Journal of International Entrepreneurship 2, 125–137, 2004C© 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands.

Using Information Communication Technologyto Develop International EntrepreneurshipCompetencies

RUDOLF R. SINKOVICS∗ Rudolf.Sinkovics@umist.ac.ukUMIST-Manchester School of Management, UK

JIM BELL JD.Bell@ulst.ac.ukUniversity of Ulster, Northern Ireland

KENNETH R. DEANS kdeans@business.otago.ac.nzUniversity of Otago, New Zealand

Abstract. Many researchers claim that the use of web-based learning tools and information and commu-nication technology (ICT) will revolutionize traditional learning methods in university contexts and funda-mentally change the process of how knowledge is gathered and disseminated. However, there are conflictingviews regarding the benefits of these techniques and actual learning outcomes. This paper posits that by us-ing ICT and particularly the Web as a dynamic and integrating learning tool, several strategic competenciescan be deployed and that the international knowledge, skills and competencies of entrepreneurship studentscan be radically enhanced. In light of an extensive literature review on research in the field, suggestions areprovided for using the Web as a comprehensive teaching tool.

Keywords: ICT, international competence, international entrepreneurship, skills, teaching

Introduction and focus

In the same way managers are having to address an increasingly complex global busi-ness environment, management educators face a growing challenge in terms of in-ternationalizing their learning programs and pedagogic objectives (Bell et al., 1997;Cavusgil, 1991; Kwok and Arpan, 2002). Much of the recent academic discoursehas focused on demonstrating the array of Information Communication Technology(ICT) available to make the learning process more appealing to a wide variety of‘clients’. However, many of these contributions have centered on the relative merits ofa variety of ICT applications and their potential to revolutionize learning techniqueswithin traditional university contexts or for developing distance learning approaches(for a good discussion of these issues, see Irvine, 2001; Werry, 2001). Nevertheless,some attempt has been made to take a holistic view of the particular skills and com-petencies that students require to meet the global challenges and how

∗Corresponding author.

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Figure 1. Skills and tools to develop international entrepreneurship competencies.

specific technologies may be used to develop, improve and disseminate them (seeFigure 1).

Students are increasingly challenged to develop international competence, becomeglobally aware of opportunities and threats and develop strategic knowledge of theglobal marketplace (Osbaldeston and Barham, 1992). Consequently, the primary ob-jective of the present contribution is to investigate various perspectives relating to theskill-sets required by students to successfully perform in today’s increasingly com-petitive and international environment (Nehrt, 1987; Neuhauser and Smith, 1996;Nordstrom and Kleiner, 1990). This will provide the teleological background for inter-national entrepreneurship education. We believe that ICT tools, and particularly theWeb-based environment, can be utilized to achieve these objectives and further advancetraditional academic education, particularly in the area of international entrepreneur-ship. However, fundamental questions concerning what tool/s to use for which kindof skill and/or competency set enhancement need to be addressed.

In order to link essential international entrepreneurship skills and Web-based teach-ing approaches, we will first investigate the dimensions of ‘competence’ and ‘interna-tional competence’ in order to ascertain which areas of expertise students are actuallyexpected to demonstrate. Secondly we will discuss in how far ICT, and particularlyweb-enabled teaching methods, can facilitate the development of these competenciesin teaching and education practice. Finally we will illustrate how ICT has been adoptedin the design and delivery of internationally-focused programs aimed at developing suchcompetencies.

Conceptual background

The notions of competence and business competence

While many scholars concur that “competence is linked to performance” or that “inorder to perform well you need competent managers” (Handy, 1988; Osbaldeston and

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Barham, 1992), a distinct definition of business competence has yet to be developed.Moreover, there is still some ambiguity with respect to the notions of ‘internationallycompetent companies’ or the understanding of ‘leadership of companies’, and thefactors that drive international business competence. These domains of competenceare still evolving and subsequently, appropriate measures will have to be developedto assess them. A review of leading international management journals undertakenby the authors for relevant competency-related contributions identified the followingdifferent aspects of competence.

Competence as a prerequisite for competitive advantage

A number of authors posit that “competence is created when firm-specific assets areassembled into integrated clusters spanning individuals and groups, allowing distinctiveactivities to be performed” (Post, 1997). Hence, competence can be understood as the“knowledge, skills and aptitudes which are used, or may be used, by employees in theperformance of work” (Nordhaug, 1993, 1998) and the “ability to create, gain accessto, and coordinate tangible and non-tangible assets” (Sanchez, 1998).

Certainly, the ability of individuals to obtain desired outcomes demonstrates a cer-tain level of ‘competency’ that contributes to positive results for businesses in termsof the suitability of the outcomes in moving the business ahead (Hinckley and Perl,1996). It is therefore crucial to identify aspects of international business competence,and requisite pedagogic approaches that contribute to the development of competitiveadvantages. However while this perspective of competence as a prerequisite for com-petitive advantage pertains to the aggregate, or company level, competence can also beused as a synonym for ‘success factor’.

Competence as a synonym for ‘success factor’

Often, competence is also referred to as the demonstration of one’s particular talent. Itcan be mechanical skill, such as operating a piece of equipment, or a verbal skill, suchas making a presentation. Consequently, the term “competence” describes knowledge,skills, abilities, behaviors, and characteristics associated with or necessary for highperformance. It helps to avoid the confusion surrounding the term “competency”,because success factors include anything connected with high performance. Moreover,“the term competence also implies incompetence” (Mirabile, 1997), in the sense thatan absence of requisite skills or competencies may lead to sub-optimal performance.

Competence as a means of distinguishing between average and high performers

In referring to competence, authors use it as a means to distinguish between differentlevels of performance. Competency therefore is identified as knowledge, skill, ability orcertain characteristic of individuals, associated with high performance on a job includ-ing problem solving, analytical thinking or leadership (Dalton, 1997; Kochanski, 1997;

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Mirabile, 1997). Consequently, we will need to examine certain desirable competenciesthat business graduates should acquire in order to ensure that they are able to performwell when measured against the norm.

Competence as a link between knowledge and task

Another way of looking at competence is the levels that graduates are expected toacquire in order to gain “the ability to act”. Namely, the acquired established skill-set that provides them with the understanding of what tasks to perform in particularcontexts as well as why and how to perform them (Alajoutsijarvi and Tikkanen, 1998;Hinckley and Perl, 1996; Prahalad and Hamel, 1990). Extending this idea even furtherinto a business-related area such as international entrepreneurship, competence indi-cates the ability to “perform important customer-related tasks with noticeable success”internationally (Krogh and Rogulic, 1997). It is important to develop an understand-ing of which particular competencies are required by “global managers”, includinginternational entrepreneurs.

Competencies of “global managers”

Such competence, (i.e. the ability to act so as to obtain the desired outcomes in an inter-national environment), requires individuals and/or managers who possess capabilitiesin various areas. They need to be aware of cultural diversity, demonstrate awareness oftheir own culture, have proficiency in certain languages, and share certain inter- andintra-personal competencies (see for example, Beamish and Calof, 1989; Beck et al.,1996; Bell and Brown, 1990; Bell et al., 1991; Grahn and van den Bloomen, 1996; Willsand Barham, 1994). Hinckley and Perl (1996) interviewed managers and established anunderstanding of the competencies required by global managers. They identified threeareas of competence: intra-personal, inter-personal and organizational competence(see Figure 2).

As part of their “organizational competence”, international managers need to pos-sess a certain level of business and professional expertise, which is supplemented by mul-ticultural communication and cooperation. Often, the design of the organization andthe particular leadership patterns will support these competencies. The ways in whichglobal managers effectively cope with the interface of global and local environments,proves to be important. Hinckley and Perl (1996) also address certain inter-personalcompetencies, such as language skills and communication skills. The particular man-agers’ cultural awareness and appreciation of existing cultural differences may help toimprove working and personal relationships with overseas clients or channel partnersin day to day business transactions.

Finally, intra-personal competencies are addressed. These include issues such as self-knowledge, health, learning and growth and the ability and willingness to demonstratemeaning and spirit in social interactions. Many of these issues have also been ad-dressed in both the international management and international business negotiation

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Figure 2. Characteristics of competent global managers (c.f. Hinckley and Perl, 1996).

literature (Harvey, 1996; Ghauri and Fang, 2001; Ghauri and Usunier, 1996; Kale,1996; Schuster and Copeland, 1996), since these are the areas, where international orglobal competence can best be demonstrated.

Clearly, all of these competencies are pertinent to international entrepreneurs. In-deed, certain dimensions are particularly critical, due to the characteristics of en-trepreneurial firms and their inherent scale, scope and resource limitations (Carsonet al., 1995). For example, on the organizational competence dimension, the attitudesand capabilities of lone entrepreneurs, or management teams, are pivotal in the decisionto initiate exporting (Miesenbock, 1988). The individual or collective knowledge andskills of decision-maker(s) are also crucial to firms international expansion strategiesand competitive advantages (Reuber and Fischer, 1997). In respect to inter-personalskills, effective cross-cultural communication skills are essential for entrepreneurialfirms, given their propensity to internationalize using network approaches (Covielloand MacAuley, 1999; Ibeh, 2000). In fact, the survival, growth and international expan-sion of smaller firms is often attributed to the ability of the entrepreneur to leveragepersonal and social networks (Coviello and Munro, 1997; Coviello and MacAuley,1999; Madsen and Servais, 1997).

Using ICT to address particular competencies

In reference to the discussion about particular competencies and the crucial role of in-dividuals’ proficiency within certain intra-personal, inter-personal and organizational

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Table 1. Competencies addressing particular teaching approaches.

Particular competencies addressed Teaching approach suggested

Interpersonal competence• Oral and written communication• Qualitative thinking• Coping with ambiguity

• Which teaching approach to take?Case write-ups, Web-based country projectsInternet discussion groups, Video-conferencing

• Selected referencesHansen (1998), Bergmann and Dobie (1999), Smart et al.(1999), Strauss and Frost (1999), Benbunan-Fich et al.(2001), Ueltschy (2001), and Thompson et al. (2003).

Intra-personal competence• Supplement real-world education• Overcome “loneliness of long-distance

student”

• Which teaching approach to take?Use portal systems to develop lively interaction/communityVideotape use and mix of face time with internet timeSupplemental tools: CD-Roms, video clips

• Selected referencesTweney (1999), Greco (1999), Carpenter et al. (1999),Peterson et al. (2002), Evans (2001), and King (2002)

Organizational competence• Web-enabling traditional marketing

research knowledge• Managing electronic feedback• Evaluating online-source quality

• Which teaching approach to take?Design issues: Screen design, data input, receiving resultsSampling issues: probability/non-probability issues,population characteristics

• Selected referencesMalhotra et al. (2002), Bradley (1999), and Miller andDickson (2001)

• Awareness/understanding ofe-commerce and electronictransactions

• Which teaching approach to take?Website design, Online sales strategies,Web-based marketing research

• Selected referencesHeckmann (1998), Miller and Mangold (1996), Granitzand Greene (2003), and Krovi and Vijayaraman (2000)

• Skills to work with modern programsto accomplish daily tasks

• International business competencies onoperational level

• Which teaching approach to take?Communication, Browsing, Computer simulationStandard software (numeric manipulation, reporting)

• Selected referencesMindi (1996), Joyner and Pedersen (1998), and McBane(2003)

competence areas, earlier we will now turn to the issue of particular use of ICT-enabledteaching approaches for the development of particular competencies (see Table 1).

When addressing the ‘interpersonal competence’ dimension, web-based countryprojects or internet discussion groups can prove useful tools to help develop oral andwritten communication skills, language skills and qualitative thinking. For examplea number of authors discuss ICT applications and the perceived benefits derived in

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relation to the delivery of marketing courses (Benbunan-Fich et al., 2001; Bergmannand Dobie, 1999; Hansen, 1998; Smart et al., 1999; Strauss and Frost, 1999; Ueltschy,2001). These authors generally concur that the adoption of ICT leads to better inter-action with and between students, enhanced communication skills, greater knowledgeand understanding of topics and a higher level of student interest for the subject. Theuse of portal systems is also suggested to develop lively interaction within particularinterest groups and/or communities.

Educators also need to consider ways of supplementing real-world education andhow to cope with stress-syndromes and the ‘loneliness of long-distance students’ effects(Greco, 1999; Tweney, 1999). Some authors suggest a lively mix of videotapes, CD-ROMs and video-clips may be effective (Strauss and Frost, 1999; Ueltschy, 2001),others recommend the use of video-conferencing (Bell et al., 1997; Bergmann andDobie, 1999).

With respect to ‘organizational competence’ and certain elements of business andprofessional expertise, suggestions involve undertaking ‘live’ marketing-researchprojects utilising the Internet as an information source to build and strengthen re-search competencies (Evans, 2001), or utilising e-mail to conduct surveys (Dillman,2000; Furrer and Sudharshan, 2001), others the possibilities of undertaking design andsale studies for comprehending e-commerce transactions (Heckmann, 1998; Miller andMangold, 1996).

Computer literacy and ITC competencies are rapidly becoming pre-requisite skill setsfor graduates (Krovi and Vijayaraman, 2000). These capabilities can be enhanced by ad-ministering computer simulations over the web, working on sophisticated spread-sheetsor running interactive audio/video conferencing sessions across geographic boundaries(King, 2002; Mindi, 1996; Unruh, 2000).

Integrating ICT in courses with an international entrepreneurship focus

From the preceding discussion, it is evident that many business educators have warmlyembraced ICT in the design and delivery of courses and discern significant advantagesfor doings so. However, in certain cases a somewhat selective approach has been taken,where only a single element of ICT has been adopted (for example, the use of e-mailor the Internet). Thus, it is important to consider further how the full spectrum ofICT can be integrated into courses in a more holistic manner. Secondly, many ofthese contributions describe and discuss applications on courses that do not have aparticular international or entrepreneurial focus. Therefore, these perspectives meritfurther exploration. In order to do so we will briefly outline an initiative, previouslyreported and evaluated by Bell et al. (1997), that sought to achieve these dual objectives.

This initiative took the form of an international collaboration between students andfaculty at the University of Ulster, Montana State University and Virginia Common-wealth University. In summary, it involved Irish student teams acting as ‘consultants’to American student teams that were undertaking ‘live’ export market research projectson behalf of eight small entrepreneurial US firms seeking to enter European markets.

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Pertinent marketing intelligence on countries and industry sectors for each projectwas obtained from Internet searches conducted by both sets of students. This data wassupplemented by other secondary source information from published EU reports andcommercial reports/databases (such as Euromonitor and Compass Directories) andinformation was exchanged by each of the paired Irish and American teams.

Two video conferencing sessions were used to allow the US teams to brief their Irishcounterparts and enable the latter to advise the former. In between these video con-ferencing sessions, students communicated via e-mail and exchanged information ormaterials by fax or courier. A concluding video-conference involved verbal presenta-tions of the final reports and key recommendations to the US firms and representativesfrom small business support agencies in both countries.

The application of a spectrum of ICT (including e-mail, the Internet and video-conferencing), enabled students to gain a good knowledge and understanding of inter-national market environments. The ‘virtual’ involvement of small firms and supportagencies provided opportunities for immersion in real life export marketing activities.It also led to a better understanding of the resource needs of such firms and the sourcesof assistance available to them.

A number of other benefits ensued; students were able to avail of the collective exper-tise of instructors from each location; the video-conference exchanges provided usefulcross-cultural perspectives into the attitudes and values of their peers in other countriesand; they also gained valuable experience of using ICT technology that is increasinglyprevalent in business. Finally, there was evidence of the development of networks, as the‘virtual’ contacts made during the project encouraged some students to subsequentlyvisit their counterparts in the US or Ireland to develop these relationships further.

From the perspective of the participating firms, the research reports provided themwith valuable market intelligence and useful recommendations on appropriate foreignmarket entry and development strategies. In addition several of the small firms in-volved that had not fully embraced ICT became more fully aware of its internationalapplications.

The elaboration of these projects, the high levels of satisfaction reported by studentsand participating firms and favorable comments from government support agency rep-resentatives all suggest that ICT can play a very positive role in stimulating internationalentrepreneurial attitudes and behavior. Moreover, that this can be achieved both at thelevel of the students and the decision-makers of the firms involved.

Discussion

We conclude with discussion of the great potential that exists for integrating ICTinto internationally-focused business education offerings. These comments are basedon evidence from the extant literature, the involvement of one of the authors on theprogram described above and our collective experience of other ICT-enabled pedagogicapproaches. They also reflect the importance of incorporating different ICT elementsin a more holistic manner, as summarized in Table 2.

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Table 2. ICT teaching technology and practical applications.

Technology Description and application

Audio/video-conferencing

Audio-conferencing uses standard telephone technology to connect two or moreremote locations. Can be used between campuses and/or between institutionsin different countries. Facilitates group work, tutoring, discussion groups etc.

Video-conferencing allows participants to develop materials interactively assound, images, speech and text can be used.

Pedagogic applications:

• Collaborative export research projects,• Video ‘debates’ on cross-cultural issues,• ‘Remote’ guest speakers/expert witnesses, etc.

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Communications with foreign channel partners• ‘Virtual’ exhibitions/trade missions

CUCME(See you see me)

A small camera attached to a computer allows transmission of images andsound. Enables ‘face-to-face’ communication and displays of materials orobjects

Pedagogic applications:Can be used for 1:1 discussions between staff and studentsCan also be used jointly teach courses and present materials across campuses or

between institutionsInternational entrepreneurial applications:

• ‘Virtual’ face-to-face meetings with clients/partners• Demonstration of product offerings/designs etc.

E-mail Enables efficient, quick, well-documented communications.Particularly useful for cheap long-distance communications and across

international boundaries and time zones

Pedagogic applications:

• Tutor-student 1:1 & 1:MANY communication for advising, file transfer,administration etc.

• Student-student 1:1 & 1:MANY communication, transfer of materials, groupproject co-ordination etc.

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Improving communications with network partners• Faster response to/from clients, prospects and suppliers

CD ROM Allows low cost, environmentally friendly production of all teaching andsupport materials in a less bulky format.

Pedagogic applications:Presentation of course materials, journal articles, book chapters (adhering to

copyright legal issues), movie clips, web-links, e-mail links, downloadableexercises and software

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Interactive ‘brochures’ to replace printed materials• Product demonstration• Training manuals

(Continued on next page.)

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Table 2. (Continued).

Web-based technology Description and application

Web-based materials Provision of on line information, graphics, images and materials

Pedagogic applications:

• Provision of course materials including administrative information,outlines, exercises, assignments, student’s projects and useful links.

• Can be used to display students written projects, PowerPointpresentations and web-based assignments.

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Company/product information• Newsgroups

Web-basedcommunications

Web boards: Provide a moderated electronic discussion forum that isaccessible to members moderators and are ideal for conducting electronicconferences, and hosting public discussions. Members can post messagesand/or create new conversations within the structure

Newsgroups: Sharing of materials between instructor/class, sharing ofmaterials between students in different locations

IRC: A system that allows students and/or tutors to communicate. Involvesrules and conventions and requires client/server software

Electronic Information Sharing/Transfer Files: The transfer oftextual/spreadsheet files electronic pictures, sound files and video clips,etc. using e-mail or the WWW

Pedagogic applications:

• Can be used for group assignments, individual assessment exercises andtutoring.

• Useful for sharing materials between or across institutions.

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Company/product information and news

Web-based Searches On-line data collection and market intelligence

Pedagogic applications:

• Sources of information on assignment topics, foreign markets industries,sectors, firms, business practice, cultural issues, legal factors etc.

International entrepreneurial applications:

• Information on export markets, industries, competitors• Identifying potential clients/partners• Identifying government support services• Information on government contracts/tenders• Communication and promotion via web presence• Sourcing components/raw materials• Sourcing other support services

As can be seen from Table 2, each technology can assist in particular aspects ofacademic program design and delivery, support the acquisition of specific interna-tional entrepreneurial competencies in students and play a distinctive role in improvingthe international competitiveness of entrepreneurial firms. Collectively they provide a

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powerful array of tools to improve knowledge of international market environments,obtain market intelligence on industries sectors and competitors, identify prospectsand potential contact networks, communicate more effectively with clients or otherchannel partners and develop mutually beneficial relationships with overseas networkpartners.

Utilizing ICT effectively assists entrepreneurial firms to overcome some of the lim-itations of size when engaging in international activities. ICT also enables students todevelop the necessary intra-personal, interpersonal and organizational competenciesto becoming capable global managers. It is therefore incumbent on business educatorsto ensure that future international entrepreneurs are exposed to the technology and thatthey have the opportunity to utilize it do develop the requisite skills and competenciesthey will require to operate effectively in an increasingly global business environment.

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