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International Journal ofAdolescence and YouthPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rady20

Using Coaching to DevelopReflectivity in TraineeTeachersKulwinder Kaur Johal aa School of Sport and Education, BruneiUniversity , West LondonPublished online: 27 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: Kulwinder Kaur Johal (2008) Using Coaching to DevelopReflectivity in Trainee Teachers, International Journal of Adolescence andYouth, 14:3, 237-249, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2008.9748005

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International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2008, Volume 14, pp. 237-249 © 2008 A B Academic Publishers Printed in Great Britain

Using Coaching to Develop Reflectivity in Trainee Teachers

Kulwinder Kaur Johal*

School of Sport and Education, Brunei University, West London

ABSTRACT

This study was designed to investigate the impact of one-to-one coaching to improve reflective practice in trainee teachers on a one year PGCE course. The coaching sessions took place following a lesson taught by the trainees and observed by the author (course tutor). These sessions show evidence of the trainees' deeper understanding of their experiences in the classroom. In subsequent sessions, all trainees made a shift in improving their ability to reflect on their lesson and pick out key features, although these varied in content, depending on the outcomes of the observed lesson. The implications for the PGCE programme and associated parties are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The development of teachers is an essential part of successful educational reform (Sarason (1990), quoted in Hargreaves (2000)). Coaching is playing a key role in this:

'Coaching seems to be everywhere at the moment. Not only is it gaining a higher profile at national policy level, its use is growing in professional and school development' (Creasy and Paterson, 2005: p. 4).

The Framework for Coaching and Mentoring (CUREE, DfES, 2005) was introduced to 'identify and summarise the core principles of mentoring and coaching' due to their increased use in educational settings (Creasy and Paterson, 2005: 9). Furthermore, coaching and mentoring are key features of the new standards for teaching

*Correspondence to: Kulwinder Johal, School of Sport and Education, Brunei University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, UK, UB8 3PH

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which were introduced in September 2007 (TDA, 2007). These will not only see further changes for trainee teachers and newly qualified teachers, but for the first time, set standards to be met by practicing teachers during their career. Throughout the standards there is an emphasis on reflection with coaching and mentoring now explicitly referenced.

Approximately 60% of the Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) is school based and hence relies heavily on partnership with schools and Higher Education Institutions (HEI). Whilst in schools, trainees have an appointed subject specific mentor to oversee their training. Hence, mentoring is integral to the teacher training model. Also, the large majority of teacher training programmes have used the reflective practitioner model for some time (Furlong et al., 2000). Coaching however is relatively new and it's place in teacher education is still to be explored.

This paper focuses on a small scale study undertaken by a professional teacher educator, to assist trainee teachers with their lesson reflections. Rather than giving feedback directly to trainees, a coaching approach is used to encourage trainees to take an active and detailed review of their lesson The study was guided towards exploring the question: Can coaching enhance reflection in trainee teachers?

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Reflective Practitioner

The reflective practitioner model is the most popular amongst teacher training programmes. Furlong (2000), reporting on a national survey in teacher education, found that approximately three quarters of the courses adopted this model. There have been two major contributors to this model: Dewey who defined reflection as

'active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends' (Dewey, 1933: p. 118).

and Schon (1983, 1987) who critiques 'technical rationality' which regards the teacher as a technician and keeps theory apart from practice. For Schon, there are two types of reflection:

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'reflection-in-action', amending ones practice in view of different 'surprises' which occur during it's exposition; and 'reflection-on­action' which is carried out after the event (lesson). According to Schon (1983), mentoring should be focused on reflection and not craft knowledge alone. The important distinction for reflection is that it is looking back with a view to moving forward. In this way, the 'reflective practitioner' is a researcher constantly involved in 'deliberate thinking about action as a view to its improvement'. According to Hatton and Smith (1995), reflection is developmental in nature and so would be expected to be in its early stages with trainees. However, this does not mean that it should be avoided and indeed adopting this skill from the onset is more likely to ensure its use and development. Brockbank and McGill (2006) argue that reflection alone is 'not enough to promote transformatory learning' and that reflective dialogue within 'a coaching relationship' can challenge the learner more deeply in this (see also methodology).

Initial Teacher Training (ITT)

There have been many changes to Teacher Education in England since the early nineties. The DfE circular 9/92 (DfE,1992) specified that two thirds of the one year PGCE course should be spent in schools with the course being delivered in partnership between schools and the HEI's (Calderhead & Shorrock, 1997). This was followed in 1996 (DfEE) by standards which all trainees should meet during their training. Both emphasise the governments attempts to make teacher training more 'apprentice-like' (Calderhead & Shorrock, 1997). But as discussed earlier, teaching is a far more complex profession which requires flexibility rather than a simple repetition of procedures.

The standards (1996) have been further revised in September 2007, (TDA, 2007), where reference to reflection, Coaching and Mentoring are more explicit, i.e.:

and

'Reflect on and improve their practice, and take responsibility for identifying and meeting their professional development needs. (Q7)

'Act upon advice and feedback and be open to coaching and mentoring (Q9)

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This brings to the forefront the importance of developing reflectivity during the trainee year. However, these are complex skills to acquire and often the ones which are overlooked with the workload that trainees face (Furlong et al, 1988). Pollard (1997: p. 22) acknowledges that 'novice teachers' 'have only a limited understanding of the issues' and have to think hard about them and how best to take them forward. Clearly then support and advise offered by mentors is crucial in helping to gain a deeper understanding and strategies to address such issues.

The structure of the PGCE course is such that it is the mentor who oversees all the training within the school. Mentors observe the trainees regularly and hold weekly meetings to check on their progress. Their role is a complex one which involves: first and foremost, maintaining good professional relationships with the trainee; supporting and developing their planning, evaluation and professional status; monitoring progress and encouraging the trainee to be involved in self assessment (SWELTEC, 2002). Watson in Jaworski & Watson (1992) describes the mentor as 'a guide and support to others who are finding their way into the profession.' She points to 'trust, listening, enthusiasm and personal development (of the trainee)' to be key aspects of the mentors work.

There is no denying that the more experienced mentor has a lot to offer the trainee, but teaching is a very time thirsty career, where all good intentions of a mentor to support the trainee's development could be hindered. Although 'it is not the aim of mentoring to produce a clone of a mentor' (Wilkin, 1992), time constraints may well mean the mentor providing summative feedback and instructions on how to take practice forward, rather than offering opportunities for the trainee to engage in reflective dialogue. Barkley (2004) emphasises that "Coaching provides opportunities for teachers to practice their profession consciously".

Mentoring and Coaching

Hamilton (1993) defines mentoring as 'a way of helping another understand more fully and learn more comprehensively from their day-to-day experience', whilst Kirk (2004) describes the mentor as a person who 'has responsibility for widening and enriching the professional education of those for whom (s)he is responsible.' It is interesting to note that early advocators of Coaching, e.g. Whitmore (2003), made a clear distinction between Coaching and Mentoring. He described mentor as someone who passes on to

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the learner 'all they know' and hence limit the performance of the learner, whereas Coaching is based on the philosophy that there are 'always solutions to overcome barriers' (Smith & Thomas, 2004: p. 26). Furthermore, McLennan (1995) pointed out that a coach could become a mentor of coaching skills but a mentor can not become a coach 'unless he deliberately adopts the skills involved.' This implies that the roles are distinct and being a mentor does not automatically equip a person to be a coach.

The Mentoring and Coaching Framework (DfES, 2005) set out to clarify roles and definitions in the teaching context. This outlines the core concepts of Mentoring and Coaching showing much overlap between the roles, but focusing on mentoring as support in the early stages of the career, whereas Coaching can take place at any stage. In particular, mentoring is about 'developing and increasing learners control' and 'providing guidance, feedback and direction', whereas Coaching is about 'reinforcing the learners control' and supporting and sharing learning by questioning.

This is put very succinctly by Veenman et al. (2001) who state that a mentor is an 'experienced teacher' for the trainee 'to learn FROM' whereas a coach is an 'experienced teacher' for the trainee 'to learn WITH'.

The coach aims to raise awareness of the performer, by means of effective questioning which helps the performer explore the options and take 'responsibility' for the situation (Whitmore, 2002: p. 39). Ultimately, this leads to 'empowerment' of the performer and so he becomes less reliant on the coach.

Coaching is a tool for developing individuals and is particularly successful as it offers opportunities for on going development in the workplace 'Coaching is unlocking a person's potential to maximise their own performance' (Whitmore, 2002: 8).

Again it could be argued that in their early stage the trainee is not equipped to be able to come up with ways to improve their practice due to lack of experience. Coaching however, rests on the philosophy that every individual has the solution to their challenges and it is searching them out which is more complex. Although this can be a much lengthier way of finding a way forward, the ideas belong to the coachee and as such the responsibility to put them into action are also owned by the coachee. In continually questioning, the coach can help the coachee to clarify these ideas and understand them in greater detail. Coaching also opens the doors to finding more creative ideas, the answer is not confined to what the coach would do,

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and as such it can also benefit the coach to learn alternative approaches for their own practice.

METHODOLOGY

This is a case study with three trainees being coached by myself, the course tutor. Each trainee received three coaching sessions which followed a lesson observation.

The aim of the coaching sessions is to encourage the trainee to evaluate their lesson using coaching prompts and in doing so, for them to recognise their strengths and areas for development. According to the Mentoring & Coaching Framework (CUREE/DfES, 2005) this is 'specialist' coaching where I have 'expertise relevant to the goals of the professional learner' (the trainees).

Before the study was carried out, the question of ethics was addressed. It was recognised that 'informed consent' (Cohen et al., 2007) was pre-requisite to any coaching sessions taking place. This was gained by:

• First and foremost, clarifying that this had no connection with their assessment in passing the PGCE

• Asking for volunteers

• Explaining clearly what coaching is and the advantages it could bring to them

• Explaining the expectations in terms of time and resources

• Offering the opportunity to withdraw at any point

• Emphasising and ensuring that anonymity would be preserved in any reporting from the sessions

Case study as Freebody (2003) explains is 'distinctive' in that it attempts to 'document the story as a naturalistic-experiment­in-action'. Case studies have been categorised in many ways by different authors (Cohen et al., 2007: p. 255). For this study the most fitting description is that proposed by Stake (1994) of an 'instrumental' case study i.e. 'examining a particular case in order to gain an insight into an issue or a theory'.

The trainees to participate in the coaching sessions were chosen as a 'purposive sample' (Cohen et al., 2007: p. 115), on the basis of my 'judgement' as those who would provide an interesting

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range of responses. This was based on the fact that the three trainees had shown a range of levels of teaching competency in their first placements, as seen by my observations and their first practice profiles.

In terms of data collection, coaching sessions can be seen as similar in format to semi-structured interviews (see appendix A). The questions vary depending on the situation and although the essence of these was decided in advance, a rigorous structure was not enforced as it is the individuality of the trainees and what happened in the lesson which would dictate this (Freebody, 2003).

The GROW model (Goal-Reality-Obstacles-Will do) of Whitmore (2002) which is preferred for its simplicity was applied but only in a loose form. Coaching does have the flexibility to be adapted so long as the key principles are applied in that the coach: asked questions which helped the coachee to find their own answers and did not impose answers or solutions on them; listens and encourages enabling more clarity of the situation and way forward; and most essentially empowers the coachee to feel equipped not only to find what they will do but also to how they will do it.

The key goal (stage 1 of GROW) for the sessions was to encourage reflection so that the exercise of evaluating lessons could be improved. The 'reality' (stage 2) was clarified by asking the trainees to explain what had happened in the lesson. Again, a great effort was made not to simply state what I had seen to enable the trainees to get a deeper understanding of key aspects of the lesson. The 'obstacles' (stage 3) often came about when sharing the reality, of what had prevented them doing as they had set out to do. What the trainees 'will do' (stage 4) to improve their practice came from focused and persistent questioning.

Being the course tutor could present a barrier to the coaching process as the trainees may feel inhibited to speak up due to my position. The following steps were taken in advance to address this:

• It was made very clear that these coaching sessions would not contribute in any way to my formal assessment of their teaching

• To relieve the extra pressure of formal observation, it was stressed that they should prepare and teach the lesson in the same way as they would if they were not being observed.

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Two of the trainees were female and one male, but in order to maintain anonymity, all three are referred to as female in this study (see Table 1).

All coaching sessions followed a lesson observation. The coaching sessions were audio recorded to allow both parties to engage in conversation freely. These were later transcribed for more detailed analysis. 'Grounded theory' (Cohen et al., 2007: 491) is the area of qualitative analysis which looks at emerging themes once the data has been collected.

(Cohen et al., 2007: p. 254) state that 'It is important in case studies for events and situations to be allowed to speak for themselves, rather than be largely interpreted, evaluated or judged by the researcher'. With this in mind, the transcripts were scanned for emerging themes. Boud et al. (1994: 36) describe the reflective process as taking experiences of behaviour, ideas and feelings and reflecting on these to come up with new outcomes. This reflective process is encouraged by the use of coaching.

FINDINGS

This section outlines the results of the coaching sessions as well as the starting and end points.

Trainee A was very reflective and constantly stopped to assess what the next course of action should be. Coaching enabled the trainee to develop her reflection as follows:

TABLE 1

Trainee A Trainee B Trainee C

First degree Mathematics Economics Engineering

Work 1 year in 1 year in Higher degree background one-to-one Finance in Maths &

support Management special needs

First placement Very good Satisfactory Good

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• Helped to clarify targets and adapt her teaching methods

• Coming to the conclusion that there is still room for improvement after a good lesson and that more discussion would have got a deeper understanding of the topic.

• Recognised that it was important not to let answers to examples on board be led by a few individuals.

• Realised that by modelling one answer to the whole class, key learning points could have been made more explicit and came up with ways in which she would go about this.

• Acknowledged that her own subject knowledge needed to be further developed.

• Trainee's perception of how coaching sessions have gone: 'The sessions have made me think deeper about what is happening in my lessons.'

Trainee B showed some signs of reflection, but often focused on managing pupil behaviour rather than other aspects of the lesson. Coaching enabled the trainee to develop her reflection as follows:

• Realised instructions to the class could be improved by being more explicit and repeating them and that this would impact class behaviour

• Recognised some strong positive points from the lesson so that a more balanced view of lesson was achieved.

• Could then come up with alternative strategies e.g. how she could amend worksheets to fit the pupil's needs

• Trainee was able to come up with strategies for behaviour issues some of which would involve seeking support from other members of staff.

• Recognised the need to develop own subject knowledge in particular by looking at ways to link topics to others and develop alternative explanations on a given topic

• Trainee's perception of how coaching sessions have gone: 'At first I found them quite difficult, but they made me really think about every little detail.'

Trainee C showed little reflective inclination and depended very much on others' feedback. Coaching enabled the trainee to develop her reflection as follows:

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• Although she found it hard to reflect initially, with persistent questioning she began to think about issues and how to improve pupils learning further

• At first the trainee saw insufficient progress in the lesson as the students' unwillingness to learn. She did eventually realise that she had contributed to this by making assumptions of their prior learning.

• Trainee made a shift to conclude that she needed to take more responsibility for the outcome of the lesson.

• In the final session, she was quicker to identify what she would do better next time, from giving more guidance, to setting tighter time limits.

• Trainee's perception of how coaching sessions have gone: 'Coaching has really made me think about being clearer with all my expectations'

CONCLUSION

The sessions have provided the opportunity to adopt Coaching to address lesson evaluations in some detail. There is limited evidence to suggest that coaching can be a useful model for enhancing reflection in this way. Raising the awareness of the trainees has enabled them to take responsibility for their actions and to look at ways forward in developing alternative techniques for the future. In all three cases, coaching encouraged a shift to engage in deeper reflection-on-action and if as Costa & Kallick, (2000) write 'sharing reflections validates, expands and enriches internal conversations', then indeed this is only the starting point of their journey.

Taking on board findings from this study, it is clear that despite many efforts to reassure trainees that this is a non-judgemental process, it was still difficult for them to be absolutely open in this setting. Hence, earlier introduction of Coaching in taught sessions of the programme should be explored to gain a deeper understanding of the key principles. Furthermore, to take out the element of being coached by person in an assessors role, peer coaching can be introduced. This will be particularly advantageous on paired placements. This could lead to more being gained from trainees observing each others' lessons and doing joint feedback sessions. Furthermore, adopting coaching trios which have also been recommended (DfES, 2005a), where

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the third person, feeds back to both the coach and the coachee would help to develop a deeper understanding of the coaching process and the roles of the coach and coachee. Both of these will help to address the issue of time constraints as all parties will be gaining from the programme as well as making coaching an integral tool for ITE and hence teaching.

Coaching to include examples of 'critical incidents' for the trainees to reflect on can provide a 'deeper and more profound level of reflection' (Griffin, 2003). It will also give more opportunity to explore the different kinds of reflection. In this study the type of reflection has been largely 'descriptive'. For other forms of reflection to take place, more emphasis needs to be put on personal feelings and questioning routines which are in place.

There are also implications for the mentor's role too. If coaching is to be adopted, then very specific training is required beforehand. It is important that both parties are aware of what the process involves and are committed to seeing it through. It may well be that the mentor is not the ideal person for this role as again power relationships may play a significant part. A possible model to explore may be to use Newly Qualified Teachers as they will have recently gone through the training themselves and would benefit from learning to take on this role as well.

The reflective practitioner is one who is constantly looking at ways to improve their practice (Hatton & Smith, 1995; Pollard, 1999: 23) and with coaching as a tool to enhance this, not only will the trainees meet the QTS standards more successfully, they will be able to take this knowledge into schools and hence enhance it's use in education for years to come.

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