UROLOGICAL EMERGENCIES

Julian Mander

Emergencies

Renal colic diagnosis and management Urine Retention Urosepsis Haematuria Testicular torsion Trauma renal

bladder

urethral

Stones - Presentation - Pain

PAIN Typical: Loin to groin pain

Variable severity

Episodic

Not mechanical but paroxysmal

Atypical: Anterior

Groin pain alone

Testicular pain alone

Penile tip pain alone

Associated vomiting (ongoing)

Mechanical character

Stones - Presentation - LUTS

LUTS

Irritative: Frequency

Urgency

Strangury

Burning micturition

Macroscopic haematuria

Common misdiagnosis UTI - Do MSUs if in doubt.

Stones - Presentation - Fever

FEVER

Loin pain + fever (38c) = pyelonephritis = generally not life threatening

Loin pain + fever + stone = infected obstructed kidney = commonly life threatening

Message – do ultrasound in all pyelonephritis admissions

Stones - Investigation

MSU

U&E/Creatinine

Serum calcium/albumin uric acid

Imaging

First or infrequent presentation admit to hospital until diagnosis made

Diagnostic Imaging

Until recently, limited IVP with extra tomograms or delayed films as dictated by progress

Now imaging by non contrast stone CT scan as routine initial diagnostic imaging protocol.

BUT CT scan has a relatively high radiation dose

SO

1) Do not repeat CT for the same stone – once a diagnosis is established, patients can be managed with AXR or U/S or both.

2) Do not do CT scans for recurrent stone formers – patients can usually tell you the diagnosis – do U/S and AXR not CT.

3) Avoid CT in children

4) Do not do CT in pregnancy – use U/S

CT vs IVP

Renal colic: A prospective evaluation of non-enhanced spiral CT versus intravenous pyelography

Mendelson et al Australasian Radiology 2003 47, 22 – 28

200 patients randomized to CT or IVP

Radiation dose CT 5 mSv vs IVP 2.97 mSv

More plain Xrays during admission and more IVPs at F/U in CT group

CT greater diagnostic utility, but no difference in measured outcomes

66% CT diagnostic vs 41% IVP diagnostic

CT Scan

CT Scan

CT Scan

Communicating Diagnosis

Stone size in mm

Anatomical stone position

parenchymal

calyceal diverticulum

calyx

renal pelvis

PUJ pelvi-ureteric junction

ureter: upper 1/3, middle 1/3, lower 1/3

vesico-ureteric junction

bladder

• Stone composition calcium 80%

uric acid 15%

infection (struvite) 5%

• Stone appearance – staghorn, jackstone

• In addition include fever, renal function, level of pain control, comorbidities

CT Scan Stone Composition

From Mostofavi et al : Accurate Determination of Chemical Composition of Urinary Calculi by Spiral Computerized Tomography

J Urol 159(3) March 1998 673-5

If in doubt, do AXR.

Emergency Management of Renal Colic

Non surgical management: 80% of 5 mm stones will pass spontaneously

50% of 8 mm stones will pass spontaneously

Uric acid stones will dissolve with urine alkalinization – NaHCO3 840 mg q.i.d.

Most patients can be discharged home with adequate analgesia and a plan for follow up.

Analgesia:

Initial I/M or I/V narcotic until diagnosis is made.

NSAIDs after diagnosis specific for PG release shown to be associated with acute renal colic –

Oral analgesics generally not absorbed well during renal colic -> so give the patient NSAID suppositories !!

Indocid suppositories 100mg 12 hourly prn

Voltaren suppositories 100mg 12 hourly prn

Oral Ibuprofen (Nurofen OTC 400mg 8 hourly OK) as backup if pain not severe

N.B Management with oral narcotics/panadeine forte/tramadol is generally inadequate and results in return to hospital.

Non Surgical Management Plan for Renal Colic

Urology referral if first presentation or problematic or expect surgery to be required.

If uncomplicated, with likely spontaneous passage, review at 6 weeks with appropriate imaging, most commonly U/S + AXR.Note, do not encourage the patient to “drink lots to flush the stone out” – stone will pass more rapidly if patient drinks less !

Imaging is not required if patient has the stone in a jar !

6 Weeks – stone passed + pain gone + Ca/Uric acid normal -> discharge.

6 Weeks – stone not passed – no adverse features – repeat imaging at 12 weeks, adverse features increase HN refer.

12 Weeks- stone not passed – refer for surgical management.

Note, once the stone has passed, encouraged long term increase in fluid intake.

50% reduction in stone recurrence has been well documented if patients produce 2 li urine per 24 hours long term.

Indications for Surgical Intervention

1. Infected obstructed kidney = surgical emergency

2. Pain uncontrolled despite PR NSAIDS

3. Stone clearly too large to pass > 8mm

4. Significant CRF creatinine >200

5. Solitary kidney – risk obstructive uropathy

Acute Urine Retention

Sudden inability to pass urine – usually associated with pain, unless neuropathic cause.

Etiology Neuropathic – painless – MS, spinal cord compression Mechanical – Benign prostatic obstruction - most common +/- precipitating event – post op narcotics/mobilization UTI overstretch – long travel times drugs - anticholinergics ?? constipation Bladder neck dyssernergia – young men with precipitating event eg UTI Malignant prostatic obstruction/ other malignancy Urethral stricture Urethral stone – rare Functional – psychological/psychiatric background

Acute Urine Retention - Treatment

Catheterization

Urethral Foley catheter

use 16F or 18F for adequate long term drainage

use “long term” catheter – Bard “Biocath” or Silastic (not brown latex – 3 day use max).

do not use force – urethral trauma – convert to suprapubic

Suprapubic catheter

short term Bonano type – narrow gauge

long term – 16F Foley via “Add A Cath”

midline 1cm above pubic symphysis

make sure you aspirate urine with fine needle after LA infiltration

Acute Urine Retention ? Admission

Should depend on renal function Creatinine < 200 home with urology followup, and continence clinic appointment for assistance with bag

management.

Creatinine > 200 admit for management post obstructive diuresis

check hourly urine output > 200 ml/hour Rx I/V fluid replacement with saline, hourly I/V to equal hourly urine output, with 12 hourly potassium assessment (significant risk of

hypokalemia)

Note, the theoretical problem with conversion to pre renal renal failure without adequate replacement.

• Note also admission pending co-morbidities.

Urosepsis

Septicaemia originating from the urinary tract, usually Gram negative

Diagnosis

History – LUTS + Temp > 38 celsius

recent urological surgery or catheter, or catheter change

loin pain = either stone + infected/ obstructed

or uncomplicated pyelonephritis

Examination – Kidney tenderness

Prostate tenderness = prostatitis

BP – “septic shock” and inotropes

Investigation

MSU and blood cultures should correlate

Bloods routine + CRP

Imaging – U/S kidneys initially – hydronephrosis = infected/obst

Urosepsis - Treatment

Antibiotics

NB Take urine and blood cultures before commencing antibiotics.

Current general therapy:

Tazocin 4.5 gm t.d.s. Reduced dosage 4.5 gm b.d. if impaired renal function

Antibiotic guidelines:

Gentamicin (Gram –ve cover) single daily dose 5 – 7 mg/Kg

trough levels 12 hours post dose, with adjustment pending

+ Amox/Ampicillin (Enterococcus cover) 1gm 6 hourly

Change to less potentially toxic regimen once antibiotic sensitivities returned. Usually within 72 hours.

Treat obstucted kidneys

Either urgent Cysto/JJ stent if fit for GA

or Radiological insertion of nephrostomy tube

Supportive therapy – ICU and inotropes – BP and renal function

? Steroids and other therapies

Macroscopic Haematuria

Etiology

Upper tract vs lower tract – most commonly lower tract origin

Young – stones

Old – males most common cause is BPH

females most common cause is UTI/haemorrhagic cystitis

Cancer is the major concern

Post urological surgery

History

Painless – commonly lower urinary tract

Loin pain associated – usually upper tract origin – stones/tumours

LUTS UTI symptoms – haemorrhagic cystitis (and VUJ stones)

Macroscopic Haematuria

Examination

Usually little to find – DRE in older men ? CA prostate

Investigation

MSU

Bloods – FBP U&E/Creat +/- Coag profile

Imaging U/S as starting point, unless clinically stone, then non contrast CT

Cystoscopy – GA rigid cystoscopy if urgent, or flexible cystoscopy LA if urine clears.

Treatment

Treat pathology

Rarely life threatening unless uro-arterial fistula

Admit depending on circumstances, predicted pathology

• N.B. Catheterization is not necessary unless patient is in clot retention.

(and can aggravate and perpetuate the presenting problem !!)

Management of Clot Retention

History of heavy frank haematuria then painful inability to void Commonly tender palpable bladder

22F 3 way Foley catheter

Syringe bladder vigorously with sterile saline to break up and

wash out clot – use at least 500ml

Run bladder washout flat out until certain cleared, then slow to keep

urine rose

If failure to wash out clot, or washout clotting off – requires emergency

cystoscopy under anaesthetic Check Hb +/- coag profile

Testicular Torsion

Incidence: Cumulative incidence 1 in 4,000 males by the age of 25 years

Two age peaks: 1) 1st year of life

2) early adolescence

65% of cases present between ages 12 and 18 years

Etiology: 90% “bell clapper” congenital anatomical arrangement.

History: sudden onset of severe testicular pain and associated testicular swelling, usually presenting a short time after

onset.

• Examination: tender, swollen, “high riding” testicle, lying transversely.

• Patients usually afebrile

• Differential diagnosis in adults usually orchitis – preceding LUTS for several days, slower onset of pain and later

presentation, commonly with a fever.

• Differential diagnosis in children: torsion Hydatid of Morgagni or appendix testis and

acute idiopathic scrotal oedema AISE (average age 6 years, unknown cause).

Testicular Torsion

Testicular torsion is a clinical diagnosis, and if diagnosed, be taken to theatre as a surgical emergency.

Testicular U/S will delay diagnosis and should not be called for – the urology registrar should be called to assess the

urgently and if not available the consultant should be called.

The on call urology registar should assess the case clinically, urgently, and if they still have doubts (often misguided),

then request U/S, then take the consequences of delay if they are wrong.

• If the U/S is correct and delays theatre, (which is then clearly unnecessary) then nothing is lost.

• If patients are taken to theatre with the wrong diagnosis, then little is lost and registrars should learn.

• BUT if there is a delay in taking patients to theatre because U/S is done, then testicles are lost.

• Senior radiologists agree with this policy and feel that diagnosis of torsion is a clinical diagnosis.

• Torted testicles can be recovered if detorted surgically within 6 hours (4 – 8 hours), and in some cases 12 hours.

• Surgery: bilateral orchidopexy through a midline scrotal incision using non absorbable suture material (3/0 Prolene).

• Investigations that can be done: testicular U/S with doppler, nuclear scan technetium-99m pertechnetate

Trauma - Renal

Blunt vs penetrating trauma

Blunt trauma most common with high velocity MVA

Low velocity trauma – more commonly underlying abnormal kidney

Penetrating injury generally stab wounds and gunshot

Blunt trauma

Surgical exploration uncommon 2.6% of 913 cases in San Francisco

Increasing use of radiological embolization and urological stents

Penetrating trauma

Commonly require exploration

42% stab wounds explored

76% of gunshot wounds explored

Renal Trauma Staging

Renal Trauma Staging

Renal Trauma - Presentation

Obvious trauma – assess trauma potential

Frank haematuria common 80% to 94% of cases (but not always)

N.B. especially renal pedicle injury in children and young adults

deceleration injury with no haematuria

Penetrating trauma – poor correlation of degree of haematuria and

severity of injury

Hypotension

early may be associated with loss from other injuries

deceptive absence of hypotension in children

Renal Trauma - Imaging

CT scan – multi phase – non contrast, contrast arterial and venous

phases and pyelographic phase.

If haemodynamically stable

Note importance of contrast study in assessing that pedicle intact

Intra-operative one shot IVP

When patient haemodynamically unstable and emergency surgery

necessary, this allows assessment of pedicle integrity in presence

of identifiable non expanding peri-nephric haematoma

Follow up imaging – pending initial staging – especially urinoma

development in stage IV injury at 48 hours

Renal Trauma - Surgery

Absolute indications

Severe blood loss with haemodynamic instability, not suitable for

embolization

Renal pedicle avulsion ? Time limits

Ureteric avulsion

Relative indications

Nonviable tissue – if large segments of ischaemic tissue ? %

vs risk of delayed haemorrage

Urinary extravasation

Calyceal injury vs ureteric avulsion

JJ stenting with radiological drainage perc drain

Renal Trauma - Algorithms

Renal Trauma - Algorithms

Renal Trauma - Algorithms

Renal Trauma – Secondary Haemorrhage

2 – 36 days post injury

Most often arteriovenous fistula or pseudo-aneurysm

13% - 25% with grade III and IV injuries

Rx most commonly selective embolization currently

Renal Trauma - Hypertension

Incidence 0.3% - 0.9%

Earliest 37 days, but up to decades after injury

Average 34 months

Etiology – more likely in more severe injuries grade IV

Page kidney parenchymal compression by fibrosis

Renal artery stenosis, post intimal injury

Arterio-venous fistulas

Diagnosis

Regular blood pressure monitoring in high grade injuries

? 6 monthly lifelong

Trauma - Bladder

Uncommon

Etiology

Iatrogenic most common – urology/gynaecology

Spontaneous – rare in abnormal bladders eg clam cystoplasty

Intoxicated – alcohol abuse with fall onto full bladder

present with pain, unable to void or haematuria

Traumatic – blunt trauma with high velocity MVA

strong association with pelvic fracture (85% of ruptures)

Classification – Extraperitoneal vs Intraperitoneal (10% combination)

Imaging diagnosis

CT delayed post contrast phase in major trauma

Cystogram in iatrogenic/spontaneous/intoxicated groups

Bladder Trauma Treatment

Extraperitoneal rupture

Urethral catheter drainage (18F catheter)

Duration pending mechanism and severity of injury

5 days up to 3 weeks

Repeat cystogram prior to catheter removal

Intraperitoneal rupture

Traditionally surgical repair

More recently, conservative, with catheter drainage and follow up

cystogram

“Anterior” Urethral Trauma

Etiology Most commonly iatrogenic – forced catheterization with stricture “Fall astride” injury

History History of trauma, blood at urethral meatus and urine retention

Examination Blood at urethral meatus

Investigation Usually nil for iatrogenic Urethrogram for fall astride injuries

Treatment Nil if voiding OK for iatrogenic injury and catheter not required Cystoscopy/ endourological management in some cases Surgical repair of fall astride anterior urethral injury for complete rupture relatively easy surgery, catheter 3 weeks post op

Urethrogram – Anterior Urethral Trauma

“Posterior” Urethral Trauma

Etiology Most commonly iatrogenic – no Rx or endourological/ catheterization Associated significant pelvic injury – high level trauma potential

Clinical findings Blood at meatus + urine retention

Investigation Urethrogram +/- CT abdomen & pelvis

Management – surgical Timing pending other injuries suprapubic catheterization common Endourological re-alignment (flexi scope via suprapubic tract and optical urethrotome up urethra, with passage “glide” wire) Significant incidence of subsequent stricture – role of self dilatn Membranous urethroplasty – advanced surgical technique

Urethrogram – Posterior Urethral Trauma