Comm 201 Test #1 Study Guide

Theory: a set of related statements designed to describe, explain, and/or predict reality

Useful guides for providing explanations

Basic components of communication:

Source: designates the originator of the message (sender)

Message: the stimulus that the source transmits to the receiver (tone of voice, gestures, facial expressions)

Channel: means by which the message is conveyed from source to receiver Using more than one channel in conveying a message increases redundancy

and accuracy of a message

Encoding: the process of taking an already conceived idea and getting it ready for transmission

Decoding: the process of taking the stimuli that have been received and giving those stimuli meaning through individual interpretation and perception

Noise: any stimulus that inhibits the receiver’s accurate reception of a given message (psychological noise/ semantic noise)

Feedback:

Chapter 3

Rhetoric: communication study beginning in ancient Greece; mainly concerned with the various forms of oratory, or persuasive speech making

Paved way for modern communication studies discipline

Encoding and Decoding Process

Encoding: the process of taking an already conceived idea and getting it ready for transmission

Decoding: the process of taking the stimuli that have been received and giving those stimuli meaning through individual interpretation and perception

We as communicators act as both the encoder and decoder (source and the receiver)

4 key variables that make up the many models of communication: source, message, channel, receiver

Yale Studies on Communication Focused on attitude change and persuasion (cognitive learning theory) Widely credited for leading comm discipline to “social scientific research” Examined 4 components of comm

o Source (credibility/trustworthiness)o Content (what influences attitude change)o Organization (ordering of persuasion)o Receiver (characteristics/predispositions)

Introduced the importance of variables to the comm process and study of comm

Rhetoric = Speaker-centric (what speaker can do to persuade audience) Yale Studies = Receiver-centric (what audience already brings to comm) Yale Studies are atheoretical (research that does not meet theory criteria,

often not intending to)

Atheoretical research: lacking a theoretical foundation

Cognitive dissonance: suggests that individuals who hold two contradictory ideas or ideas contradicted by their behaviors will experience psychological discomfort called dissonance (example: saying smoking is unhealthy, then lighting up a cig)

Festinger (1957) expressed cognitive dissonance theory as an explanation for human ‘balance’, and our desire to maintain balance

As humans, we try to maintain consistent relationships between ideas, or cognitive elements.

We want things to be in balance, or to make sense to us cognitively (psychological comfort).

Two cognitive elements can be related in one of three ways .o An irrelevant relationship (does not cause psychological discomfort

because persuasive elements are not related in any way)o A consonant relationship (support for persuader is strengthened

because two elements are consonant, or agree with one another)o An dissonant relationship (causes psychological discomfort because

two cognitive elements are inconsistent, or dissonant) During states of cognitive dissonance, we seek to reduce this discomfort or

dissonance in some way. This reduction of dissonance can be achieved in a few different ways

o An individual can change one of their ideas to bring it in line with another idea.

o An individual may seek information to support one of the two ideas.o An individual may avoid information that results in dissonance.o An individual may reduce the importance of one of the two cognitive

elementso An individual may use a third cognitive element to reconcile the two

dissonant cognitive elements

Symbolic coverage: deals with the general human tendency to interpret and to give meaning to signs and symbols

People often share a particular fantasy type Comm that takes place in small groups is often filled with dramatic imagery

that can lead to increased group consciousness and solidarity. Rhetorical vision moves symbolic convergence from small groups to the

masses via the media A symbol or word can evoke solidarity or hostility

Dramatism Dramatism is a modern rhetorical theory Recall the rhetorical tradition examines language Burke believed that language is a strategic human response to a specific

situation Burke believed that a critic’s job is to figure out why a speaker/writer chose

the words that were choreographed into the message. “Life is not like a drama, life is drama” While early rhetoric (Ancient Greeks and Romans) is steeped in persuasion,

Burke believed rhetoric is grounded in identification with the audience

Identification (in this sense) is the common ground that exists between speaker and audience

Burke used the word substance as an umbrella term to describe a person’s physical characteristics, talents, occupation, background, personality, beliefs, and values.

The more overlap between the substance of the speaker and substance of the listener/audience, the greater identification is

Without some kind of division (between people) in the first place, there would be no need for identification. And without identification, there is no persuasion”

Chapter 4

Paradigms: “grand models” consisting of theoretical assumptions a group of scientists uses to guide their research

Paradigm shift: situation in which one theoretical paradigm replaces another in popularity among a group of scientists

Four theory-building perspectives:

1. Covering Laws Perspective: developed from logical positivism, a theoretical paradigm that asserts the true nature of reality is contained in regular observable, natural patterns

Derived from logical positivism (can only know something via 5 senses or derived from logic/mathematical model)

Assumes “Laws”, or regularities of behavior can be observed Relies heavily on causality (cause-effect; if X, then Y) Scholars using this perspective are: “Continually seeking to discover what preceding conditions will cause

people to respond in various ways. If we discover those conditions, we can re-create them and have people respond the way the law-governed generalization indicates they will. In this way, we can better explain our environment, predict outcomes, and ultimately control our environment” (p. 85 textbook)

The pursuit of laws in this perspective is key because it allows scholars to propose generalizations, or predictions that will hold true across situations and time (become laws).

But what do we know about comm? (It is not predictable) This means “logical positivism” cannot truly exist (not true every

single time; no laws in human communication) So logical positivists in comm research are actually “probabilists”

(seek what is probable)o “The probabilistic view of laws asserts that given a certain

antecedent condition (X), the outcome or consequent effect (Y)

will occur with (P) degree of probability, under certain conditions” (textbook, p. 87)

o Antecedents are conditions that already exist (e.g., our traits, biological sex, etc.)

Terms for covering laws perspective:o Logical positivism: philosophical position that events can be

explained by laws that have the formal structure of deductive reasoning

o Laws: regularities involving behavioro Causality: relationship in which previous (antecedent) events

produce later (consequent) effectso Explain: to make understandable; to give a reason for or a

cause ofo Prediction: to use knowledge about antecedent conditions to

predict how people will respond or behave in communication situations

o Generalizability: law-like statements that hold true across many situations and many different time periods

o Experimental paradigm: used by researchers to create controlled situations to test the effect of antecedent conditions on subsequent outcomes

2. Communibiological Perspective: Approach to explaining communication that claims there is a genetic basis for most communicative behavior

• “Nature over nurture” in comm behavior• Comm: 80% biological (genetic based), 20% environmentally

influenced (Beatty & McCroskey)• Traits are “behavioral tendencies that differentiate people” (p. 91,

text)

• A true “paradigm shift”: previous scholars assumed humans were a “blank slate”

• Built on 5 main propositions (Beatty & McCroskey, 1998)1. All psychological processes depend on brain activity (Rich

cognitive processing observed by comm scholars has to be “neurologically possible”)

2. Brain activity precedes psychological experience (non-biological consciousness does not guide brain; don’t have free will)

3. Individual differences (i.e., traits) are mostly inherited genetically

4. Environment or situation has only a negligible effect on interpersonal comm behavior (We have “set points” from which we operate normally – fluctuations from this are only temporary in nature)

5. Interpersonal comm behavior differences are due to 3 brain function circuitries:

o Behavioral activation system (activated by desire for reward)o Behavioral inhibition system (activated by anxieties about

behavior)o Fight/Flight system (activated by threats)

Terms for communibiological perspective:o Temperaments: traits with a biological basis that differentiate people

Strengths and Weaknesses:• Strengths

• Objective criteria used (brain function), leading to greater scientific precision

• “Diagnostic possibilities” (clinical treatments)• Weaknesses

• “Retooling” of researchers in discipline (learn to measure brain function)

• How to justify discipline as important (if true)• Ethics (“Science-fiction” scenario)

3. Rules Perspective (Human Action Perspective)• Grown largely out of dissatisfaction with laws perspective in 1960s/1970s

(paradigm shift)• Assumes people have control over their own behavior (free will) and behave

to fulfill goals and intentions• In comm, assumes humans being make choices based on “rules”, or the

correct behaviors in a given situation (i.e., norms)

• Characteristics of “rules”:• Must be “followable” (laws can’t be broken; rules can be)• Rules are “prescriptive” (accountable if known rule is broken)• Rules are “contextual” (rules apply in certain situations, but not all

situations – tied to comm model elements)

Terms from Rules Perspective:o Rule-following approach: views individuals acting with some degree of

regularityo Rule-governing approach: views rules as an “individual’s belief about what

should be done or what should occur as a consequence of his or her action”o Habitual rules: typically non-negotiable, imposed by those in positions of

authority, and yield negative consequences if violatedo Parametric rules: describe patterns of action considered appropriate within

certain mutually understood boundarieso Tactical rules: rules used to achieve some type of personal or interpersonal

objective

Strengths and Weaknesses • Strengths

• Assumes people have a great deal of autonomy and control over behavior

• Helps us understand “why” in comm. behavior• Weaknesses

• Great at explanation, poor at prediction• Has been in decline since 1980s

4. Systems Perspective: theoretical paradigm whose followers believe that the true nature of reality is contained in systems-interdependent units that work together to adapt to a changing environment

• Assumes that true nature of reality is contained in systems, or interdependent units that work together to adapt to changes

• Systems can be held together with laws, with rules, with laws and rules (doesn’t favor one)

• Systems are generally open (interacts with outside environment; obtains new ideas) or closed (interacts little or none with outside environment; no new ideas)

Terms:o Subsystems: smaller units within a systemo Suprasystems: larger units that make up a system; composed of subsystemso Nonsummativity: characteristic of a system that states the system is more

than contributions of each individual parto Cybernetic systems: open systems that are self-regulating

o Homeostasis: process of self-regulation by which a cybernetic system maintains an equilibrium

o Equifinality: concept that there are many different ways by which a system may reach the same end state

o Teleological: property of open systems that indicates they try to reach specific end states or goals

Strengths and Weaknesses

Appendix A

Variables:

Independent: variables that cause /predict dependent variables

Dependent: presumed effect in cause-effect relationship with independent variables

Most concrete “rung” on the ladder “The most obvious attribute of a variable is that it varies” (p. 426, text)

This means a variable must always have options (yes/no, male/female, 1 to 100, etc)

Variables generally serve as “independent” or “dependent” “Indep. variables (causes) are studied to determine their effects on dep.

variables (results)” (p. 426, text) Sometimes known as “antecedent” (IV) and “effect” (DV) variables

Attribute Variables

Attribute variables often serve as “typical” independent variables. In our discipline this often includes biological sex, age, ethnicity, education

level Attribute variables also called “control variables” in studies Attribute variables often serve as “typical” independent variables. In our discipline this often includes biological sex, age, ethnicity, education

level Attribute variables also called “control variables” in studies

Measures of Attitude Semantic differential scales: Rating scales that utilize a 7-point continuum bound by bipolar terms in

order to locate an object in semantic space Likert scales: based on the idea of determining belief statements that are

relevant to the object of judgment, assessing the extent to which the research participant accepts each statement, and then summing the person’s acceptance across the total set of beliefs to derive a score for the person’s attitude toward the object