ON A C O N T R O V E R S I A L BAS-RELIEF F R O M T H E STOPA OF B H A R H U T * (Cunningham's Plate XXXII I 3)

by

CLAUS VOGEL Marburg

1. Bharhut Oat. 24 ~ 37' N. and long. 80 ~ 53' E.), 1 to-day a middle-sized village in the Nagod state of Madhya Pradesh containing upwards of 200 houses, lies six miles north-east of Unchahra, the nearest railway station be- ing Satna on the Jubbulpore-Allahabad line. Situated at the ancient highroad f rom Ujjain to Patna, by which the Graeco-Bactrian king De- metrius (c. 200-190 B.C.) made his raid into central India, it is not alto-

gether unlikely to be identical with the Vanasavhaya or Vanasgvatthi of the Suttanipdta, ~ the BapS~ 'c tg of Ptolemy, 3 and the Ba-gu-da or Ba-ku- da of the Vinayak.sudrakavastu. 4 At this last place, a certain Sampaka is said to have built a stQpa for the relics (some hairs, nail-parings, and

teeth) given him by Buddha in an illusory manner before his banishment from Kapila. ~

2. The Stf~pa of Bharhut, or rather what little remained of it after cen- turies of vandalic quarrying, was discovered by Sir Alexander Cunning-

ham in 1873, unearthed by him and his staff in the following years, and removed to the Indian Museum, Calcutta, in 1876, where it is still on dis- play. Judging from Dhanabhfiti 's inscription on the eastern gateway, 6

* It is our pleasant duty to thank Mr. William Fielding Hatton for his readiness to look through this paper in manuscript and change the phrasing wherever desirable from the stylistic point of view. 1 IGI, xviii, p. 302. The spelling varies among Barhut, Bharhut, Bhhrhut, Bharaut, and Bharahata.

v. 1011, also called Tumbavanagara. Cunningham, Stapa, p. 2, refers to a shorter version of the same legend found in Gurulug6mi's Amavatura and translated by Hardy, Manual, p. 345 sqq.

Geog. vii 1.69. Bam-po 8: Narthang Kanjur, 'Dul-ba (Vinaya), vol. tha (10), fol. 149 b 5/6; Peking

Kanjttr, 'Dul-ba (Vinaya), vol. de (101), fol. 88 a 7 [~ Otani Reprint, vol. 44, p. 37]. Cf. Csoma, AR, xx, p. 88. Cf. Cunningham, Stf~pa, p. 128.

198 CLAUS VOGEL

the sanctuary was completed "during the reign of the Sufigas" (Suganam raje), that is to say, between 185 and 73 B.C. 7

Though virtually nothing is left of the stflpa proper, its general appear- ance may be learned from some bas-reliefs found among the sculptures, all of which present the same common features, s According to these, the hemispherical dome rested on a circular base provided with small niches meant for lights and arranged in patterns. It was encompassed by a great stone railing and surmounted by a fenced square pedestal supporting a two-storied umbrella. Streamers and garlands were suspended from the rims of the latter, large flowers sprang from the top and bottom of the summit, and cylindrical ornaments hung in undulating folds round the whole structure. By way of comparison may here be mentioned the Great Stfipa of Sanchi, which, though dating from a slightly later period, has survived in remarkable preservation.

The railing that encircled the stfipa had openings towards the four car- dinal points. It was thus divided into four quadrants, each consisting of sixteen pillars joined by three cross-bars and covered by massive coping- stones. From the left side of each entrance, an L-shaped screen extended for twice two intercolumniations so as to block the direct approach.With these screens, the enclosure formed a gigantic swastika doubtless intended

by the designer.

3. The bas-relief now to be discussed belongs to the fifteenth pillar of the railing's south-west quadrant. It is a medallion carved from red sand- stone (quarried in the nearby Vindhya mountains) and measuring about 45 cm. in diameter. The principal figure in the composition is a supersized man (supersized, that is, with regard to the elephant) sitting on a low- backed chair and resting his feet on a sort of ottoman. He wears the com- mon royal headgear, ear-rings, bracelets, and necklace but is unclothed as far as the girdled waist. His right arm hangs straight down by his side, while his left arm is extended towards a monkey seated on a tiny stool in front, with the palm of the hand turned upwards and being worked by the monkey with a short pointed tool. A second monkey is holding the func- tion end of a huge pincer-like instrument directed at the man's labionasal region and secured to an elephant by a long rope. A third monkey is driving a goad into the back of the animal's neck to make him go quickly, whereas a fourth is biting his tail and beating him with a stick for the same

7 Cf. OHI, p. 138. For the question of chronology and the difficulties attendant on it see Barua, Barhut, i, p. 29 sqq. s See Cunningham's plates xiii, 2 and xxxi, 1.

A CONTROVERSIAL BAS-RELIEF FROM THE STI~PA OF BHARHUT 201

purpose . A t the top and b o t t o m are a fifth and a sixth m o n k e y respec-

t ively p lay ing a d rum and b lowing a large conch. ~

4. Thus far the plain descr ipt ion, which fol lows Cunn ingham ' s ac-

count 1~ bu t leaves as ide all cont rovers ia l mat ter . The quest ion arises,

wha t are the shor t po in ted tool and the huge pincer- l ike ins t rument in the

hands o f the first and the second m o n k e y m e a n t for? And , impl ic i t ly ,

wha t is the s tory behind the present scene?

Cunn ingham 1~ was the first to tackle this p rob lem. Obvious ly induced

by the fami l ia r image o f a mi lk - too th being pul led by means o f a th read

fas tened to a door- la tch , he suggested tha t the p ic ture was abou t a too th

extract ion, wi th the first m o n k e y cut t ing or p r ick ing the g iant ' s h a n d and

the second tending a pa i r o f den ta l forceps, and tha t - j udg ing f rom his

stiff pos i t ion - the pa t ien t was b o u n d to his seat with invisible cords.

But he was no t qui te convinced o f the tenabi l i ty o f his in te rpre ta t ion him-

self, observ ing as he d id tha t " the figure o f the g iant is bad ly drawn, and

his supine listlessness is suggestive ra ther o f having his nose t ickled than

o f having a t o o t h violent ly tugged by a forceps worked by an e lephant" .

Nevertheless his p roposa l met with a favourab le response bo th in Indo-

logicaP 2 and especial ly in medicoh is to r icaP ~ circles.

9 Prof. Heinrich Drerup, Marburg, draws our attention to a black-figure lecythus from Eretria, made about 480 B.C. and kept in the National Museum, Athens, whose front picture shows a remote similitude to the above scene. The composition centres on a naked elderly woman bound with her hands and feet to a palm-tree and surrounded by five satyrs. The woman is characterized by a fat belly, flabby bosom, thin neck, large head, broad mouth with thick lips and big teeth, flat nose, wall-eyes with long lashes and bushy brows, as well as short hair. Of the satyrs, four are engaged respectively in hitting the woman with a pestle, in beating her legs with a scourge, in tugging at her breasts and burning her abdomen with a torch, and in pulling out her tongue with a forceps, while a fifth leans on a stick and keeps aloof from the brutal doings of his fel- low-satyrs. Cf. Mayer, MDAIA, xvi, p. 300 sqq. - Most scholars consider this picture to represent a satyr-play, and Buschor (MDAIA, lii, p. 230 sqq.) refers it to the follow- ing legend transmitted by Pausanias (i 23). In times of yore, a Greek ship was driven by adverse winds to the ill-famed Satyr Isles (ZuzuoiSsg), whose inhabitants were in- capable of speaking, endowed with tails, and possessed of great lewdness; when the women aboard were molested by these creatures, the sailors exposed to them a bar- barous female, and "the satyrs then maltreated her not only as usual but also, in like manner, on her entire body" (~g xct6Trlv o6v N3pi~stv ~obg Zctx6poug 06 gt6vov ~aS~ozrl~sv ~XX~ Kcd x6 zc~v b~oic0g (s~ta). Although the origins of this legend can- not be localized, it is interesting to note that three Satyr Isles (Xa~6pc0v vfloot "rgsig) with tailed inhabitants are mentioned in Ptolemy's description of transgangetic India (Geog. vii 2.30). lo St@a, p. 104 sq. 11 1bid. ~2 Jolly, LO, pp. 218 and 220; Oldenberg, Reden des Buddha, p. xlvi. ~3 Sudhoff, Geschichte, p. 51 ; Proskauer, lconographia, pp. 2 and 176; Geigy, Medail- Ion; Mfdler, Osiris, xiii, p. 391; Heinrich, Zahnarzt, p. 13.

202 CLAUS VOGEL

5. Barua,l* who was the next to seek a solution, agreed with Cunning- ham in thinking that the second monkey was tending a pair of dental forceps, but doubted if the first was cutting or pricking the giant’s hand, and if the patient was bound to his seat. He rather believed that the said monkey was putting a drawn tooth on the man’s palm, which presup- poses either that the other monkey is engaged in a second extraction, or that the presentation is polyepisodical, i.e., combining successive events. The plot he construes to be like this: “The Bodhisat, being once born as a monkey-king, lived with a large number of followers in a forest region. In roaming about, they entered a woodland which was in [the] possession of a giant, who was troubled with the pain of [a] toothache. He expressed his desire to masticate and devour the monkeys, and would let them off if they could relieve him immediately of the pain by pulling his teeth. It was no easy task for the monkeys. They under the guidance of their wise leader managed to get hold of an elephant, whom they led out from a royal stable, and leading him along in a triumphant procession, brought him to work the forceps, whereby they pulled the giant’s teeth”.

One can only feel amazed at the confidence with which Barua relates the present scene to two others found on the rail-bars of the south-west quadrant15 and concerned with the capture of an elephant by monkeys, this second elephant appearing by his decoration and the length of his tusks to be altogether different from the first. No undue stress should, however, be laid on such absurdities since Barua subsequently16 retracted his theory, offering as a substitute the implausible explanation, “scene of tickling the nose of a giant by the monkeys”. This was certainly not what Cunningham had meant to say in his above remark, though Barua ex- pressly refers to him.

6. Barua’s work in general and his wholesale endeavour to connect every sculpture with a text or even a Jltaka in particular were strongly criticized by Li.iders.l’ Small wonder therefore that Majumdarl* and Coomara- swamyls would explore new possibilities in their respective treatises. Dis- carding the old tooth-extraction idea, they took our bas-relief for a comic scene in which, to use Majumdar’s words, “a gigantic looking person is

I4 Barhut, ii, p. 171 sqq. 15 Cunningham’s plate xxxiii, 1 and 2. I8 Barhut, iii, p. 5 and plates p. 6. I7 Bhcirhut, p. 3 sqq. The medallion at hand was unfortunately left undiscussed by him. X8 Guide, i, p. 49. I9 Sculpture, p. 13.

A CONTROVERSIAL BAS-RELIEF FROM THE STUPA OF BHARHUT 203

being manicured by a monkey barber seated on a stool in front of him, while other monkeys are trying to pull out a hair f rom his nostril by means of a pair of pincers. As the process evidently requires great physical strength, the monkeys have engaged an elephant to whose shoulder the

handle of the pincers has been fastened by means of a rope, and a monkey is trying to make the elephant move by means of a goad". This exposition marks a considerable progress as against the former attempts because the slight upward tilt of the instrument and its rope is incompatible with the removal of a maxillary tooth, the axis of Cunningham's photograph hav- ing been dislocated for some unknown reason. 2~

7. The most recent and at the same time most curious interpretation

was propounded by Bobbio. 21 Its salient characteristics are briefly as fol- lows. ~2 Buddha, in one of his previous births as a monkey king, is suf-

fering f rom a toothache. The portrayal is again polyepisodical. First the patient is numbed with a mixture of wine and hemp essence - tasted

by the monkey on the extreme right, who is holding the anaesthetic bot- tle. Then he is subjected to a tooth extraction in the aforesaid manner.

Finally the drawn tooth is placed on his extended left hand. This tooth, the upper left canine, has later found its way into the famous Temple of the Tooth at Kandy (Ceylon), where it is still worshipped as the holiest relic of Buddhism.

Attractive though Bobbio's interpretation may seem to the layman, it contains a number of serious mistakes already uncovered by Hauser. 2~ To begin with, it was yet uncustomary in the second century B.C. (when the Stflpa of Bharhut was erected) to reproduce Buddha otherwise than

by symbols such as trees, wheels, footprints, or stOpas; not until the Graeco-Buddhist school of Gandhgra reached its acme in the first cen- turies of the Christian era was he given a human form, with aureole and

parasol as his commonest attributes. 24 Moreover, the alleged anaesthetic bottle recurs in two of the other monkey-elephant scenes that have on the face of it nothing to do with a medical operation; it is in. reality a shell

~0 Cf. Hauser, DZZ, xviii, pp. 1154 and 1156. We do not, however, concur with Ma- jumdar and Hauser in assuming that the instrument here shown is a pair of pincers; in our opinion, it is a pair of forceps all right (Coomaraswamy calls it a pair of black- smith's tongs - "tenailles de forgeron"), but with the hinge covered by the monkey's left hand. For illustrations see Mukhopadhyaya, Instruments, ii, pl. 15.1 and 2. ~1 RAPCD, xiv, p. 294 sqq. and RIS, xvi, p. 779 sqq. 22 See the notices by Wolter, DZZ, xvi, p. 1202 sq., and by N.N., ZR, lxxi, p. 131 sq. 33 DZZ, xviii, p. 1154 sqq. and SAGMN, xlvii, p. 176 sqq.; cf. Mfdler's notice, ;~IGMN, 1964. ~* Cf. e.g. Waldschmidt, Kunst, i, p. 12 sq.

204 CLAUS VOGEL

attached to the end of a pipe, its shrill sound - accompanied by heavy drumbeats - being doubtless meant as art acoustic stimulus for the ele- phant. Last but not least, the tooth-relic in question was never pulled out of Buddha's mouth, neither in his former nor in his terminal exist- ence, but was picked up from his extinct pyre and taken to K~liflga by a

disciple named Khema, whence it was secretly brought to Ceylon in the fourth century A.D. 25

8. In default of a satisfactory alternative, Hauser adopted Majumdar 's

and Coomaraswamy's explanation but conceded the possibility that the monkeys were not removing anything f rom but rather through the man 's nose, such as for example an evil spirit. Winding up his article, he voiced

the hope that some future student of Indian antiquity and literature (in- cluding the legends) would be able to solve the mystery.

Prompted by the current debate to inquire further into the matter, we now think to be in a position to fulfil this expectation. I f we are not mis-

taken, the key to the whole problem lies in a passage of the Su~rutasam- him (I 27.14) which reads in Sanskr i t -

asthivivarapravi.st.am asthivida.st.am vdvag.rhya pdddbhydm, yantren, dpaha- ret / agakyam cram. vd balavadbhi.h suparig.rMtasya yantren, a grdhayitvd galyavdrahgam, pravibhujya dhanurgu~air baddhvaikatag cdsya pagcdhgydm upasamyatasydgvasya vaktrakavike badhnfydt / athainam, kagayd tdd. ayed yathonnamaya~ giro vegena galyam uddharati / drd. hdn.~ vd vrk.sa~dkhdm avanamya tasydm, pf~rvavad baddhvoddharet //

in English -

(A foreign body) that has entered the bone-cave or is lodged in the bone one shall extirpate with a grasping instrument after laying hold (of the bone) with one's feet. Or, if this is impossible, one shall seize the pro- truding part of the foreign body with a grasping instrument - (the patient) having been well hugged by strong (attendants) - , bend (the handles of the grasping instrument) apart, 26 tie (its jaws) on the (patient)'s 27 side with bow-strings, zs and fasten (its hinge) to the snaffle-bit of a horse wedged

2~ The legendary history of Buddha's tooth-relic has been recorded in Dhammakitti's Dat.hdvarpsa, a five-canto epic of the early thirteenth century A.D. that purports to be a Pali translation of an Elu (ancient Singhalese) original written by an anonymous au- thor about the year 310 A.D. For the point in question, see ii, 46-57. ~6 So that its jaws are firmly dosed. ~r The commentator .Dalhana explains, asyeti kalyavato narasya. 2s So that the instrument does not slip off when suddenly pulled.

The pictures in this article are reproduced by courtesy of Mr. R. C. Kar, Superintendent, Archaeological Section, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Copyright by Department of Archaeology, Government of India. We are indebted to Prof. Paul Hauser, Frankfort, for placing these pictures at our disposal.

A CONTROVERSIAL BAS-RELIEF FROM THE STUPA OF BHARHUT 207

in a q u i n t i p a r t i t e harness;39 t h e n one shal l bea t t he (horse) w i t h a w h i p

so tha t , r e a r i ng his head , he pul ls o u t t he fo re ign b o d y w i t h a j e rk . Or

o n e shal l def lect t he t h i ck b r a n c h o f a t ree , secure to i t ( the h inge o f the

g r a s p i n g i n s t r u m e n t ) as be fore , a n d ( thus) r e m o v e ( the fo re ign body) .

T h a t th is passage has b e e n i g n o r e d so fa r c o m e s b o t h o f its r e m o t e n e s s

a n d espec ia l ly o f its m i s t r a n s l a t i o n by ear l ie r scholars , al l o f w h o m re-

g a r d e d galyavdrahgam i n s t ead o f yantram (which m u s t be in fe r r ed f r o m

the p r e c e d i n g yantrena) as t he ob jec t ofpravibhujya, baddhvd, a n d badh- n~ydt, t ry ing to m a k e u p fo r the c o n s e q u e n t difficulties e i ther by arbi -

t r a r i ly c h a n g i n g the s e n t e n c e - c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d l ibera l ly m a k i n g add i t i ons

(Bh i shag ra tna ) , o r by a s s u m i n g a c o m p l e t e l y i m p r a c t i c a b l e p r o c e d u r e

( D u t t , MiJl ler) . z~ W h e n u n d e r s t o o d the r igh t way, h o w e v e r , the o p e r a t i o n

29 If this is a harness consisting of five parts, or one having five loose ends, or one at- tached to the horse's four legs and tail, cannot be ascertained. In medical literature, by pa~ca~gin is denoted a bandage to be applied to the region above the collar-bone; cf. Su~r. I 18.18. 30 For convenience' sake, we here append the respective translations. - Bhishagratna i, p. 261 : "In the case of a shaft (Shalyam) which has pierced into the cavity of a bone, the surgeon should firmly press the affected bone with his legs, and pull out the em- bedded shaft with all his might by gripping it with a surgical instrument, in failure whereof a strong man should be asked to firmly catch hold of the patient, and the Shal- yam should be pulled out with the help of a gripping surgical instrument as before. As an alternative, the bottom of the shaft should be tied to the string of a bow, strung and fully bent down; and the Shalyam should be ejected with the means of a full twang. As an alternative, a horse should be harnessed in the fashion known as the Panch/mgi- vardhanam (lit. bound in the five parts of the body), and the end of the Shalyam should be bent down and tied to the bridle. Then the horse should be so whipped as to raise its head first, thus pulling out the embedded shaft (Shalyam) from its seat of lodgment by the jerk of its head. As an alternative, a high and tough bough of a tree should be low- ered down and tied to the bent end of the shaft as in the preceding case. The bough should be then let loose, thus pulling out the shaft (Shalyam) with its rebounding force". - D u t t , p. 123 sq.: "If the foreign body is impacted in the canal or the substance of a bone, then the limb or the part should be pressed by the feet and the foreign body grasped by forceps and extracted. If it cannot be extracted in this way, then the patient or the part should be firmly held by some strong people, the shaft of the arrow should be bent by pincers and one end of a bow string tied to it, the other end being attached to the curb ring in a horse's mouth. The animal should then be made to raise its head, so that the foreign body may be drawn out in the act of doing so. Or a firm branch of a tree may be bent, and the string tied to it, so that the foreign body may be drawn out when the branch is let go". - Mtiller, Osiris, xiii, p. 390 sq. : "Ein in Knochenspalten ge- drungenes oder im Knochen festgebissenes (Aalya) soll man unter (Anstemmen der) Fiisse mit einem Fasswerkzeug herausreissen; oder wenn das nicht m6glich, soil man bei dem, yon kr~iftigen M/innern umfassten (Kranken) den Griff des dalya's mit dem Fasswerkzeug fest packen, am Ende an eine Bogensehne binden und mit dem ffinf- gliedrigen Verbande an das Zaumzeug befestigen, welches dem Maul eines Rosses an- gelegt ist, darauf das (Ross) mit der Peitsche schlagen, damit sein Kopf bei auf-

208 CLAUS VOGEL

described here bears a striking resemblance to that of our bas-relief. The

only points of difference are (1) that the patient is not held by attendants

but probably bound to his seat, (2) that the jaws of the forceps are not

tied u p with bow-strings but pressed together by a monkey, and (3) that

the instrument is worked not by a horse but by an elephant. Since we do

not maintain that the sculptors of Bharhut borrowed their motive directly

from Sugruta, but rather that they illustrated a manner of surgical treat-

ment common in their day and performed along the same general lines as

taught by Su~ruta, 3~ such lack of harmony carries little weight.

At the best it might be argued that if the present scene were really con-

cerned with the extraction of a foreign body then the foreign body ought

to be visible in the picture, which is not, however, the case. Well-founded

as this objection would be in view of the outspoken partiality shown by

Indian artists for minute detail, we are convinced it can be satisfactorily

obviated by assuming with Majumdar and Coomaraswamy that the for-

eign body is indeed a nasal hair, and that the whole affair is simply a paro-

dy of Eisenbartian methodsY The portraiture of the physician and his

assistants as a troop of monkeys would fittingly add to the comic spirit

of the situation. Nothing remains but to determine what the seated monkey is doing

with the patient's left hand. As his activity must have some relation to

the central theme, we suggest that he is scratching the man's palm in or-

der to divert the pain attendant on the operation. In the absence of a

properly developed anaesthesiology, a practice like this - called a revul-

sion in medical nomenclature - was often resorted to by the ancient phy-

sicians. 3z

Niumender Bewegung unter einem Ruck das ~alya herauszieht. Oder man biegt einen festen Ast yon einem Baume herab und befestigt an ihm wie zuvor (die Bogensehne zurn Herausreissen)". - A cursory look at these translations already reveals the many in- accuracies, nay, blunders contained therein. 31 It is noteworthy in this connection that the Sukranitisdra (iv 3.71), which Oppert (ed. p. viii) ascribes to "the same period which produced the sm.rtis and early epic lit- erature", and which Venkatasubbiah (Kalds p. 68) regards as "most probably ... earlier than the 7th century A.D.", reckons "the painless extraction of foreign bodies" (~al- yag~d.h~h.rti) even among the sixty-four practical arts (kala). Cf. Venkatasubbiah, Kalas, p. 52, who mistranslates, "extracting buried arrows". 3~ Johann Andreas Eisenbart (1661-1727), German medical quack notorious for his crude therapy. The fact that a nasal hair is not a foreign body in the strict sense of the word is insignificant in this connection. 38 Thus, to give but one example, in hyperaemic pulpitis (gitadanta) Vhgbhat.a (As.t.a~ig. vi 22.11) commends scarifying and cauterizing the ear-laps. Cf. Vogel-Brauer, Stoma, xvii, p. 129.

A CONTROVERSIAL BAS-RELIEF FROM THE STI~IPA OF BHARHUT 209

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AR DZZ IGI LO MDAIA

M G M N OHI RAPCD RIS SAGMN ZR

Asiatic Researches Deutsche zahn~rztliche Zeitschrift Imperial Gazetteer of India LiGht des Ostens Mitteilungen des (kaiserlich) deutschen archiiologischen lnstituts. Athenische Abteilung. Mitteilungen zur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften Vincent Arthur Smith's Oxford History of lndia. Revista da Associar Paulista de Cirurgi6es Dentistas Rivista Italiana di Stomatologia Sudhoffs Archly fiir Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften Zahngirztliche Rundschau