to break up the monopoly of the Optimates

By the 1st century BCE, the Optimates and Populares were enmeshed in political turmoil

Political and Social Turmoil Rise of the Equites (“Equestrians”)

Once formed the Roman cavalry Acquired their wealthy through a variety of

means, Participated in the expansion of the empire

through commerce or as private contractors Only by this point did they want a political role

Senate limiting Equites’ power Passed a law in 218 BCE Senators from bidding on

state contracts or engaging in commerce Kept the Equestrians from holding high office

By 100 BCE, the Equestrians demanded political power equal to their financial power

Economic Changes After the Punic Wars, there were major economic

changes Small farmers were hit the worst

Lands were damaged from invading troops Farmers were also required to serve for six years Their farms were in horrendous shape when they

returned Many decided to sell their land rather than reclaim it

Landed aristocracy bought the small farms Created huge estates (latifundia) by buying out the

small farms or taking over state-owned land Concentrated on cash crops, including grapes, olives,

and sheep Relied heavily on slave and tenant labor, which small

farmers could not afford to do

Economic Changes Decline in citizen farmers

With so many farmers losing their properties, decrease in the number of citizen farmers

Led to decline of men available for military service Movement to urban areas

Some small farmers remained in the rural areas to try to find work

More moved into the cities, creating a new class of landless laborer

Very unstable group that and would cause serious problems in hard times (e.g., riots)

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Were two nobiles who attempted to fix the economic and political problems facing Rome

Tiberius Gracchus – (163-133 BCE) Concerned with the decline of small farmers as

well as the shortage of military recruits Land-Reform Bill

Placed limits on the amount of state-owned land that could be held

Stipulated that public land could be given to landless Romans on a permanent, low-cost lease

Wanted to establish a land commission to oversee the redistribution of land

Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Tiberius knew he would not be able to get this

bill through the Senate Most of them were the large landowners who

would be most affected by this bill Instead he went to the Concilium Plebis, where it

easily passed Many of the Senators were upset with this

They had him assassinated in 133 BCE Gaius Gracchus – (154-121 BCE)

He continued the efforts of his brother Worked on laws that regulated the price of grain Included one that enabled grain to be sold at below

market value by establishing government subsidies

Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers He was not reelected as Tribune of the Plebes in 121

BCE Senate began stripping all of the reforms he had made

Gaius and his followers led mass demonstrations in Rome Many brought weapons with them but none were used Consul Lucius Opimius used the power of senatus

consultum ultimum (“a final decree of the senate”) to restore order

Brought in the military to break up the crowd Over 3,000 of Gaius’ followers were killed Gaius had his slave stab him

Impact on Roman Politics Rome started to think in terms of political “right” and

“left” Used the Concilium Plebis to create an alternative

Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Populares and optimates felt justified in this

struggle Populares knew that their reforms could not get

pass the Senate so they needed to break the power of the optimates

Optimates believed the leaders of the populares wanted to bring in tyranny and use the masses to further their own ambitions

The optimates were unwilling to compromise They were also quick to resort to violence to stop

the brothers and their followers This would bring about the beginning of the end of

the Republic

King Micipsa of Numidia (148-118

BCE)

The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) The decline of Rome is first seen with the

Jugurthine Wars (111-105 BCE) It exposed extensive corruption, especially in the

Senate Numidia

Most powerful kingdom in Africa after the Punic Wars By 111 BCE, the kingdom was under the rule of two

brothers and their cousin Jugurtha Jurgurtha was a skilled warrior and had been trained

in Roman military tactics He sought to claim the kingdom for himself Had one of his cousins assassinated and went to war

with the other

The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) The surviving cousin, Adherbal, turned to Rome for

help Jugurtha used his influence with various Roman families

and very large bribes to prevent Rome from sending in troops

Adherbal used Roman soldiers in his army Many were killed during the course of the war Those who survived were subsequently killed by Jugurtha

Rome was outraged with the killing of its citizens Declared war on Jugurtha in 111BCE Jugurtha used his influence and money to prevent a

battle Accusations of bribery spread throughout Rome

One of the Tribunes of the Plebs began an investigation into bribery charges

The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) Jugurtha then ordered the assassination of

Adherbal The assassins were caught and confessed to

Jugurtha’s participation Once again, Rome went to war

This time, the Romans were quickly defeated This shocked many Romans When the commanders of the Roman army returned

home, they came back as newly wealthy men There were more cries of scandal and bribery

In 109 BCE, Quintus Caecilius Metellus was put in charge of the army He was a much better general and came from a

respectable family Made very little progress against Jugurtha

Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE)

Marius and the New Roman Army Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE)

One of Metellus’s legates and subordinate commanders In 107 BCE, he decided to run for consul and won

Command of African army Marius was given command by the plebeian assembly For the next two years he began military reforms Wanted to increase the number of men eligible to serve

Originally, the Roman army was made up of a group of conscripted small landowners However, with the decline in the number of small

landowners, there were not enough men eligible to join the army

Marius and the New Roman Army New Roman Army

Marius recruited volunteers from the landless working class

Troops would also get retirement benefits and land They swore an oath to their generals, not the Senate This put a lot of power into the hands of the generals Many people quickly joined the army to get these

benefits Rise of Professional Soldiers

Many new soldiers did not have homes to return to They became career full-time professional soldiers Would serve terms from 20 to 25 years Encouraged promotion from within ranks Created a whole new social class in Rome whose

loyalty was to their generals more than to the state

End of the Jugurthine War End of Jugurthine War

Marius used his new army to fight Jugurtha Roman troops pushed Jugurtha farther and farther

south Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)

One of Marius commanders Was sent down to negotiate with Bocchus, King of

Mauretania Bocchus was an ally of Jugurtha but was more

concerned about the encroaching Roman troops Sulla convinced Bocchus to betray and capture

Jugurtha War ended in 105 BCE

Coin of Sulla (Bocchus on left, Jugurtha on right)

Cimbri and Teutons Threat from the Cimbri and Teutons

Two roaming Germanic tribes In 109 BCE, attacked northern Italy Quickly laid waste to the Roman troops there

Rome had a serious shortage of men to fight in the army Marius was just beginning his reforms Two wars strained the army

Rome continued to lose to the tribes until 102 BCE At that point, the army was ready Led by Sulla and Catulus, the Roman army defeated

the tribes Two of the tribes that joined the battle were almost

wiped out of existence

Decline of Marius Marius was already popular in Rome

Was successful with his army reforms Was also elected consul from 104-99 BCE With this victory he was heralded as the “savior of

Rome” Decline of Marius

Needed to get the land for his soldiers Made some unhealthy alliances

Saturninus (???-100 BCE) One of the Tribunes of the Plebs Wanted to give veterans land in the colonies Was opposed by the Senate

Decline of Marius Saturninus began to use mob tactics and open

street violence to push through his requests Also used his power to have one of his rivals

assassinated, Senate issued a senatus consultum ultimatum

This ordered Marius to use his army to put down Saturninus

The Senate went on to void all the laws passed by Saturninus except for the land grants to veterans

Marius’ political career came to an end He went into a self-imposed exile

Army could now be used to save the Republic But at the same time it showed how it could be

used to destroy it

Marcus Livius Drusus (??? – 91 BCE)

Social War (91-88 BCE) Marcus Livius Drusus (???-91 BCE)

One of the Tribunes in 91 BCE Was considered a champion of the Latin allies Tried to pass a law granting full Roman citizenship to

all allied Italians living south of the Po River Opposition

This law was vehemently opposed by many in all social classes

They did not want the Italians to become citizens Drusus was assassinated soon after

When word of this got out, many of the Italians revolted This becomes known as the Social War; Socius is Latin for "ally"

Social War (91-88 BCE) Italians had fought for Rome but not gotten the

bonuses Wanted the same share of land and bonuses given to

the Roman veterans Put together an army of over 100,000 men

Marius was called in to put down the revolt He was put in charge of the northern army Sulla was put in charge of the southern army Able to put down most of the rebellion by 88 BCE

Concessions Granted full citizenship with voting rights to all free

Italians Drastically altered the voting in favor of populares

Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)

Rise of Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)

Was a member of the nobiles One of the leading generals of the Roman Army Risen up into prominence during the Social War Awarded the Corona Gaminea ("Grass Crown"),

which was awarded by the soldiers for personal bravery in the field

Elected consul in 88 BCE Turn to Pontus

Rome’s next target was Mithridates VI, King of Pontus

He played on the discontent in Anatolia about growing Roman power in the region and taxation

Asia Minor in 90BCE

Rise of Sulla First Mithridatic War (88-85 BCE)

Mithridates ordered the execution of 80,000 Roman citizens

Included anyone else who spoke with a Latin accent Senate responded by putting together as massive

invasion force It gave command of that army Sulla

Marius did not like this He wanted the position for himself even though he

was 69 years old at the time Went to the plebeian assembly Got it to pass a law giving him command instead

Rise of Sulla Sulla’s First Civil War (88-87 BCE)

Sulla responded by raising his legions in southern Italy

He turned his armies on Rome itself Stated the power of the Senate had been nullified

and traditions had been violated His troops captured Rome after long street battle Announced that Marius and his allies were now

“enemies of the state” Marius was forced to flee to Africa

Once in control of the city, Sulla went to Asia Minor Planned bringing an end to the Mithridatic War

Rise of Sulla While Sulla was gone, Marius returned to Rome

This time he brought with him Lucius Cornelius Cinna Marius was able to captured the city with his own

troops He appointed himself Consul for a seventh time Eliminated Sulla's supporters, killing over 100 nobiles A few weeks later Marius died of a massive brain

hemorrhage Cinna used Marius’ troops to remain in power as

consul Sent a second army to Pontus to relieve Sulla of

command Sulla was able to convince many members of the

second army to desert and join his army

Rise of Sulla Battle of Orchomenos (85 BCE)

Sulla defeated Mithridates Also forced the surrender of the Greece states

supporting him Sulla turned his attention back to Rome

Easily defeated the troops throughout Italy Even defeated Marius’ son, Gaius Marius the Younger

In 82 BCE, he seized the city of Rome Temporary Dictator

Senate wanted him to “reconstitute the republic” It did not have a time limit This was ratified by the popular assembly

Sulla’s Dictatorship Taking care of the opposition

Opposition was proscribed and marked “enemies of the state”

Over 1,500 nobiles killed; may have been as high as 9,000

Property and wealth of those proscribed were confiscated

Relatives of the proscribed were forbidden from politics Power back to the Senate

Increased the number of Senators from 300 to 600 Re-instituted the Cursus Honorum Set minimum age requirements for holding office, term

limits, and minimum intervals between terms Eliminated most of the powers of the popular

assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs

Sulla’s Dictatorship Sulla resigned as dictator in 81 BCE

He was elected consul for 80 BCE Retired from politics in 79 BCE

Impact: Took power away from the populares Eliminated most of their power in the popular

assemblies Strengthening the power of the Senate and the nobiles Showed that an army could be used to seize power

Sulla died in 78 BCE In the end, his death left a power vacuum

Rome will be divided by civil war for the next fifty years

Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115-53 BCE)

Rise of Crassus and Pompey Using its newly restored power, the Senate went

on to make two key military appointments Crassus (c. 115-53 BCE)

Supporter of Sulla Became wealthy through confiscation of those

proscribed Put down Spartacus in 71 BCE, as part of the Third

Servile War (73-71 BCE) Gnaeus Pompeius “Pompey” Magnus (106-48

BCE) Also a supporter of Sulla Seized control of Iberia from an ally of Marius and

restructured its administration in 71 BCE Took credit for the end of the Third Servile War

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (aka Pompey) (106-48 BCE)

Rise of Crassus and Pompey Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls in 70

BCE They truly hated one another but joined forces

Putting power back into the hands of the populares Undid all of Sulla’s reforms Restored the power of the Tribunes of the Plebes Put equites back on juries Opitimates very suspicious of them, especially Pompey

Pompey received two important military campaigns Successfully led a navy expedition against the pirates

in the Mediterranean (67 BCE) In 66 BCE, Pompey was given command of troops to for

the Third Mithridatic War (75-65 BCE)

Rise of Crassus and Pompey Pompey returned to Rome on September 29, 61

BCE Received a full Triumph (his third) that lasted for two

days He shared his spoils with Rome He also disbanded his army

He expected help from the Senate upon his return Had reorganized the territory in Asia Minor Also promised his veterans land when they retired Senate was not so willing to help Over the past five years the forces of power had

shifted

Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)

Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)

Was threatened with proscription during Sulla’s dictatorship

Joined the army fighting campaigns in Asia until Sulla’s death

Caesar returned to Rome in 78 BCE He became a spokesman for the populares

Political appointments: Quaestor in Iberia (69 BCE) Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE) Praetor of Iberia (62 BCE)

Military commander in Iberia Conquered the Celts and Lusitanians in northern Iberia His troops gave him the title of imperator in 60 BCE

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE)

The Catilinarian Conspiracy Financial struggles

Many Romans were suffering financial hardships from the wars

By 63 BCE, debt was at an all time high Lucius Sergius Catilina (108-62 BCE)

Ran for consulship in 66 BCE Supported the cancellation of debts He was massive debt as well The optimates were against this policy and he lost the

election Birth of the conspiracy

Hoped to make changes to the Republic through legal means

Realized this could only be done through revolt Got support from different classes as many suffered from

debt

The Catilinarian Conspiracy The conspiracy was uncovered in October 63 BCE

Discovered by Consul Marcus Tullus Cicero Cicero informed the Senate of this plot and its danger

to the Republic Series of speeches known as the Catiline Orations

Roman troops were able to quickly put down the revolt Catiline himself died in battle Those conspirators who did survive were executed

Conspiracy discredited the populares On the other hand, it strengthened the power of the

Senate

The Mediterranean c. 59 BCE

First Triumvirate In 61 BCE, Pompey was annoyed with the Senate

They were enjoying the increase of power after the defeat of the Catilinarian Conspiracy

And they were fearful of Pompey’s popularity with the masses

Refused to ratify the arrangements he requested In 60 BCE, Caesar returned from Iberia

With the new title of imperator Caesar was allowed a Triumph

However, this posed a serious problem for Caesar He could request a Triumph which would keep him as a

soldier and thus ineligible for office He could refuse the Triumph and become a private

citizen and run for office Caesar wanted to do both but the Senate refused him

First Triumvirate Caesar wanted the consulship more than the

Triumph Formation of the First Triumvirate

Caesar knew he needed a strong alliance as the Senate was getting too powerful

Caesar was an ally of Crassus for quite some time Crassus had helped pay off some of Caesar’s debt Pompey was already upset with the Senate Caesar secured Pompey’s help by giving Pompey his

daughter in marriage Formed what historians call the First Triumvirate Their enemies called them the “three headed

monster”

First Triumvirate Caesar as consul (59 BCE)

Used the influence of the other two to win Succeeded in achieving the goals for the

Triumvirate Caesar got the proconsulship of Gaul for five years Crassus was promised a future consulship His allies got a reduction on tax contracts that they

had originally been forced to overbid on Pompey got the land for his veterans and his own

political ambitions In 58 BCE, Caesar left for Gaul

Conquered most of France, Belgium, and parts of Germany by 55 BCE

First Triumvirate Instability in Rome

Publius Clodius Pulcher was elected Tribune in 58 BCE Used mob violence to push through reforms for the

populares Alliance was also unstable

Pompey was siding more and more with the optimates Caesar’s power base in the city was diminishing Pompey and Crassus remembered the importance of

having military commands Reaffirmation of the alliance

Met in northern Italy to renew their alliance in 56 BCE

First Triumvirate As part of the agreement:

Caesar got a 5-year extension in Gaul Crassus and Pompey would be elected consul for 55 BCE Crassus would also receive a military command in Syria Pompey would receive a military command in Spain Caesar also sent 1,000 troops into Rome to quiet things

down In late 55 BCE, Crassus left almost immediate for

Syria He planned on invading the Parthian Empire in Iran He unfortunately is killed in battle in 53 BCE

This left Pompey in charge of running the government Not a good politician and started moving closer to the

optimates

Rise of Caesar Caesar continued his success in Gaul

Defeated an invasion of Germanic tribes attempting to cross the Rhine

Successfully invaded southern Britain in 54 BCE on his second try, but had to abandon it in 52 BCE

By 52 BCE, the provinces of Belgica, Aquitania and Lugdunesis were created

His military successes made Caesar more powerful He acquired enough loot and slaves to pay off all of his

debts He also had a large army who were loyal solely to him This frightened not only the Senate but Pompey as well The Senate sided with Pompey because he was seen as

the lesser threat of the two

Rise of Caesar In 50 BCE, the Senate told Caesar to return to Rome

Supported by Pompey Also would have to give up his armies if he wanted to run

for consul Caesar, of course, refused On January 1, 49 BCE, Caesar was declared a “public

enemy” Caesar then sent troops down towards Rome

On January 11, 49 BCE he stood on the banks of the Rubicon River which would led him into Italy

It is at this point that Caesar told his troops “Alea iacta est” ("Let the die be cast“)

Pompey and his supporters fled to Greece He had planned on amassing his own army to fight Caesar

Caesar’s Civil War Caesar arrived in Rome at the end of March

49 BCE He seized the treasury containing 15,000 bars of

gold, 30,000 bars of silver and 30 million sesterces Only stayed for a week

Campaign in Spain Easily defeated Pompey’s troops there Some troops mutinied from Pompey’s control Caesar now turned to Greece

Battle of Pharsalus (August 9, 48 BCE) Caesar was outnumbered 2:1 Pompey’s troops were not trained Roman legions Pompey was defeated and fled to Egypt

Caesar’s Civil War When Pompey arrived in Egypt he was assassinated

One of Ptolemy XIII’s counselors knew that Caesar would follow after Pompey

He believed this way he could get in good graces with him

Caesar was giving Pompey’s head and ring in a basket He was incredibly upset that they had killed Pompey According to Plutarch, "he turned away…with loathing,

as from an assassin; and when he received Pompey's signet ring on which was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paws, he burst into tears“

Caesar deposed Ptolemy His sister, Cleopatra VII, was put in power

Caesar’s Civil War During the winter of 48/47 BCE, Caesar helped

secure power for Cleopatra In the process, he enjoyed a love affair with her Ordered the Egyptian fleet burnt

Turn towards the east Defeated king of Pontus at the Battle of Zela (Aug. 47

BCE) With the easy defeat, Caesar stated “veni, vidi, vici” (“I

came, I saw, I conquered”) Caesar was named temporary dictator in absentia

Term was for ten years Caesar then went on to defeat King Juba I of

Numidia

Caesar as Dictator In July 46 BCE, Caesar returned to Rome

Four Triumphs were held for him that lasted for ten days Over 300 million sesterce (~$7 billion) were doled out to

his veterans and the population of Rome Caesar used his power to institute numerous

reforms Increased the Senate to 900, filling it with his followers Granted citizenship to his supporters Established colonies of Roman citizens in North Africa,

Gaul, and Spain Pardoned those who opposed him during the civil war Brought in a new calendar based on the Egyptian one

(365 solar days) and renamed the month of Quintilis to Julius, or July

Caesar as Dictator Some were fearful of Caesar’s power

He placed his supporters in positions as high as consul

Many believed that he would try to take the title of king

Dictator Perpetuus Given by the Senate in 44 BCE

Festival of Lupercalia Caesar wanted to find out if the public would accept

him as king Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s co-consuls, attempted

to place a diadem (crown) on top of Caesar’s head When Caesar heard no cheers of support from the

crowd he refused it

Caesar as Dictator Assassination (March 15, 44 BCE)

Put together by a group of leading senators, known as Liberatores

Hooped that the old republican system would return with Caesar’s death

Was lured to the Senate to discuss a petition Instead was stabbed 23 times Involved sixty conspirators, including Marcus

Brutus Caesar chose Gaius Octavius Thurinus

(“Octavian”) as his heir His grandnephew Caesar chose him as his adopted son

Gaius Octavius Thurinus (“Octavian”) (63 BCE - 14 CE)

Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE) Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE)

Was serving in Illyria when he heard of Caesar’s death

Rushed back to Rome recruiting some of Caesar’s troops along the way

Also seized funds that were to be used for Caesar’s next campaign

He arrived in Rome on May 6, 44 BCE By this point, most of Caesar’s assassins had been

driven out of Rome Mark Antony had already gained political support

for him

Second Triumvirate Second Triumvirate

Octavian allied himself with Antony and Marcus Lepidus

Lepidus had been commander of Caesar’s cavalry This one was actually legally sanctioned via Lex Titia Allowed them to rule for five years

Their first job was to rid Rome of their opponents They renewed Sulla’s policy of proscription Many of their enemies were killed Including Cicero who had not participated in Caesar’s

assassination but spoke out against Antony numerous times

Second Triumvirate Brutus and Gaius Cassius, the two responsible

for Caesar’s death, escaped They were able to amass an army in the east They were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42

BCE The power of the Triumvirate was now secure

In 40 BCE, the Triumvirate divided the republic into spheres of influence Octavian got the west Antony the east Lepidus got Africa

Second Triumvirate Treaty of Tarentum (38 BCE)

Renewed the Triumvirate for another five years Problems for the Triumvirate

Like its predecessor, this triumvirate was plagued with jealously and instability

Antony wanted to go to war against Parthian Octavian would not send troops to help Antony turned to Egypt for help and fell in love with

Cleopatra Lepidus was accused of trying to seize power in

Sicily in 36 BCE and was subsequently put into exile In 33 BCE, the Triumvirate was not renewed Octavian continued to use the title Triumvir

Mark Antony (83-30 BCE)

Octavian v. Antony Octavian v. Antony

Focused his attention at eliminating Antony Octavian used Antony’s love affair with Cleopatra

for his own propaganda Octavian illegally got a copy of Antony’s will Stated that Antony's children by Cleopatra would

get a good portion of his inheritance Claimed that Anthony was giving away land to the

“whore of the East” Rome was not happy and the Senate declared war

on Cleopatra

Octavian v. Antony Battle of Actium (September 31 BCE)

Octavian’s forces defeated both Antony’s army and navy in Greece

Antony escaped to Egypt but was defeated again in Alexandria

In August 30 BCE, a messenger told Antony that Cleopatra had been captured He committed suicide Cleopatra, who was not captured, killed herself after

hearing the news of Antony’s death With Antony dead, Octavian had sole power for

himself This marks the end of the Roman Republic