“WALK-THROUGH” MODEL OF SUPERVISION

BYQURAT-UL-AIN NAEEM

Content

1)Supervision

2)Introduction to the concept of walkthrough

3)Purposes of walkthrough

4)Need to conduct walk through

5)Essential elements of walkthrough

6)Criteria of walkthrough

7)Steps to conduct walkthrough

8)Current walkthrough model

9)Benefits of walkthrough

10) Conclusion

WALK THROUGH SUPERVISION

SUPERVISION

For explaining the term supervision it is rightly said that in textual discussions it has

been suggested that everything leadership people do in the course of their

professional lives is in some way part of supervision. Different concepts in sense of

definitions are being described which are prescribed as under, According to Knoll

(1987)

“Supervision is a leadership role in which the supervisor diagnoses teacher

performance needs and then guides, directs assists, suggests, supports, and

consults with the teacher.”

Goldhammer, Anderson, and Krajewski (1980) also suggest that supervision is

supportive of teacher growth

“Supervision is the task assigned to certain employees, whether in a line or staff

relationship to classroom teachers (or counselors), to stimulate staff growth and

development, to influence teacher behaviors in the classroom (or counseling center),

and to foster the selection, development, use, and evaluation of good instructional

approaches and materials” (p. 13)

Merriam-Webster defines supervision as

“The action, process, or occupation of supervising; especially: a critical watching and

directing (as of activities or course of action)”

Supervision is a task in the educational setting that involves the leading and

oversight of the instructional program as well as the responsibility for personnel

evaluation. Throughout the history, influences and impacts on supervision included

government involvement, scientific management, business management and

practices, and educational research and practices.

INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF WALKTHROUGH

Classroom walk-through is an instructional supervision technique which is designed

to help administrators and teachers to focus collaboratively on instructional practices

and also to identify educator training and support needs. Walk-through can last from

2 to 45 minutes. The observing group can range from 2 to 12 people and may

include teachers, administrators, community members, and students. Walk-through

can focus on one teacher, all teachers, or a subset of teachers and institution. The

walkthrough process provides formative assessment data that answers the question,

“how are we doing?” in regards to the implementation of standards-based teaching

and learning. Examining and analyzing this data is a key practice of continuous

school improvement. Walkthrough methods have many names and various

definitions and descriptions. Credited with the beginning of walkthroughs, Frase and

Hetzel (2002) described walkthroughs as

“An active person-to-person process that relies on deeds, involvement, and

participation to create better schools”

Rossi (2007) defined walkthroughs as

“Frequent, focused, brief visits to classrooms that allow principals to observe

firsthand the teaching and learning that are occurring in the classroom”

Davidson & Taylor (2002) focuses on the aspect of principals’ instructional

leadership, describing it as

“An organized observation that requires the principal to visit all classrooms to look

specifically at instructional practices and student learning”

Kachur, Stout, and Edwards (2010) define a classroom walkthrough by common

elements as,

“Informal and brief; involving the principal and/or other administrators, other

instructional leaders, and teachers; quick snapshots of classroom activities

(particularly instructional and curricular practices); not intended for formal teacher

evaluation purposes; focused on “look-for” that emphasize improvement in teaching

and learning; an opportunity to give feedback to teachers for reflection on their

practice; and having the improvement of student achievement as its ultimate goal.”

It can be rightly said walkthroughs are a tool for instructional supervision that

includes brief, focused classroom observations designed to gather formative data to

inform effective instructional practices through timely feedback for the purpose of

improving teaching and student learning.

PURPOSE OF WALKTHROUGH

The purpose of the Walkthrough is to,

Give and receive safe, non-threatening, qualitative evidence-based feedback

to stimulate in-school dialogue.

Reinforce attention to focus on teaching and learning priorities within a

standards-based environment.

Gather and provide qualitative data about instructional practice and student

learning to supplement other data about institution and student performance.

Stimulate collaborative, professional conversations about teaching and

learning through the gathering of evidence related to the instructional

expectation.

Learn from each other and from colleagues outside of the school through

observing peers, asking questions, sharing experiences, and providing a

variety of perspectives.

Deepen an understanding of teaching and learning through ongoing,

formative feedback related to improvement that supports the institute’s

instructional focus.

NEED TO CONDUCT WALKTHROUGH

The classroom walkthrough model consists of a series of frequent classroom visits

where the observer(s) are present to look for predetermined evidence of specific

practices. The observations last anywhere from two to forty-five minutes, and are

intended to support the faculty in the delivery of instruction and curriculum. Carolyn

Downey is known for her early work in the development of the classroom

walkthrough model, however, there are several models available and some school

districts have created their own. The aim of the classroom walkthrough is to provide

direct and specific feedback to teachers based on the snapshot observed. The

feedback can then be given to an individual, or the observer may provide a report of

patterns noted during the walkthroughs According to the National Staff Development

Council, walkthroughs, sometimes referred to as "learning walks," provide the

opportunity to

Reinforce attention to instructional practices

Gather data about instructional practice and student learning

Stimulate collegial conversation about teaching and learning

Learn from other participants

Deepen understandings and improve practices through continuous feedback.

The walk-through can serve many purposes. First, it gets principals into classrooms.

Unlike formal observations, which often last a full class period but occur only two or

three times a year, the walk-through, when used consistently, ensures that the

principal will see teachers teaching more often, albeit for a shorter length of time.

Depending on the size of the school, the principal might visit every classroom as

often as once a month, or even weekly. These structured visits also give principals a

first-hand view of instructional issues and patterns while providing them with a

meaningful way to demonstrate their interest in and knowledge of the teaching and

learning process.

The primary purpose the walk-through serves, though, is to provide a structure for

dialogue between principal and teacher about what goes on in the classroom,

"An adult-to-adult model of discourse that involves professional conversation about

practice" (Downey, Steffy, English, Frase, & Poston, 2004, p. ix).

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A WALK-THROUGH

The specific components of the walk-through vary with its purpose, but all effective

walk-through strategies share certain common elements. They include the following

as

Brevity

The walk-through is designed to increase the number of classrooms that principals

visit, so brevity is a must. While the typical walk-through lasts about 10 minutes, Dr.

Cockerham says, "If we are in the classroom longer than three minutes, then it

defeats the purpose of gathering first impressions". Walk-throughs do not replace

longer observations but instead supplement them by providing a high number of

classroom practice "snapshots" that over time can reveal patterns and instructional

issues throughout the school.”

Focus

Former Michigan Principal Todd Wiedeman the common focus of the walk-through

"puts teachers and principals on the same page in terms of expectations" but

because the walk-through is an adaptable strategy that can be used for a variety of

purposes, special attention must be paid to clarifying for all participants what is being

observed, and why. To ensure that there is indeed a common understanding;

teachers should be involved in developing the "look fors" and "listen fors" that

principal’s use during the observation as well as the reflective questions that

structure the feedback session. This participation will go a long way toward

reassuring teachers that the walk-through is a strategy for support, not for

evaluation. The walk-through strategy works well when everyone both the observer

and the observed knows and understands its purpose and focus.

Dialogue

A third common feature of the well-designed walk-through is that it results in a

dialogue between the principal and the teacher who has been observed. The

dialogue begins with the principal giving feedback about what was seen and heard.

According to authors Hall and Hord (2000) this brief, one-on-one, focused feedback

is the most powerful staff development approach available to impact teacher

behavior. Feedback often takes the form of reflective questions, such as "Why did

you group your students for that activity?" or "How did you develop the criteria for

posting student work?" The goal of the dialogue is twofold: to encourage teachers to

reflect on their classroom practice and to inform the principal about how that

practices can be supported. Principals also can talk about school wide trends they

have identified and make suggestions for classrooms to visit or for specific

professional development (Downey et al., 2004). When principals and teachers can

talk openly about what matters in the classroom, the possibilities for continuous

improvement are increased significantly.

VARIATIONS ON THE THEME

Although the walk-through can be an effective strategy to increase instructional

leadership, it also can be employed as a tool to promote teacher leadership and

build professional learning communities. Once teachers are trained in the basic

principles of the walk-through, it can be used in a variety of ways. Authors Blatt,

Linsley, and Smith (2005) say about the essentials that

"The essentials are the same- teachers learning from teachers in a non-evaluative

way, talking about their craft, and developing lessons that will improve student

achievement."

This strategy deploys a group as large as five or six. The observers meet beforehand

to decide the focus, and then each team member is assigned to observe a specific

aspect of that focus. When the walk-through are completed, team members meet to

debrief, and written feedback is shared with the teachers who have been observed.

Team members might include the principal, teachers, instructional coaches, or even

staff from a neighboring school.

CRITERIA OF WALKTHROUGH

Walkthrough procedure includes common elements of time parameters for

observations, recommendations for what to observe who should be involved in

defining the process for and the conduction of classroom observations and how

feedback should be communicated. The recommended amount of time spent in each

classroom observation ranges from three minutes according to Downey, Steffy,

English, Frase, & Poston, to between four and five minutes according to Ginsberg &

Murphy, five to seven minutes according to Ziegler, less than ten minutes (“Using the

Classroom Walkthrough,” 2007), and as much as twenty minutes .according to

Jones, Time can be an important factor when administrators and teachers already

have full daily agendas.

A majority of walkthrough observation protocol recommends involvement of

principals and administrators, teacher’s community members, and students. In

general, the people recommended by the procedure to be involved set the purpose

of the walkthrough, agree to the criteria used, conduct the observations, and serve

as an integral part of the feedback process to individual teachers and staffs. Types of

feedback communication vary between models and tools. Most models strongly

support affirming the positive aspects of classroom observations. According to

Skretta, it should not demand a reply from teachers. Other forms of written

communication cited include providing copies of completed observations to teachers

in their mailboxes and providing information through faculty newsletters.

Recommended avenues for oral communication of walkthrough results include

department meetings, lead teacher meetings, and full staff meetings, depending

upon the purpose of the walkthrough.

Researchers and practitioners offer recommendations for developing walkthrough

criteria, processes, or protocols

Develop and use a common language for quality instruction: have

administrators and faculty develop key descriptors (Skretta & Fisher, 2002)

Establish clear and consistent expectations for the process and for observers

and communicate these to staff members and school community: process

should be transparent and public (Skretta & Fisher, 2002)

Develop consistent format for documenting observations (Bloom, 2007;

Skretta & Fisher, 2002)

Train participants in data gathering and providing feedback (Bloom, 2007)

Communicate anecdotal feedback from walkthroughs with faculty (Skretta &

Fisher, 2002)

Continually evaluate the process: should be ongoing and not a one shot

experience (Bloom, 2007)

Include as an integral element of school and district culture (Bloom, 2007)

STEPS TO CONDUCT THE CLASSROOM WALKTHROUGH

1) Planning the Walkthrough

Orientation to Principals, Assistant Principals, Academic Coaches provided by

District

Staff orientation at schools re-delivered by those trained above.

Principals work with Instructional Leadership Team Improvement, Data Team to

develop the Walkthrough Process at the school. Central Office instructional staff

may be invited to assist with development of the protocol.

An examination of factors such as the

School Accountability Plan, achievement

data, and professional learning of the

school are taken into consideration. The

Leadership Team determines the

instructional focus of the Walkthrough

and completes the Walkthrough

Observation Form, to identify: the

focus question and a description of

the instruction expectations; the

grade levels and classrooms to be

visited; artifacts and evidence.

The teachers, school staff are

notified of the pending Walkthrough

and provided with the Walkthrough

Observation Form that will be used.

The team members are selected to

conduct the walk and they are

notified of the process. A date is

established, with a schedule of rooms to be visited by each team member.

See Phase-In Schedule for timeline specifics.

2) Conducting the Walkthrough

Team members arrive and receive an orientation.

The Walkthrough is conducted and observations are recorded. One-two persons

visit a classroom to record the data being collected, answering the question,

“How are we doing?” The classroom observation should last approximately 10

minutes, with the observation form completed at that time. The classroom should

have chairs identified for observers who need to be seated. Part of the

observation time may be spent circulating throughout the room and examining

student work (on display or at desks) and interviewing. See Walkthrough

Guidelines for specifics.

STEP 3ANALYZING DATA AND USING WALKTHROUGH RESULTS TO PLAN FOR

NEXT STEPS

STEP 4IMPLEMENTING THE NEXT STEP PLAN OF ACTION TO IMPROVE TEACHING AND

LEARNING

STEP 2CONDUCTING THE WALKTHROUGH

STEP 1PLANNING THE WALKTHROUGH

3) Analyzing Data and using Walkthrough Results to Plan for Next Steps

Share observations and consolidate data from the individual Walkthrough

Observation Forms.

This information is used to identify which expectations are/are not in place.

These findings are discussed with the Leadership Team immediately after the

data is compiled.

The Leadership Team identifies the reasons that the expectations are not in

place, and a Next Steps Plan of Action is completed to address the

expectation(s) not in place within 2 weeks.

4) Implementing the Next Steps Plan of Action to Improve Teaching and

Learning

The Principal and School Leadership Team assess progress on the Next Steps

Action Plan during the monthly reviews of the School Accountability Plan.

CURRENT WALKTHROUGH MODELS

The walkthrough models presented above are only a sample of the walkthrough

methods that are occurring in schools and school districts. The following models are

perhaps the most recognized in the literature of current walkthrough models. Each

model includes its purpose, criteria, and available research.

a) The Three-Minute Classroom Walkthrough

The Three-Minute Classroom Walkthrough (Downey et al., 2004) focuses on the

comparison between teacher instructional decisions and teacher actions. School-

based administrators conduct classroom observations that result in reflective

questions for each individual teacher observed regarding how they make

instructional decisions and how they will make future instructional decisions. “Its

ultimate purpose is to support teachers in becoming responsible and self-analytical

individuals who are continuously improving their practice. Teachers set growth

targets and search out researched practices and try them.” Three-minute classroom

observations involve a five-step structure. In step one, administrators look for student

orientation to the work. Within the first two seconds, the observer assesses whether

students are exhibiting attending behavior, listening, participating in class activities,

and on task. In the next two to three minutes of the observation, observers look for

the curricular objective and its alignment with district grade level standards for step

two of the process. The lesson objective does not have to be written for students to

see or communicated orally to students. The observer determines if what the

“teacher thinks is being taught, what is actually being taught”

Step three includes assessment of instructional decisions observed. Observer looks

for generic instructional practices such as types of student feedback provided by the

teacher, use of homework, how teachers handle student errors, level of instruction,

strategies identified as a school district goal, and subject-specific appropriate

strategies. If time permits in the three-minute limit, an observer would “walk the

walls” in step four. Walking the walls includes looking on the walls of the classroom

for artifacts of student work, looking for information that reveals previous learning,

and looking for learning objectives that continue to support instruction. Walking the

walls may include review of student journals, portfolios, or graded papers on the

teacher’s desk. Step five looks for safety and health issues such as physical hazards

(examples: backpacks in aisles, extension cords, broken desks or chairs) and

environmental concerns (examples: chemical smells and lack of adequate

ventilation). Step five happens naturally when an observation occurs. The

administrator notes any safety or health issues observed to address with appropriate

staff. Administrators take informal notes during the three minutes and formulate

possible reflective questions that would lead to reinforcing what is occurring in the

classroom or identifies an area for refinement. While the goal is to encourage

professional growth through the development of teachers as reflective thinkers, the

method calls for only occasional follow-up with teachers. According to Downey, when

follow-up conversations occur between administrator and teacher, “the teacher will

decide whether the conversation is of value to them”. These classroom visits are

three minutes in length, unannounced, informal, with no checklists, and provide a

snapshot of instructional decisions that teachers are making. The goal of this

process is to change teacher behavior by influencing their thinking with reflective

questions. The method acknowledges that the classroom visits are not long enough

to determine content accuracy and completeness. Downey suggest that the practice

of being in classrooms for as brief a time as three minutes will result in more visits to

more classrooms on a more continual basis and that this will assist administrators in

developing a better picture of instruction. There is no intent to evaluate teachers or

make judgments about instruction during this process. The Three-Minute Classroom

Walkthrough method assumes that administrators either have or will develop the

content knowledge and depth of knowledge of instructional practices to make the

aforementioned determinations in three-minute observations. Downey recommends

that either administrators download content curriculum information to carry

electronically or have print copies laminated to carry for easy access to information.

Administrators will then decide if content taught is accurate or complete, if not, a

more extensive observation period may be necessary. In cases where more directive

methods are needed to address instructional issues, the three-minute walkthrough

does not provide support, it “is not meant for the marginal teacher” .This may imply

that the method is not appropriate for beginning or struggling teachers, only for

known, competent, experienced teachers. Downey also acknowledges that issues

may arise from the process of change, moving from evaluative and directive style

observations to collegial and reflective observations.

b) Freedman

In Freedman’s dissertation study of two school districts implementing the Three-

Minute Classroom Walkthrough, the tool monitored classroom practice and visibly

demonstrated principals’ leadership. The study involved two elementary schools and

one secondary school in each district. Teacher surveys yielded a return rate of 37

percent for the 187 teachers for the six school study sites. Teachers participating in

the survey could volunteer for an individual interview. Of the seventy-two survey

participants, nine teachers volunteered. The researcher interviewed one teacher per

school. The teacher survey data and interviews were low in number and there was

no indication of how the researcher followed up with non-responders. Through

principal interviews and teacher surveys in six schools, Freedman found that

increased and targeted classroom visits reinforced principals’ self-efficacy. However,

the walkthrough did not appear to affect the self-efficacy of teachers. Freedman

noted that the walkthrough method was not fully nor coherently practiced, “design

and delivery are not the same”. A key component of the walkthrough method is

reflective conversations. Principals reported that reflective conversations with

teachers were difficult and they felt uncomfortable with the process. This may explain

Freedman’s finding that “teachers felt like passive recipients of walkthroughs, not

equal partners, teachers did not know what principals were looking for”, during their

classroom visits. In conclusion, Freedman’s dominant message was, “principals are

powerful when they use their position, authority, personality, and beliefs to construct

an environment that either nurtures or undermines professional working

relationships”.

c) Wolfrom

Wolfrom conducted an exploratory study of two elementary school principals in

Maine that used walkthrough tools. Although it was Wolfrom understands that both

principals were using the Three-Minute Classroom Walkthrough tool, it became

apparent in initial principal interviews that both were using tools of their own design.

Both principals had chosen to design their own tool to fit the needs of their school.

Both principals shared that they conducted formal and informal walkthroughs. Formal

walkthroughs included a checklist with comments that the principal of one school

shared with individual teachers observed. The second principal worked with staff to

design the walkthrough form and shared observation results with the full faculty.

Informal walkthroughs were announced “pop-ins” that did not include a formal

checklist or formal feedback process. Through surveys, observations, and interviews

with principals and teachers, Wolfrom found that walkthroughs had a positive impact

on meeting teachers’ higher-level needs for attention, recognition, feelings of

success, and professional growth. Teacher interview results indicated that because

of walkthroughs, teachers have grown in instruction and behavior management.

Teachers reported that they benefitted from informal conversations with the principal

because of the informal walkthroughs their principals conducted. Both principals felt

that the walkthrough “feedback processes that they created were difficult to complete

because of their time and energy requirements”

Wolfrom appeared concerned that neither principal was conducting the Three-Minute

Classroom Walkthrough tool as evidenced by a concluding statement: “In order to

realize the benefit of walkthroughs and determine if these strategies will work for our

schools, it is necessary that educators implement the strategies as described”.

Wolfrom recommended that future research include walkthroughs conducted by

teachers to “study, the benefits of peer visitation and feedback conversations as an

approach to formative supervision”.

d) Learning Walk

In contrast to the Downey process, Learning Walk is more formal, has a prescribed

focus, involves teachers as observers, and incorporates discussions with students.

The Institute for Learning (IFL), in the Learning Research and Development Center

of the University of Pittsburgh, developed a theory of standards-based teaching.

Their theory, the Principals of Learning (POL), are identified as: organizing for effort,

clear expectations, recognition of accomplishment, fair and credible evaluations,

academic rigor in a thinking curriculum, accountable talk, socializing intelligence,

learning as apprenticeship, and self-management of learning. IFL developed a tool

for school administrators to accompany the POL called Learning Walk (“The learning

walk,” 2008). Learning Walk is, “an organized walk through a school’s halls and

classrooms using the Principles of Learning to focus on the instructional core”. Goals

of the classroom instructional walk process are to diagnose student learning and

develop rigorous and coherent professional development. Classroom observations

may gather data on implementation of POL, practices from school district

professional development activities, or used to inform needs for professional

development. School-based administrators, teacher leaders, and/or teachers

conduct the walkthrough observations. Six components comprise the process of

Learning Walks: orientation of staff, orientation of observers or “walkers,” classroom

visits, hall talk, debriefing, and reflection to staff.

The principal communicates to the school staff the purpose for the Learning Walk

and communicates what observers will be looking for to gather data. The principal

briefs the observers on the professional development aspect they will be focusing on

and provides the data collection form. Each classroom visit lasts for five to ten

minutes. Observers look at learning available to students on the walls, review

artifacts of student work (portfolios, journals, posted work samples), talk with

students about their learning, note arrangement of the classroom, note available

classroom resources, and, if possible, talk with teachers about the learning they are

observing and its connection to the larger picture of instruction. Following each

observation, observers meet to discuss the observation and to develop reflective

questions that may help the teacher and the school improve instruction. These

conversations are confidential and may occur outside of classrooms or in another

location away from classrooms, such as a conference room or library. Upon

completion of observations, all observers gather to discuss trends and common

reflective questions with the principal. The principal may invite observers to develop

goals for addressing concerns, plans for additional professional development, and

plans for future walks. The principal then shares the findings with the staff through

written or oral communication. Communication may occur through email to teachers,

either individually or collectively, without an expectation for a response. The principal

may choose to talk with content specific departments, grade level teachers, or the

staff as a whole, depending on the focus of the observations. The intent of the

Learning Walk is not to make judgments about individual teachers or the school, but

to focus on how to deliver instruction effectively for student learning.

e) Walkthrough Observation Tool

The Walkthrough Observation Tool, from the Principals Academy of Western

Pennsylvania is comprised of a fourteen-step process that sets the structure and

protocol for data collection. Administrators and teachers identify and qualify the look-

fors, observable behaviors, which will be included during classroom observations.

Administrators and teachers define those look-fors, communicating them to teachers

in advance of the classroom visits. Teachers join administrators to conduct

observations and collect evidences of student work, learner objectives, classroom

management, materials and resources, and room arrangement. The principal

provides feedback to staff that validates good instruction and promotes a learning

community through collegial conversation about teaching and learning. The

fourteenth step is the maintenance of the walkthrough culture by continuing to visit

classrooms on a frequent and regular basis.

Two qualitative studies used perceptions of principals and teachers to determine the

impact of classroom walkthroughs on student learning and achievement. Both

researchers studied schools that used the Principals Academy of Western

Pennsylvania Walkthrough Observation Tool. Keruskin (2005) conducted a study

with high school principals who had incorporated the use of the Walkthrough

Observation Tool.

BENEFITS OF THE WALKTHROUGH

Supports continuous school improvement

Strengthens focus on teaching and learning

Makes principals’ presence in classrooms more frequent and more purposeful

Aligns teachers and principals in terms of expectations

Uses time effectively

Creates a common ground for discussing academic improvement

Keeps the administrator “in-touch” with the day-to-day happenings in the

classroom

Enables principals to know teachers’ strengths and weaknesses

Encourages the principal to be visible and to provide feedback

Reinforces the principal’s vested interest in what goes on daily in school

Improves rapport with students and decreases discipline issues

Increases appreciation by/of teachers

Stimulates sharing within faculties about the effective practices and positive

happenings in classrooms

Provides for quality reflection on teaching and learning

Stimulates additional opportunities for professional dialogue

Learn more about their teaching through the principal's support and presence

and to extend talk about teaching and reduce feelings of isolation.

Examine what works well and which areas of instruction or classroom

management could be enhanced by modifying practice.

Be affirmed for their instructional efforts.

Gauge short- and long-term efforts by examining objective data collected over

a sustained period of time.

CONCLUSION

The walk-through supervision model can be a practical, useful strategy to support

improved teaching and learning in any institution. But careful attention must be paid

to its organization and use to keep the walk-through from becoming just another

educational trend. Regardless of its structure or purpose, the walk-through must be

purposeful and focused. It must be done consistently and with a high degree of

accountability. The effective walk-through model or technique results in increased

dialogue and reflection about teaching practice on the part of both teacher and

principal. Most important, the walk-through supports improved teaching and

increased student achievement.

Classroom walkthrough models are numerous and vary in purpose, identification of

who conducts the visits, procedures, and time requirements. Faculties need clear

and transparent criteria, processes, and procedures. Whether individual teachers,

grade levels, content areas, or the full school is observed, feedback is a powerful

tool that should be provided in a timely manner. The walkthrough process should be

ongoing and focused on school and district-wide goals.

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improve teaching and learning”. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.

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