vears ()f Chang@European History

]8~(l-199aThird Edition

ROBERT WOLFSONAND JOHN LAVER

i, HODDEREDUCATION

PART OF HACHETIE LIVRE UK

~

ContentsAcknowledgements XlI

Introduction to the Revised Edition Xlll

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 1890-1914 1Introduction 1

1 The constitutional organisation of Austria-Hungary 32 Political background 33 Political history 1890-1918 54 The end of the Austro- Hungarian Empire 85 Economic history 86 Foreign policy 97 Bibliography 128 Structured questions and essays 12

2 FRANCE 1890-1945 13Introduction 13

1 The constitutional organisation of the state 132 Political background: Republicans against Monarchists 143 Political history 1890-1914 154 Economic history 245 Foreign policy 266 Bibliography 297 Structured questions and essays 308 Source-based exercise on the Dreyfus affair 31

3

4

GERMANY 1890-1918

Introduction1 The constitutional organisation of the state2 Political background3 Political History 1890-19144 Germany during World War I5 Economic history6 Foreign policy7 Bibliography8 Structured questions and essays9 Source-based exercise on German foreign policy

RUSSIA 1890-1914

Introduction1 The constitutional organisation of the Russian State2 Political background: the Tsars3 Economic history4 Political history under Nicholas 11

3535353639474750575859

616161626467

iv Years o[Change, European History 1890-1990

5 Foreign poliey 836 Bibliography 907 Struetured questions and essays 908 Souree-based exereise on the Russian Revolution

of 1905 915 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 1890-1914 97

Introduetion 971 Colonial eonfliets and rivalries 982 Allies and Armaments 1063 The Balkans 1114 The outbreak of war 1165 Bibliography 1206 Struetured questions and essays 1207 Souree-based exercise on the origins

of the Great War 1216 WORLD WAR I 1914-18 126

Introduetion 1261 The Western Front in 1914 1272 The Southern and Eastern Fronts in 1914-15 1283 1915:Weak point strategy 1284 1916:The great attaeks 1305 1917:The entry of the United States and the defeat

ofRussia 1326 1918 1337 The unexpeeted: war battle taeties of World War I 1348 Bibliography 1409 Struetured questions and essays 140

7 THE PEACE TREATIES AND THE SUCCESSOR STATES 1411 The Treaty of Versailles 1412 The Central and East European settlements 1473 The sueeessor states 1919-39 1494 Bibliography 1525 Struetured questions and essays 1526 Souree-based exereise on the peaee treaties 153

8 ITALY 1890-1945 157Introduetion 157

1 The ministries of Crispi 1887-91 and 1893-6 1572 The ministries of Giolitti 1903-14 1593 Italy and World War I 1594 Politieal history 1918-22 1605 Politieal history 1922-39 1686 Eeonomie history 1787 Foreign poliey 1922-39 1828 Italy during World War 11 1899 Bibliography 189

10 Structured questions and essays11 Source-based exercise on Fascist Italy

190191

Contents v

9 GERMANY 1918-45 194The Weimar Republic 1918-33 194

1 Political history 1942 Economic history 2013 Foreign policy 203

The Nazi State 1933-45 2071 Political history 2072 Economic history 2153 Foreign policy 2184 Germany during World War II 2235 Bibliography 2236 Structured questions and essays 2247 An Interpretation of Hitler's rise to power 2258 Source-based exercise on anti-semitism in

Nazi Germany 229

10 RUSSIA AND THE U55R 1914-45 2331 The revolutionary period 2332 Lenin's Russia 2403 Stalin's USSR 2524 The USSR duringWorld War II 1941-5 2695 Bibliography 2706 Structured questions and essays 2717 An essay-writing exercise 2728 Source-based exercise on Soviet propaganda 273

11 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND CRISES 1919-39 279Introduction 279

1 1919-24: The settlement ofthe peace treaties 2802 1925-30: 'Fulfilment' 2883 1930-6: Weaknesses in the league system 2914 The Spanish Civil War 2965 The Spanish Civil War and its European context 3026 1936-9: Appeasement and war 3067 Bibliography 3148 Structured questions and essays 3159 An exercise on the causes ofWorld War II 316

12 AN OUTLINE OF WORLD WAR 11 IN EUROPE 317Introduction 317

1 The Russo-German conquest of Europe 3172 The widening war 3213 The Mediterranean counter attack 3314 The defeat of Germany 3325 Bibliography 3356 Structured questions and essays 336

vi Years0/Change, European History 1890-1990

13 EUROPE AND THE COLD WAR 1945-62 3;'7Introduction 337

1 The origins of the Cold War 3382 The division of Europe 1945-55 3403 Developments in Central and Eastern Europe 1948-62 3484 Developments in Western Europe 1948-62 3545 The Cold War resurrected: Berlin and Cuba 1961-2 3566 Bibliography 3607 Source-based exercise on the beginnings of the

Cold War 360

14 EUROPE AND THE COLD WAR 1962-91 363Introduction 363

1 The loosening of the Western Alliance 1963-73 3652 The end of Detente, 1980-5 3683 Developments in Western Europe 1963-91 3694 Developments in Central and Eastern Europe 1963-85 3755 The end of the Cold War and a new Europe 3866 Bibliography 3897 Structured questions and essays 3908 Source-based exercise on Soviet foreign policy 391

GLOSSARY 393

INDEX 394

b'9 LIST OF TABLES b'9

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Table 4Table 5

Table 6

Table 7Table 8Table 9

Table 10

Table 11Table 12Table 13

Distribution of population of Austria -Hungaryaccording to 1910census 4Date chart of chief events in Austria-Hungary1891-1914 (foreign affairs in italics) 7Coal production per head of population (tons)in 1913 9Pig iron consumption (millions oftons) in 1910 9Percentage increases in production inAustria-Hungary 1893-1913 9Date chart of events in France 1870-1940(foreign affairs in italies) 15Presidents ofFrance 1870-1940 21Prime Ministers of France 1889-1940 22Political representation in the French Chamber ofDeputies 1889-1911. Since political groupings werefluid, the table is only an approximate guide 23Pig iron (annual production in thousands ofmetric tons) 25Steel (annual production in thousands of metric tons) 25Populations of France and Germany 1850-1910 25Distribution of total population between urban andrural areas (in percentages) 26

Table 14 Date chart of main events in Germany 1871-1918(foreign affairs.in italics) 37

Table 15 Political mlers of Germany 1890-1914 37Table 16 State ofthe parties in the Reichstag 1884-1914 37Table 17 Coal production (in thousands of metric tons)

1871-1913 48Table 18 Pig iron production (in thousands of metric tons)

1870-1910 48Table 19 Steel production (in thousands of metric tons)

1870-1910 48Table20 Sugar beet production in Germany 1866-1910 48Table 21 Russian population growth 64Table22 Foreign investment in Russia 66Table 23 Date chart of main events in Russia 1890-1914

(foreign affairs in italics) 69Table 24 Date chart of international affairs 1878-1914 99Table25 Proportion of population in the armed forces

1880-1914 110Table 26 Percentage of National Income devoted to defence

1880-1914 110Table 27 German agricultural production (in million tons) 139Table 28 Date chart of chief events in Italy 1890-1945

(foreign affairs in italics) 158Table29 Italian Prime Ministers 1914-22 161Table 30 The May 1921 elections 163Table31 The social background of Fascist Party members,

1921 163Table 32 The 1924 Chamber 169Table 33 Main Italian imports and exports 1933 180Table 34 Italy's place in the world economy 1900-40 181Table 38 Date chart of events in Germany 1918-33

(foreign affairs in italics) 195Table 36 Number of seats won in Reichstag elections,

1919-33 196Table 37 Chancellors of the German Republic 1919-45 197Table 35 Date chart of events in Germany 1933-45

(foreign affairs in italics) 207Table 39 Date chart of events in Russia 1914-24 234Table40 Price inflation in wartime Russia 235Table 41 Strikes in Russia 1914-17 235Table42 Production figures in Russia, 1913-26 247Table43 Date chart of events in the USSR 1924-45

(foreign affairs in italics) 252Table44 Agricultural production in Russia 1928-35 260Table45(A) The achievements of the Five-Year Plans (outline) 261

. Table 45(B) The Five-Year Plans and their achievement (details) 263Table46 Post-war problems in Europe 282Table 47 The composition of the Soviet Working Population

1940-5 (millions, annual average) 326

Contents vii

viii Years ofChange, European History 1890-1990

Table 48

Table49Table 50Table 51

Table 52Table 53Table 54Table 55Table 56Table 57

The proportion of women in employment in theUSSR 1940-5Date chart of events in the Cold War 1941-62The Fourth Five-Year Plan (From Soviet sources)Date chart of events in the Cold War and Europe1963-91The nuclear balance between 1964 and 1974Limits agreed by SALT ILimits agreed by SALT IIPresidents of the Fifth RepublicSoviet economic performance in the 1970sSoviet economic growth 1986-91

.- LIST OF MAPS .-

,327342349

363367368368370376377

Map1Map2Map3Map4Map5Map6Map7Map8Map9Map 10Map 11Map 12Map 13Map 14Map 15

Map 16Map 17

Map 18Map 19Map20

Map21Map22Map23Map24Map25

Map26Map27Map28

Europe in 1890 1Austria-Hungary 2The Balkans in 1912 10German and French colonies 27Germany in 1890 38Russian expansion in Central Asia 84The Far East 85European Colonies in Africa in 1914 100European expansion in the Far East 102The Balkans 1878-1914 112Allies and battle fronts 127The Western Front 1914-18 128The Eastern Front 129The Italian Front 1914-18 131German Government secret map of 1914 showingGerman territorial aims 141Territorial changes after World War I 146The break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,showing the new states and locations of mainnationalities 149Italy in 1890 158Italy and its Empire 186The Russian Civil War, showing places mentionedin text and directions of main White attacks 241The Treaty of Brest -Litovsk 1918 245The Spanish Civil War 301German expansion in Central Europe 1936-9 308The campaigns against Finland and Norway 1939-40 319The German conquest of the Low Countries andFrance 1940 320Europe at the height ofAxis expansion October 1942 322The Eastern Front 1939-43 329The Eastern Front 1943-5 333

Map29

Map30Map 31Map32Map33

Diagram 1Diagram 2Diagram 3Diagram4Diagram 5

The reconquest ofWestern and NorthernEurope 1944-5Central and Eastern Europe in 1945Divided BerlinThe Warsaw Pact confronting NATOPost-1991 Europe

~ LIST OF DIAGRAMS ~

The constitutional organisation of GermanyThe opposition groups in Russia 1870-1905The Soviet GovernmentThe Soviet Communist PartyThe organisation of the League of Nations

334340345347383

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Contents ix

~ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ~

Picture 1 Emperor Franz Toseph and Empress Elizabeth 3Picture 2 From a French magazine of 1893. At the base of the

picture, the deputies argue, while the femalefigure representing the Republic points to thedanger of German and Austrian soldiers 16

Picture 3 Alfred Dreyfus 16Picture4 The law gives the army a kick in the face - a

comment on the revision of the Dreyfus case,November 1898 17

Picture 5 An anti-Dreyfusard cartoon. 33Picture 6 The choice facing the German worker 49Picture 7 'L'Enfant Terrible!' or 'Rocking the Boat' 56Picture 8 A British cartoon about naval rivalry 59Picture 9 Tsar Nicholas II and his family, photographed

around 1905 63Picture 10 A Russian cartoon of 1900 73Picture 11 'He seems to have pacified her

, 94Picture 12 'In this world there is a Tsar. He is without pity.

HUNGER is his name.' 95Picture 13 'The voter' 95Picture 14 A French cartoon of 1898 104Picture 15 'Let Germany be careful now

, 108Picture 16 Archduke Ferdinand and his wife, Countess Sophie,

arrive in Sarajevo, 28 Tune 1914 117Picture 17 The 'Big Three' at Versailles: David Lloyd George,

Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson 143Picture 18 A David Lowe cartoon from The Evening

Standard, 1921 155Picture 19 A German cartoon about the Treaty of Versailles

by Simplicissmus, Tune 3 1919 155

x Years of Change, European History 1890-1990

Picture20 Will Dyson's cartoon about the PeaceConference 156

Picture 21 Mussolini and the Fascist leaders 167Picture 22 'Il Duce'. Mussolini as he liked to be seen. 173Picture 23 Catholic Church cardinals join Mussolini in the

Fascist salute 175Picture 24 Chancellor Hitler with President Hindenburg 209Picture 25 A cartoon from a German children's

book, 1938 231Picture 26 Year of the Proletarian Dictatorship,

October 1917-0ctober 1918 273Picture 27 The Priest and the Rich Man on the

Shoulders of the Labouring People, 1918 274Picture 28 The International, 1918-19 (The side of

the plinth reads 'Capital') 274Picture 29 Retreating Before the Red Army, 1919 275Picture 30 Death to World Imperialism, 1919 275Picture 31 We will not surrender Petrograd, 1919 276Picture 32 Either Death to Capital, or Death under

the Heel ofCapital, 1919 276Picture 33 The Nightmare of the Deserter, 1919 277Picture 34 Before: One with the Plough, Seven

with a Spoon. Now: He who does not Workshall not Eat, 1920 277

Picture 35 Comrade Lenin Cleans the World of Filth, 1920 278Picture 36 The leaders of the four main Powers of Western

Europe (Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler andMussolini) photographed at the MunichConference, 29 September 1938 310

Picture 37 A West German poster welcoming Marshall Aid 341Picture 38 A Soviet cartoon showing Nazi aggression 346Picture 39 Soviet tanks in Budapest, 1956 352Pieture 40 East German plans for the strengthening of the

Berlin Wall after 1961 358Picture 41 An East German border guard considering his

decision 359Picture 42 And He leaps for freedom 359Picture 43 A Czechoslovak protester confronts a Soviet tank 381

~ LIST OF PROFILES ~

Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941)Peter Stolypin (1862-1911)Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)Lenin (1870-1924) (Vladmir Ilyich Ulyanov)]oseph Stalin (1879-1953)

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162254255

~ LIST OF ANALYSES ~

Change and continuity in the second German EmpireThe Marxist view of economic and socia! developmentThe condition of Russia in 1914The impact of World War IWhy did Fascism triumph in Italy?Interpretations of Mussolini and FascismInterpretations of Hitler's rise to powerThe exercise of power in the Third ReichInterpreting Hitler's foreign policyStalinismThe causes of World War IIThe impact of the war on the horne frontAir power in World War IISea power in World War IIThe Yalta and Potsdam conferencesThe Communist takeover of CzechoslovakiaGorbachev - success or failure?

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Contents xi