Unit 3 Case Studies

Energy Security

Name Energy insecurity in USAProblem USA consumes vast amounts of energy- heavily reliant on exports- politically unstable

areasReliance on imports is growingEnergy price- risingFossil fuel reserves running out

Solution Increase imports- ESAs?

Name East-Siberia-Pacific Oil Pipeline (ESPO) Problem Energy (in form of Oil) needed to be transported to areas where it was in shortage

Would be transported from Russia to other countries in Asia as well as possibly NARussian, Chinese & Japanese govs all interested for geopolitical reasons- been competing for access to Russia’s oil & the ESPO pipeline projectChina-

Rapid eco growth Vulnerable existing oil supply Political interest over US presence in middle east Shares border with Russia- good relationship is important Russia reluctant to commit itself too heavily in terms of energy supply to China

Japan- No oil reserves of its own 76% imported from Middle East Wants to engage with Russia to increase eco and pol influence Did not want ESPO to end in China

Solution Pipeline was built- energy pathwayOriginally meant to go through the area where the remaining wild Amur leopards liveJuly 2005- announced it was being movedInitial route also:

Ran closely to Lake Baikal- UNESCO protected site- oil spills could lead to env disaster

Cost ballooned due to rising steel prices & having to build on permafrost

Japan financed a large prop of pipeline meaning it could end closer to them Evaluation Russians are able to build most expensive pipeline in history, while restricting China’s

access to Russia’s oil & helping to rebuild the Russia/ Japan relationshipAlso able to export more widelySpur still being built of main pipeline to China, as a “sweetner” Russia promises to increase oil exports to China via rail

Name Gazprom- Russia & OilProblem Russia re-emerging as global power- energy used as a political tool

Re-asserting power & influence over former Soviet statesUsing gas supply as a weapon?- e.g. cutting of supply to the Ukraine after it got rid of its pro-Russia govShould Europe be concerned over its energy security?Yes

Russia supplies large amounts of gas to Europe & it goes through UkraineNo

Russia’s export market too important to loose New pipelines created that bypass both Ukraine & Belarus EU planning own pipeline Also South Caucous pipeline

Solution EU looking at alternative energy sources as well as building own pipelineEvaluation

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name Exploitation of ESA’s- ArcticProblem Increased energy usage (1 reason- China & India demanding more and more oil to fuel

their rapid economic development) ESA’s needing to be exploited e.g. ArcticGlobal warming causes polar ice to melt- oil rich sea beds are being uncovered beneath the Arctic circleCould hold ¼ world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas reserves- Lomonosov Ridge-Russia appeared to be claiming this through placing flag on seabed. Also took samples to try and prove it was part of Russian land mass- they will then be able to claim itLarge debates as to who will be able to claim the oilConflicts between key players (ANWR, TNC’s, UN, Tourists, Indigenous people, Env groups, Nat Gov, Arctic Council) as to whether should be exploited

Evaluation Tech will need to be developed before exploitation can take placeNegative impacts heavily outweigh positivesLikely to be left with no other options if demand continues to increaseUsage of ESA’s becoming more and more economically viable

Type of impact Positive NegativePoint Score

(1-10)Point Score

(-1- -10)Environmental None 0 Will ruin the pristine environment

found in the Arctic, -9

Will lead to further use of unrenewables,

-6

Many species will be made extinct due to the destruction of habitats and the inevitable threat of pollution..

-8

The risk of oil spills is high, -7

Social If the economic impacts occur, it is likely that they will have positive social impacts.

3 Many communities such as depend on the ecosystems that will be destroyed for a living for food, medicine and clothing.

-7

Economic Jobs 8 If Russia (or another one of the Arctic countries) gain a majority control of the supplies then this is likely to have effects on the other countries within the Arctic (they may monopolise oil and natural gas supplies within the region and aim to control prices etc

-4

Whoever owns oil- $$$ 9

Total 20 -41

Name Exploitation of ESA’s- Canadian Tar SandsProblem Increased energy usage ESA’s needing to be exploited

Tar Sands relatively unexploited- naturally occurring mixtures of sand/ clay and water & bitumenLarge amounts found in Canada- high as 180 billion barrelsAlberta tar sands-2003: 1 mill, 2011- 3.5 mil, 2030- 5 milUses lots of water Exploited using vast strip mines- ruin env- destroying forest, drenching wetlandsIn-situ- steam assisted gravity drilling- large amounts of infrastructure need to be built & lots of natural gas needs to be used

Evaluation Tech will need to be developed before exploitation can take placeNegative impacts heavily outweigh positivesLikely to be left with no other options if demand continues to increase

Unit 3 Case Studies

Water Conflicts

Name Middle EastProblem Large areas of low rainfall

A few large riversSome significant aquifers (many rely on fossil waters)Global warming drier conditionsMany areas of low pop densityPopulation increasing rapidly- high birth rate, migrationRegion becoming more wealthy and developedOil based economy- money- waterAgriculture- waterCentre of conflict for many yearsToday many political conflicts- Arab/ Israeli issue, Islamic/ Western civilization, Many dictatorships & political unrest, disputes between Shia/ Sunni muslims, oppression of minorities e.g. Morocco (Berbers), Turkey (Kurds), Sudan (Black African South)Oil transformed the region¾ of known reserves found hereGives middle east global significance

Solution See below

Name Turkey’s Water InsecurityProblem Varied climate & abundant rainfall- should be well of for water

Regional variations in rainfall, summer droughts in Anatolia and shortages in the main cities of Ankara and Istanbul

Solution $32 billion South-Eastern Anatolia Project (GAP)Multi-sectoral & integrated regional development project based on the concept of sustainable developmentBasic aim- eliminate regional disparities by raising people’s income level and living standards & to contribute to such national development targets as social stability and eco growth- enhancing the productive and employment generating capacity of the rural sector Construct 22 dams, 19 hydroelectric power plants and 2 water-transfer tunnels, to provide

22% of Turkey’s electricity by 2010 Provide irrigation for 1.7 million hectares (representing 20% of Turkey’s cultivable land and

supporting 9% of its population) Diversify agriculture into cash crops Stimulate agro-industrial urbanisation (intensive, business-based farms which free up

workers to move to and work in the cities) Stop the migration of young people from the region Help the southeast Anatolian economy to grow by 400% Help the Turkish economy as a whole to grow by 12%

Evaluation Env impacts- salinisation, erosionDisplaced lots of peopleAttempt to increase water supply- geopolitical issue- has upset both neighbouring countries and global institutions- project means damming up the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers which provide both countries with waterNew dams will restrict river flow while huge reservations fill upSaid will return to normal flow once reservations fill up, may not be the case due to political reasonsTurkey reviewed Ilisu scheme (Dam on Tigris) to reduce impacts on local settlements and to take into account major social and env considerationsAlso agreed to release water from Ilisu to Syria (not Iraq)Turkey now plans to build another dam which will collect additional water meaning Iraq & Syria will be left to fight over whatever water is left

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name Egypt’s Water insecurityProblem Debt coupled with

1980s many of Egypt’s rivers dammed Rivers often cross international borders disputesBy 2025 no of African countries inc Egypt- will be water scarce, will threaten:

Economies People employed in agriculture

Other current challenges include: Increasing the number of people with access to safe water and sanitation Raising people out of poverty Managing and maintaining water resources

Solution Toshka project part of long term project to boost food production for Egypts growing urban population, and for exportFunded by international investmentAims:

Provide food, electricity and jobs for 16 million Egyptians in new towns in the desert, and also relocate people to farms in irrigated areas

Use pumps and canals to transfer water from Lake Nasser into the Western Desert Increase Egypt’s irrigated area by 30% (2000km2) Recharge underground aquifers Grow high-value crops- olives, oil seeds, citrus fruits, vegetables Maintain a low use of pesticides and fertilizers Create sustainable communities with self-sufficient smallholdings for families Improve roads, railways and telecommunications Promote tourism

Evaluation Doubts surrounding the project: Lake Nasser is silting up, so long-term water supplies may not be reliable The open transfer canals may fill up with desert-blown sand, and water in them will also

evaporate in the desert hear The irrigation water could lead to salinisation The water pumps will use huge amounts of electricity, the supply of which is unreliable Waterlogging could occur in the Toshka basin There would be a need for fertilisers There is a risk of the spread of water-borne diseases in the stagnant canal water The Toshka Project would fail if upstream countries like Ethiopia and Sudan take more water

from the Nile, causing water levels to fall The finance is insecure and will lead to debt.

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name Israel’s Water InsecurityProblem Israel consumes much more water than it consumes naturally- rapid pop growth means likely to

get worseDroughts now increasingly common & longer lastingDue to Israel’s relations with its neighbours, water pathways are frequently under threat- e.g. Syria- wants its borders reinstated to where they were before ’67 as part of the price of peace- 25% of Israel’s water supply would be compromised-

It feels that Syria’s water-management systems are inferior and could contaminate Lake Kinneret

The threat from Turkey’s GAP project could force Syria to divert the River Jordan away from Israel to ensure its own water supplies

Israel would be at the mercy of a long-time enemy for a quarter of its water suppliesOveruse and misuse also stretch resources- supplies pit at risk

Solution Israeli gov took control of water 1959- began to develop plans for the National Water Carrier systemIn order to take water to the Negev Desert settlements drip-feed irrigation systems were developed these were also created to reduce water consumption, evaporation and salinisationIsrael’s current water-management strategies have several parts to themTo review current uses and develop more efficient techniques they need to manage limited supply and this is done through:

Recycling sewage water for agriculture uses which could lower overall consumption Reducing agricultural consumption and shifting the economy to high technology Better water-treatment plants and conservation techniques Demand management by charging “real value” prices for water to reflect the costs of

supply and also ecosystem managementHow new supplies are to be acquired also needs to be looked at, and this is done in a variety of different ways:

Importing 50 million m3 of water per year by ship from Turkey Piping seawater from the Read Sea & Mediterranean to new inland desalinisation

plants. The Desalinisation Master Plan envisages providing 25% of Israel’s supply by 2020.

Water supplies also need to be expanded; with one of these being the virtual water supplies (Virtual water is water which is transferred by trading in crops and services which require large amounts of water for their production). If water-rich foods are imported vast amounts of water are saved.

Evaluation Similar climate to cali, however less water usage, also area of political unstability and harsher physical environmentaiming to develop the technology as well as using a wide range of strategies in order to be able to try and solve the problems that this shortage may lead to.

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name Water Transfer- ChinaProblem The growth of China mainly in South, meaning farmland expanded in North

North- rains less, facing water shortages- water stored purely residential and industrial uses, not agriculture

Solution South-to-North Water diversion programme will divert 44.8 billion m cubed yearCost $62 bn

Evaluation Destruction of pastoral land Displacement of people Expensive Increased water supply- more food for population, poverty may decrease Eco development due to increase in water and food security

Name India- future??Problem Large and growing population

Rapid economic growth on back of green revolution- huge drive to reduce more food- Rice water. Use of fertiliserswaterpollutionIndustrialisation- increase water demand, increases pollution, Urbanisation- localised water scarcity, overloads water infrastructure- pollutionUrban/ countryside conflict- lack of storage potential (5X less storage/ person than China)Most of India has large sources of water:

Major rivers Heavy annual rainfall Large Aquifers

Climate change less reliable monsoons? Loss of ice in Himalaya’s threatens sources of major riversConflict with China over disputed N border

Future?? Could be largely avoided with better water management practices- distinct lack of attention to water legislation, conservation, efficiency in water use, recycling & infrastructureGovernment have not been concentrating on water issues

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name CaliforniaProblem Highly populated state- range of landscapes

Problems with water due to: Recent variations in rainfall- annual flow levels have been declining Impacts of climate change Much of Cali is arid- lots of the water lost through evaporation/ transpiration/ flowing out

to sea Rain mainly falls nov-march La Nina Relief of land Increasing population- also spatially inbalanced

Cali depends on 2 major water supplies- State Water Project & Central Valley Project- provides water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta for Southern & Central Cali60% S Cali water- Colorado river via system of dams & aqueductsNumerous treaties in place regarding Colorado rivers water- however these are often not relating to current levels conflictWetlands have been drained, natural habitats altered, fish stocks depletedwater suppliesPoorly maintained water levees- allowed salty water to submerge some of the islands and reduced water quality for all users and habitatsSalton Sea- future threatened-

75% of its inflow is from cotton, citrus and sugar beet farms in the Imperial and Coachella valleys-with a toxic mix of pesticides, fertilizers, defoliants and nutrients

High evaporation rates mean that the salt content here is 25% higher than in the Pacific Ocean

High Salinity, algal blooms and eutrophication are thought to have caused the deaths of millions of birds and fish (with 7.5 million fish dying in one day- see image)

The New River brings industrial pollutants and sewage from Mexicali in Mexico The lands of the Cahuilla Tribe are at risk from the deoxygenated and poor-quality

water, increased salinity and reduced fish stocks Tourists have stopped visiting because of the high salt content, the stench of decay and

the perception that the sea is a toxic waste dump.Conflicts

Farmers v Environmentalists Native Americans v other Californians- shares not correct

Solution Range of strategies to try and decrease water shortage Domestic conservation Groundwater banks Re-using wastewater Saving storm water Reducing agricultural usage Smart planning

In order to “reduce conflicts by developing a sustainable long-term solution to water management and environmental problems” within the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta the CALFED Bay-Delta Program has been set up. CALFED has several aims for the Bay-Delta and these include creating:

o A reliable, goof-quality water supplyo Ecosystem restorationo Improved levees and protected delta islandso Increased water storageo Improved water conveyanceo Guaranteed farmers’ supplieso Maintained dissolved oxygen levels to preserve fish and the wetland ecosystem

Salton Sea- Farmers developed more water-efficient irrigation techniques less runoff to the Salton SeaSalton Sea Restoration Project- faced choice Agricultural slump or restoring its natural habitats, options include:

Reducing the nutrient mix in the water to prevent algal blooms- but if farmers allow lower rates of drainage and runoff to the sea, the water level will fail and the chemical concentration will increase

Creating evaporation ponds to extract the damaging salt before it enters the sea Diverting freshwater from the Colorado to dilute the salty sea Limiting fish stocks by using surpluses to make fertilisers and pet food rather than

allowing them to die and decay Allowing sea to evaporate completely Cleaning up the New River from Mexico to reduce pollution Creating a desalination project to produce fresh water for increasing urban demand and

then selling the salt as a by-productThe restoration has several objectives, which include:• Stabilize Salinity• Shoreline Preservation/Elevation Control• Economic Development• Agricultural Water Depository• Healthy Fish & Wildlife Habitat

Evaluation Still problems despite being MEDC

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name Murray-Darling BasinProblem 75% Australian Water

Since 1920, pop X 5, water extraction X 5Such exploitation- unsustainable, env problems, creates conflicts, needs holistic managementEnv Problems:

Salinity- Kills plants, Damage infrastructureo Low flow levelso Pulled to the surface by localised rise in water tables due to irrigation &

through removal of forest cover Eutrophication- nutrients from fertilizers go into water supplies algal bloomsblock

light remove CO2- worse in slow flowing stagnant river Loss of natural vegetation/ biodiversity-

o Eutrophicationo Rise/ fall water tableso Increased land clearing

Solution Change in approach- by 1990’s- More agreement between states Higher priority to env- ecological values & long term economic reasons The Cap- creation of “environmental flows”- 1994 extraction is limit led to conflicts

Farmers V environmentalists 2007 drought- focused minds MDBA- new management strategy

Evaluation Environmental flows: Keep river banks moist to encourage plant growth to stabilise them Allows a downstream flow of nutrients to sustain habitats Keeps the mouth of the Murray River open Allows flooding to distribute organic matter across floodplains Replenishes floodplains, wetlands, habitats Replenishes groundwater stores Flushes stagnant pools

Name Cochabanba- Bolivia (LEDC)Problem Water privatisation by Bechtel (TNC) in 1999problems

Due to large amounts that were charged, many could not afford thisLed to riots injuriesdeath

Solution Government had to step in and take over water system and pay off companyEvaluation Situation post Bechtel-

Publically ran since 2000 by SEMPAHowever-

Government inefficiency Coverage of pipes to individual houses is 45% Connections have been increased by 16% Water supplies only available for 2 hours a day, 3 days a week. Residents have to try

and store this water for use at other times SEMPA are unable to supply 55% of the population who have to dig their own wells &

beg for water

Name Aral SeaProblem Salinity and pollution levels are high as well as declining levels of water- most fish have died and

water suppies been badly affected by wind-blown salt from sea bedSolution North- Dam project water flow increased, salinity dropped- increase in fish

South- Dam in north provided potential for the South. Plan to reduce desertification impact- planting vegetation in exposed seabed

Evaluation North- Second dam due to be built- loan from WB

Name Kissimme River- FloridaProblem Pre-channelization- river supported large amounts of wildlife

Channelization took place due to severe flooding- helps prevent it and improve navigationSolution Kissimme River restoration act passed with long term aim of restoring the river and regaining

dome of the wetland habitats- 15X more $$ than cost of building canalIncludes:

buying back farmland to replace floodplain re-instating wetland areas block up canal forcing river to flow along original channel allow flooding of wetland areas encourage tourism based on hunting & fishing to boost economy

Evaluation help boost economy more env sustainable expensive

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name 3 Gorges DamProblem Ever growing needs of China for waterSolution 3 Gorges Dam- energy, harness & provide clean water Evaluation Social

Costs Estimated that 1.3 million people were forced into resettlement during construction (due

to the land being flooded), with up to 4 million more anticipated to be relocated in the next 15 years due to environmental damage (primarily landslides) and pollution

Fears are rising that a natural disaster, such as an earthquake, could cause immense damage to the dam, and potentially kill millions in a resulting flood

Benefits Reduces the potential for floods downstream (to15 million people) by providing flood

storage spaceEnvironmentalCosts

Ecosystem destruction and pollution As farmers retreat to higher ground and attempt to build farms on the hillsides, massive

erosion and landslides are occurring.  Geologists believe that the threat of earthquakes, already a risk in this region, is

increased by the pressure from the water in the dam’s growing reservoir. Silt accumulation in the reservoir is expected to cause flooding upstream. An increase in the number of landslides caused by the huge weight of water behind the

dam and fluctuations in the water levelBenefits

world’s biggest man-made producer of electricity from renewable energy. EconomicCosts

Cost an estimated $25 billion (official estimate)Benefits

Produces electricity Increases the river's shipping capacity (this will however be at a cost of US$175 million) area behind the dam will create a reservoir

Name Water Costing/ MeteringProblem Too much water being usedSolution People pay for the water that they useEvaluation consumers can save money

people will only use the water that they need- reduced CO2 due to declining use of hot water?

Cost of installation

Name: Arctic National Wildlife RefugeProblem: Vast unspoilt place- most biologically diverse Arctic region in the world. In Northern Alaska

Most of the refuge- designated as “wilderness”- 1.5 million acres of Coastal Plain not protected this wayCould be opened up for oil exploration and drilling in the same way Prudhoe bay was 60s/70sPrudhoe bay- estimated all of the oil will be extracted by 2015- new source neededEstimated a lot of oil is believed to be located under Coastal Plain

Players: The Inupiat peopleThe Gwich’inArctic PowerPoliticiansEnvironmental groups

Solution:Evaluation: Economic gain V Environmental degradation

Name: Biodiversity Hotspots- Madagascar & the Indian OceanProblem: Humans arrived more recently- posing threat on biodiversity

Fragile ecosystemMuch of central Madagascar & other islands deforestedHigh population density in some of the islands- high growthThreats exacerbated- introduction of alien species- food sources, pest control, pets

Solution: Mad- Gov currently beginning 3rd phase of its national environmental action plan with 5-year program of conservation and sustainable management issues. Many key biodiversity areas identified as potential conservation sitesEcotourismOther islands- not as much protection

Evaluation: Must address needs of local people with efforts focusing on poverty alleviation & economic development. Conservation cannot be at the expense of the people

Name: The value of coral reefs

Unit 3 Case Studies

Problem: Increased sedimentationEutrophicationOver harvesting of fish & other reef based resourcesPollutionBleaching (caused by climate change)Mass mortality events (caused by climate change)ProliferationDestructive fishing practicesCareless tourismCoral miningClimate change

Solution: WWF recognised as priority species to protect-1) Through exploring and protecting the Coral Triangle (has done for 20 years)- helping to

create policies to ensure responsible environmental management of the area, raising awareness and promoting the sharing of skills for better stewardships

2) Established coral reefs advocacy initiative in 2002- building on previous work, also conservation wins

Evaluation: Need to be saved as have high value- Tourism attraction Research Traditional crafts Aquarium industry Protection Food source Pharmaceuticals Biodiversity

Name: Heather moorland & the red grouseBackground: Red grouse is a game bird meaning it is bred in some areas to be shot for sport

In 2nd half 20th C- much of UK’s moorland lost to being ploughed up75% of worlds remaining moorland UKGrouse shooting helped to preserve in traditional mannerGrouse need a mosaic of heather at different stages of growth- achieved by systematically allowing grazing or by setting fire to heather in rotationAlso supports merlin hen- harrier & sky lark

Players Moorland association: NGO, represents the owners & managers of grouse moors Believes that it is conserving the countryside & providing jobs & income to rural

communitiesRSPB:

Believes burning been carried out too extensively, changing habitats Also been problems with illegal killing of birds of prey that will prey on young ones

Gamekeeper: Grouse most important element manage ecosystem to support the grouse & other

associated birds, may also protect them by killing birds of preyFarmers:

May wish to remove the heather & use their land for rough grazing to improve incomeNatural England:

Conserve landscape & wildlifeSolution: Must work together cooperatively

Reduction in levels of heather burning & compliance with the law- prohibiting the killing of Hawks & OwlsIncreased species biodiversityWhilst having little impact on grouse numbers

Evaluation: If they work together will be little conflict and will have benefits for both env and humans

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: Sweden’s Factory Forests- TechnofixProblem: Sweden is one of Europes biggest producers of forest products- timber, paper

As an MEDC Swedens policy towards forest management was technocentricPolicy in 1 sense sustainable, forest cover expanded in these yearsHowever, biodiversity degradesStrategy derives from a 1980 forestry act maximise productivity and mechanise a v successful industryForests cover 57% of Sweden (Constant/ slightly rising)-Encouraged use of fertiliserWet lands are drained- more productive/ commercialTrees all of same age & type in lines- aids mechanised felling

Players: Large timber & paper companies- Fully support as it minimises cost and maximises profitSwedish government- supporting major Swedish industry- tax revenues, jobs, support of rich large companiesSwedish environmental groups/ NGOs SNF. Oppose on environmental & sustainable groundsIndividual Swedes/ public opinion

Evaluation: Positive: Jobs Money to gov- tax Made money for companies Allowed for fully mechanised felling- quicker & easier

Negative: Fertiliser can pollute streams/ rivers which can effect ecosystem- Eutrophication Trees all same age- reduces habitats Draining marshland- destroyed habitat

Led to changes in strategy (2000-2010): Forest management now greener More protection for ancient forests Less financial support for industrial scale clear felling because:

o Shift in public opinion & shopping patternso Increase in recycling

Name: British Columbia (Canada)- Island concept of coniferous forest managementSolution: Rotate round yearly where trees are cut from

Each year the biodiversity from Islands of protection working outMore ecocentric than Sweden, when back to first section trees have regrown again

Problems: Access (moving machinery)Not maximising potential (economically)Destroying habitats?

Evaluation: Does not work well in tropical rainforests- takes a long time t grow higher productivity & biodiversity

Name: Emerging Superpowers- India

Still many living in poverty Theory- Dependency theoryAfter India no longer colonial power, then able to thrive more on its own terms However- dependency theory- cannot break out meaning India & other Eastern-Asian economies have meant dependency theory lost some influenceIndia’s move state controlled business to open trade- heavy markers in India’s economic history, main reasons now emerging superpowerDependency theory- disapproves of free market economies (free trade falls under)Growth- outsourcing

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: Daintree RainforestBackground: Part of wet tropics- Queensland, Australia alongside great barrier reef- world heritage site

Some of the most fragile & important ecosystems in the worldDaintree home to high levels of biodiversityBenefits of Daintree:

Medicine Carbon sequestration Tourism People of the rainforest- rainforest highly important to them Logging

Problem: Many threats including: Tourism

Solution: Management strategies are split into several areas:Community Development:

Locals to be involved in land stewardship & conservation Base employment in tourism, organic farming, tropical horticulture and small

business opportunities Settle around 600 blocks of land

Indigenous people: Recognise their rights to own land and promote their culture

Water supply & Waste management: Keep water extraction from streams and underground supplies within

sustainable limits Use the best available domestic technology for waste disposal

Biodiversity Conservation: Adopt settlement and land-management practices on private land to protect the

outstanding biodiversity Identify hotspots for conservation Identify threats from wild animals and weeds Around 540 blocks to remain unsettled

Road & Ferry: Ferry to provide essential access and remain the gateway to the area Improve facilities for tourists to the south of the river and recreational facilities to

the north Reduce forest cut-backs

Douglas Shire Council: Introduce planning controls for biodiversity conservation Ensure that settlement densities are sustainable

Tourism: Increase tourist numbers to support the local economy Increase the length of tourist stays as well as the numbers revisiting the area Monitor the impacts of tourism to ensure that it is sustainable

Electricity supply: When settlement densities are reduced to a sustainable level use underground

cables to extend the mains power supply as far north as Cooper Creek People north of Cooper Creek to continue to use their RAPS

Financial Issues: Use ferry income to assist community services infrastructure and conservation

initiatives Require a financial commitment from federal, state and local government to:

o Establish the Daintree Land Trust to support land acquisition and compensate those who lose land

o Meet the cost of priority purchase and financial incentives for conservation

o Subsidise the electricity supplyAlso operation big bird- plan to create wildlife corridor to help protect the cassowary- help to preserve biodiversity

Evaluation: Cassowary recently been spotted in the wild- signifies “operation big bird” is successful

Name: History of superpowersYear: Superpower Name of system1901 UK & British Empire Unipolar1941 UK & British Empire, Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan,

USA, USSRMultipolar

1956 USA, USSR (cold war) Bipolar2000 USA Unipolar2030 USA? China? EU? Other BRICs? Multipolar

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: MangrovesBackground: Habitat found in tropical & sub-tropical coasts

Areas of high biodiversityLack of oxygen due to the permanently water logged nature of the ecosystem, and has a huge amount of salt as a result of the sea waterMangrove- 3 main zones:

Red mangroves- found closest to the coast & are permanently water logged so home to mainly aquatic species

Black mangroves- more protected from erosion & coastal processes & only water logged for a short period of time, plants have pneumatophores in order to get the maximum amount of water and oxygen

White/ grey mangroves- furthest inland & least able to survive when waterlogged

Provide- firewood, medicine, food, construction materials. Stabilise sediment, natural barriers against wind and disturbance on the shore. Home to variety of organisms also tourism

Threats: Clearing, overharvesting, river changes, overfishing, destruction of coral reefs, pollution, climate change

Solutions: Mangroves for the future- uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem in recognition of the destruction caused to mangroves by the tsunami, MFF inclusive of all coastal ecosystems.Long-term- based on identified needs and priorities for long-term sustainable coastal ecosystem management. Priorities emerged from extensive consultations with over 200 individuals and 160 institutions involved in coastal management in the Indian Ocean Region

Name: The Korup ProjectBackground: Ecosystem management strategy for an area of TRF in Cameroon (LEDC)Players: Cameroon National government, WWF (supports scheme), Local/ Indigenous populationsScheme: Ban some traditional practices e.g. hunting

People hunting/ chopping down trees relocation of locals support farming practices- Agroforestry. Provide services- schools, medical support, transport, jobs- ecotourismPeople are moving to urban areas- Govt want to stop this

Name: Fall of the Soviet UnionEconomy under communism was inefficient, System was too centralised- too much state controlCost of the military- cold warAfghanistan- Russian military strugglesChange in leadership- less hard line communist GorbachorReformerGlasnot/ Peristroika- Openness & ChangeNationalist frustrations grew 1990- political uphearal- communists fallUSSR breaks up- end (for a while?) of a superpowerBreak away republics become independent states- Russia left as rump of the old countryRussia’s economy declines as does its military & internet influence Soviet Union (Superpower)Russia (Regional power

Since thenRussia, although theoretically democratic- re-established as strong, central gov (Putin)Crushed further disintegration of Russian state (Chechnya) (Despite world condemnation)

1. Use their vast energy reserves as political levers- influence in EU, forging links with China2. Russia also strengthens its influence in Former Soviet republics esp Belarus, Ukraine, Maldover3. War with Georgia- tech about regions of Georgia that wanted independence/ close links with Russia, really

about Russia stopping Georgia moving into Western Sphere of InfluenceRussians Foreign policy becoming more Anti-American Stronger links with Tehran/ Iran & China

Korup National Park

Relocated villages

Forest reserves- secondary cons. areas

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: World Biosphere ConceptProblem: Maintaining & conserving biodiversitySolution: Aims to:

Conserve most important biological resourcesDevelop environmentally sound economic growthSupport research, monitoring, education & information exchange related to conservation issues

3 interrelated zones- Core- legally protected from activity that would adversely effect its featuresBuffer- adjacent managed use area

Transition- larger, larger region in which local residents, cultural groups etc work together to link conservation & economic development guided by the cultural values of the local community

Evaluation: +ve- Internationally recognised Work co-operatively Part of an international network Access to centrally held data for decision making

-ve- Some countries do not have finances to fully monitor or manage Pressure from development may be difficult to control

Example: Wuyishan (China)

Name: Rise & fall of the British Empire1750 Growth of Global trade:

1. Maritime nation2. Strong navy3. Established colonies in America4. Leadership of industrial revolution5. Capitalist/ Entrepreneurial system

East India Company, Hudson bay company1805/1815 Trafalgar- establishes primacy of Royal Navy (1805)

Waterloo- defeat major power- France (1815)1820’s/30s Full imperial global strategy

Colonies established for trade push for AfricaColonies established for settlement Canada/ Australia

1901 Empire & power at its height, many in Britain believe in Britain’s god given right to rule the worldBoer war

1914 WW1- V costly- people & economy1939-45 WWII- bankrupts UK:

1. Empire too costly2. Nationalist uprising (Ghandi)3. Difficult moral position4. Labour Government

1956 Suez Crisis1973 UK joins E.E.C (EU)

Name: The role of superpowersPre 1945 (Direct) Post 1945 (Indirect models- USA/ USSR)Dominant model- Imperial colonial model (e.g. British Empire)

1. European power gains political control over a region (often after short colonial war)

2. Establish direct power. Put in place a colonial administration

3. Enables European companies & money to exploit the resources & export wealth back to mother country

USA- historically has been anti colonial/ anti imperialist (Monroe Doctrine)USSR- Politically opposed to oppression of workersIn Africa- USA especially supports political independence1960’s- many new “independent” countries appearIn reality these new colonies are not economically independent Neo-colonialismNew LEDCs- trapped in producing limited range of primary productsNew LEDCs become economically dependent on MEDCs, Large TNCsNew LEDCs became dependent on aid and crippled by debt

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: Comparing History of USA/ USSR (Russia)Year USA USSR/ Russia Year1776 US Declaration of Independence

Expansion WestwardsLouisiana purchaseWars with Mexico

Imperial RussiaRussian expansion to W&S

1750

1823 Munroe Doctrine (hands off the Americas)

1850 Transcontinental power Transcontinental powerWealth through pop & resourcesRussia consolidates empireHas influence against Ottoman Empire

1850

1900 Rapid growth in pop, industrialisation- capitalist system

Communist revolutionChaos & loss of lives/ Territory

1917

1914 US stays out of WW1 until the last year. Period of economic growth

Stalin- 5 year plans Rapid industrialisation & modernisation at cost

1920s

1945 US in war footing huge increase in productivity Economic & military super powerNuclear weapons

After great losses USSR defeats Nazi Germany, controls E Europe

1945

1950s/ 1980s

Scramble to impose ideologies- Korea 1950s, Vietnam & Cuba 1960s-1970s

Name: Theories relating to Superpower DevelopmentTheory Example InfoDependency Theory

Marxist pers. India?Growth of European Empires of 19th C

Slight differences in power soon become exaggerated as strong exploit weakRich exploit poor“Development of underdevelopment”

World Systems Theory

Wallerstein 1974China?

Theory takes the whole world as a linked single economic unitAll part of a broad capitalist systemFeudalCommunist CAPITALISTIn the system there is:

1. Global market2. Separate countries- allow political & economical competition3. 3 tiers- Core: MEDCs, Semiperiphery: NICs/ BRICs, Periphery-

LEDCs

Cycles of growth & stagnation- 1920s Growth, 1980s GrowthDifferent cycles different times/ magnitudes e.g. Kodrateiff cycle (every 50-60 years)Theory allows for shifts in power during times of stagnation2008-2010 global eco crisis- China has emerged as an economic superpower- huge manufacturing, huge surplus

Modernisation theory

Outdated European advances were the global way forward and would spread across the world because they were better

Social Darwinism

(Nazism?) Survival of the fittest(outdated and regarded as racist & imperialist nonsense)

Name: RussiaControl over gas supplies- political power over clients- potential to bring back superpower statusMain clients- W Europe/ EU (esp. Germany), Former Soviet republics (esp. Ukraine & Belarus)Claims- Russian gas pricing & conflicts in bill paying- political factors behind them

1. Stifling Ukraine’s desire to join EU/NATO, Destabilising anti Russian gov2. Blunted EU opposition to things like war with Georgia

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: Superpowers & international organisationsOrganisation What they do?UN Replaced League of Nations, 1945

Response to WW2- Forum for peace & discussionUN General Assembly -195 members, 1 member 1 vote. Simple majority passes a resolution- no real force behind itUN Security Council (real power)- 5 permanent members- UK, China, France, USA, Russia (veto powers). 10 non-permanent members. This has ability to:

1. Impose sanctions2. Bring individuals to court- international justice3. Military action (UN & member countries)

UAA has at times used the UN as an instrument of power1. Support for Taiwan (until 1973, the official China)2. Korean war officially UN forces V N. Communists3. Mid East- Many Arab states see a pro Israel bias supported by USA

Changes?1. 1973- China falls out with USSR, USA makes political moves towards China. China

(communist) gets UN seat2. Today- pressure to change permanent members. UK & France with EU, Moves to give

India a seatNATO- North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Set up 1949- support and help W. European economies & governmentsAlso a military allianceWar saw pact set up in responseNATO allows European bases long term for US military1990s- Soviet Power collapses NATO changes & has a more global outlook, NATO forces in Afghanistan. Umbrella for US intervention

G7 (G8)((G20) Originally a coming together of 7 largest economies (Western Capitalists)Idea- global economy became more interlinked international consensus could solve some problemsUS biggest economy- biggest voiceG8- G7 & Russia- suggests that Russia is re-emerging as a global power. Control of energy resources are influentialG20- Includes many of the new economies

EU Started as trading bloc- mainly France & Germany (1954) Aimed to: Economically strengthen shattered European economies Use economies to politically link the two nations

In time the union grew & included most of W. Europe Today- EU larger economy & pop than USAContinued integration United states of EuropeCan be seen currently-

Single economic market Single currency European parliament European President Flag Anthem

Future- Army, foreign policy, single state, UN seat?Many characteristics of a superpowerToday natural interests far of

IMF Founded 1944- USAFund to support shattered economies- prevent poverty/ communismVoting rotes on IMF related to contributionsUSA/ W Europe most most funds to schemes that tie in with Capitalist liberal democracy

World Bank 1944- 1st loan to France1960s-80s financed a lot of big projects in 3rd World- Env impacts, control debt

Name: Cultural superpowersOn back of eco, pol, military cultural imperialismDirect- language, curriculum e.g. British EmpireIndirect- TV, film, music, fashion e.g. USA today. Products & brandsBrands- often greater Kudos abroad e.g. Levis, McdonaldsElectronic/ digital world Electronic colonialismSOFT POWERBehind brands & TV- ideas & belief systems- moving towards global norms- Global cultureDemocracy? Freedom Liberal values- Gender, SexualityGood: Cultures benefit infusions of new ideas & often customise themBad: Potential loss of cultural diversity

Unit 3 Case Studies

Name: China Since China enabled form economic capitalism (within a communist political system) it has become “the workshop of the world”Communist gov in 1949- kept country separate- economy planned centrally, goods produced for consumption of China’s own people and no private wealth was permitted at all. Gov income- spent on improving health & education- improving life expectancy1986- open door policy in relation to overseas investment1990s- more capitalist ecoStill not pure free-market economy with most of China’s largest companies being either totally or partially state-owned- any profits still reinvested or ploughe back into state spendingExplosion of goods have given China vast trade surplus with the worldInitially money ploughed into domestic infrastructure & investmentToday- looking outwardDeveloping significant economic & political links- esp with Africa-

Source of raw materials needed by Chinese ind Source of energy

Trade between Africa- $3 billion 95, $33 billion 2005, $60 billion 2010?Africa:

European interest declined since imperial times US/ USSR have not given it a priority since the end of the cold war

China very attractive partner to many African govs- Neocolonial/ exploitative legacy Trade comes with sweeteners- offering to improve infrastructure, a different political model- strong

economy run by a strong, central gov (1 part state) Also military support e.g. Chinese defending Sudanese pipelines & political support blocking Sanctions against Sudan for links to Darfer Genocide

Many TNCs cannot compete with Chinese packageLargest sustained GDP growth in historyChina- Neo-colonial power??Future- China also supports technology transfer- gives access to LEDCs in Africa- China is diversifying & buying up European & US industriesEarly 1980s- economy doubled every 8 yearsPublic spending health & education- health literate & skilled workforceGrowth- great social cost 20% pop living on less than $1 a dayChild labour Human rightsWorld’s largest polluter

Name: Superpowers FutureArea Costs BenefitsEnergy Eco Greater demand increase prices Good for suppliers Russia & Arab states

(OPEC)Soc Cons. for the poor Growing wealth access to energy increase in

quality of lifeEnv Increased CO2 despite int agreem

China & India- dependence on coal- Climate change (global), Acid Rain (ChinaWater)Env damage- open cast mining, tar sands (Gulf of Mexico)

Forcing the hand & stimulating search for alternate source of energyDemand/ supply- security

Water Eco (price)- in some places e.g. SW USA- price becoming a break on development

Soc Impacts on native/ indigenous peoples Native Americans, Kurds in Turkey, Rural communities in India

Access to clean water increase in some developing nations e.g. India increase QOL & health conditions

Env Water pollution/ destruction aquifers- India, China (River Yangtze)Acid rain, Dam construction- 3 Gorges, Ag pollution biosphere reduction wetlands

Land use

EcoSoc Alleviating poverty, investing wealth in material

gain for people in emerging superpowersEnv Growing wealth increased demand for

food- China meat demand X 2 in 15 yearsFood prices have gone up globally- impacts on poor, pressure to grow more- exp animal feed- soya in BrazilMore destruction natural biomes goes for all resources- wood, minerals

Unit 3 Case Studies

Views on Development The Rostow Model

Study of 15 countries- mainly European. Suggested all countries had potential to break cycle of poverty, develop through 5 stages.

Traditional society: subsistence economy based on farming with limited technology/ capitol to developPreconditions to take off: often injection of external help- industries will develop & growth of infrastructure. Often single industry will dominate (UK-1750)Take off to maturity: many industries grow, airports & roads are built. Political & social changes. Farming will decline. Investment or borrowing increases (UK-1820)Drive to maturity: growth self-sustaining. Multiplier effects in similar industry types. Rapid urbanisation (UK-1850)High mass consumption: Rapid Expansion of tertiary services, employment in service industries grow, manufacturing decline (UK-1940)

Based on a limited number of countries within a small geographical rangeAlthough capitol is needed traditionaloften brings debt repaymentsstop country developingUnderestimates impact of colonialism

Views on Development Friedmans Core & Periphery modelShows- some areas become more eco developed than others & why some regions are wealthier than othersCan be applied on global scale & looking at individual countries

Views on Development The development cableDevelopment like an electric cable- power to drive countries from primitive to more advanced statesCore economic growth, technology & enterpriseOuter- different aspects eco growthCross-section- reveals stage of development

Views on Development The Development pathwayDevelopment can also be seen as a pathwayCountries develop at different speeds & may cluster at different pointsHIPC- Heavily indebted poor countries, FCCs- Former communist countries, RICs- Recently industrialising countries

Views on DevelopmentCountries that were 1st to industrialise gained momentum & strength- allowed them to develop their resources & colonise new lands

Views on DevelopmentEvolution of trade blocs to strengthen economies e.g. EU

Views on Development Economic GlobalisationThe growing control of economies of countries by a range of TNCs (link to Dependency theory)Global interdependence- all economies depend on goods & services from one another

Views on Development The dependency theoryThat keeps LEDCs poor, dominated by MEDCs- form of Neo- colonialism?

LLEDC (HIPC) LEDC FCCs RICs OPECs NICs MEDCs

Unit 3 Case Studies

Debt: Uganda- HIPCHow?

Solution? Cancelling debts- HIPC initiative with 2 conditions:1) The government of each countries had to demonstrate good financial management & a

lack of corruption2) The money saved had to be spent on poverty reduction, education & health care

2008- 17/38 countries met conditions for debt relief0 received total of US$300 billion, little chance they will be able to pay back- war, natural disasters.IMF still unwilling to support many countries due to politics

Impacts of cancellation:

Uganda: Spending on public services has risen by 20% overall including 40% extra being spent on

education and 70% on healthcare part of which was abolishing fees for basic healthcare The introduction of free primary schooling- particularly benefited girls. 5 million extra

children have begun to attend school, with enrolment rates for primary schooling heavily increasing from 62.3% to 92% for girls and 94% for boys between 2000-2006. Before debt relief, there were 20% fewer girls than boy’s in primary school- now the numbers are almost even

Nearly 10% of the population (2.2 million people)- access to clean water. Fetching water is usually down to the women/ girls and was often a reason for the girls not going to school

G8 Nations Lose all of the money owed to them by the HIPC’s which had their debt cancelled- effect

on their economy Increase trade between countries, indebt increase trading prices which will affect the

G8 nations economy Countries heavily indebted are- politically unstable. This then means that they may cause

problems for the G8 countries on both a national and an international scale Now debating whether more countries should be added to the list-

Evaluation Risks AdvantagesReliant on debt cancellation? The newly added countries may be able to improve

as Uganda has (see above)New loans may be needed just as debt is being cut; meaning they are no better off

are more likely to trade with those G8 countries which have cancelled the debt

Governments may have kept unreliable records of debts- accurate repayments? (Corruption)

Less risk of political unrest

Current economic state, cancellation of debts could have detrimental effects on the G8 country’s economies- future aid?

Giving the countries a chance to develop as we have been able to

In the 1970's OPEC raised the price of oil twice- increasing its

members earnings

OPEC countries backed these increased earnings in Western

banks

Banks then lent this money out to developing countries

By the 1980's, global interest rates had more than doubled-

massively increasing the repayments needed

Uganda found itself unable to meet its debt repayments so the

unpaid interest was added to the original loan amounts

Most developing countries in similar situation SAP's set up by

the IMF

Cuts imposed on government spending in return for SAPs,

without IMF approval, no country would get furthur credi- SAPs then become compulsary

Biggest government budget items in Uganda health & education- IMF cutbacks

affected both- greatest impact on the poor late 1980's- early

1990's

Unit 3 Case Studies

Role of Debt in Development Gap SAPs- reschecualing loans in order to try and make them more affordable- in return IMF imposed cuts on

government budgets & spending. Without approval of IMF- no country will get further credit therefore making SAPs compulsory Many developing countries biggest cuts in health & education- 2 of the biggest factors in development- major indicators

Debt political unrestmoney lent to corrupt leaders/ dictatorships

Unit 3 Case Studies

Key PlayersUN World Bank Group 5 international organisations- make leveraged loans- generally just International bank for

reconstruction & development, International development agency. Focused on developing: Human development, agriculture & rural development, environmental protection, infrastructure, governanceProvide loans at preferential rates to member countries & grants to poorest countriesFor specific projects- linked to wider policy changesActivities of IFC & MIGA- investment in private sector & insurance

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

Supervise & liberalise world tradeDeals with regulation of trade between participating countriesProvides framework for negotiating & formulating trade agreementsDispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants adherence to WTO agreements

NGOs (Grass Roots) Route to alternative development- more democratic, efficient & sustainableNew relationships between community organisations & other institutions developedEmployment- encouraging participating by local people in development through activitiesOften meant little real difference in policy making or planning at local communitiesIndividuals- “agents of their own development”Creating power among local communities- education & promotion of understandingse.g. Wateraid- establish sustainable water supplies & latrines close to home. Influence govs water and sanitation policies to serve the interest of vulnerable people & to ensure water & sanitation are prioritised in poverty reduction plans

IMF Overseas global financial system- following ec policies of its member countriesObj- stabilising international exchange rates & facilitating development through enforcement of liberalising economic policies on other countries as a condition for loans, restructuring or aid. Offers leveraged loans

Unit 3 Case Studies

Role of Trade in Development Gap USA subsidies Mali cotton trade Developing worldoften focused on 1 or 2 main commoditiessubjective to global $ fluctuations Mechanisation in developed worldcannot be afforded in developing countries therefore cannot

keep up Inadequate infrastructure- Uganda is landlocked Protectionism- thinking of yourself e.g. trade limits, subsidies Structural Adjustment Packages Impact of Fair Trade Trading Blocs- LEDCs not generally part of. EU has subsidies Climate- many LEDCs hot dry climates limit growth Fertiliser costs often high LEDCs cannot afford

Unit 3 Case Studies

Mali Cotton TradeBackground: Western Africa, area over 1,240,000km pop more 14 mil

GDP just $1,200 per capita 2009- v poorOne of the worlds biggest cotton producers- 75% income

Factors limiting countries cotton industry:

Rainfall scarceLack techHigh fertiliser pricesHigh volatility in cotton futures marketSinking export demandIncreased comp from polyestersEnvironmental sustainabilityAmerican subsidies- large subsidies to American farmers- although they got given $37.7 million in USAID, lost $43 million due to subsidies. Main thing holding them back

Solution: Oxfam working for fairer trade rules- helping give cotton producers a say- petition5 year programme aiming to increase income and livelihood securityAlso helping in other areas e.g. rural development projects

Unit 3 Case Studies

MDG Global targets- adopted by UN 2000 Aiming to reduce global poverty by 50% by 2015 Mixed progress- Asia: on target, Africa not until 2147 at current rate of progress

Target Aims UgandaEradicate Extreme Poverty & Hunger

Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day

Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people

Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger

Uganda is on its way to achieving this goal, and it is very likely that it will do so with 22.8% of Children under 5 moderately or severely underweight (2001) compared to 25.5% in 1995

Achieve Universal Primary Education

Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling

Uganda is on its way to achieving this goal, and it is very likely that it will do so with literacy of the total population being 66.8% with male’s having 76.8% and females at 57.7% (2002 census)

Promote gender equality and empower women

Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015

females are showing an increasing rate of literacy. In addition to this, Uganda has 29.8% of seats held by women in national parliament (2007) which is up from 17.8% in 2001

Reduce Child Mortality

Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate

Off track to reaching this aim. 1990 children under five mortality rate per 1,000 live births was160, with it only increasing to 134 in 2006, no. of children at one year old immunised against measles 52% in 1990 to 82% in 2006.

Improve maternal health

Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio

Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health

Off track maternal mortality rate- 1,200 per 10,000 live births to 550 between 1990 and 2005. In order to achieve the goal this figure needs to be reduced to 300. Although this is highly unlikely by 2015, it is likely that in the not too distant future they will reach their first aim.

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS

Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it

PossTuberculosis prevalence rate per 100,000 population has gone from 295.8 in 1990 to 560.9 in 2006. Percentage of people living with HIV aged 15-49, with the figure going down from 7.9% to 5.4%, these figures do suggest that Uganda is reversing the spread of HIV, suggesting it is on the way to meeting the first aim of this goal.

Ensure Environmental Sustainability

Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources

Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss

Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation

By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers

PossLand area covered by forest has gone down from 25% in 1990 to 18.4% in 2005 proportion of the population using improved water sources which has gone up from 43% in 1990 to 64% in 2006, CO2 emissions- 0.0456 to 0.0651 tons of CO2 per capita- minimal in comparison to developed countries such as the UK, at 9.7934 in 2004.

Develop a Global Partnership for Development

not significant enough data to show whether Uganda is on its way to reaching the goal, however we can see that the internet users per 100 of a population has gone up significantly from 0.72 in 2004 to 5.02 in 2006, suggesting that Uganda is expanding its internet

Unit 3 Case Studies

MegacitiesCity pop 10 million +1950s- 86, 2008- 400+Urban population rising worldwideBecoming problematic- led to an increase in slums- poor living conditions- sanitation, malnutritionLagos- biggest city in Nigeria 2nd largest & fastest growing in Africa wages are so low hard to calculate how people surviveUnemployment in young men 20% crime & drugsInformal economy- 60%Differences between city

South Africa & ApartheidBackground: Still wide disparities between white & black people

Apartheid- 1948-1994ANC (African National Congress) gov led protests against apartheid 1950 onFirst free fair elections- 1994- election of 1st black majority govEven today protests against the ANC by Black SA’s

Impacts of changes: High inequalities within country stillInequalities in SA become even worse due to:Loss of jobs & unemployment- labour intensive jobs were not created. Black Africans mainly unskilled 50% SA pop under 18 pressure on economyEven within ethnic groups there are still disparitiesCuts in health spendingworsened impact of HIV/AIDSHigher rate of violent crimePoor are getting poorerExposure to global market has affected food prices, which were previously subsidisedLiberalisation of the economy- wealthy white more opportunitiesRegional disparities not purely ethnic

BangaloreBackground: Huge differences of culture within the city ( conflict)

Hub of new technology- 40% in IT industry, also Banking/ Finance/ Knowledge industries bigOutsourcingWhy?Highly educated large workforceDesignated areas i.e. electronic city- tax breaksIncrease in home grown countries

Impacts People have become wealthier- increase in affluence: Increased demand for housing Increase in car show rooms (luxury) Shopping malls Cafes/ restaurants Taxi firms

India’s caste system- still exists today & there are large disparities between rich & poor.Still many jobless Dalits (those with the lowest status)- not only discrimination against Dalits but also within them

Future Housing-where to be built? How many? Cost?Public transport?- needs improving to keep up with growthEnergy?- how can it be providedAirport expanded?- to meet volume of international trafficPlanning for further but different growth. Gov plans to decentralise- building new tourism, green field sitesKeen to develop labour intensive sectors & dispersing IT jobs to other cities

Addressing the Development GapFree/ Fair tradeInvestmentAppropriate aidHelping to rule out political corruptionEducationDebt relief

Types of Aid

Unit 3 Case Studies

Type Positives NegativesBilateral Aid

Governments- poorer nationsFor development projects or emergency

Investment for projects & developmentHelps expand infrastructureCan directly support eco, soc, env policies can result in successful programmes

“tied aid”Inappropriate tech may be givenMay not help those who need itSchemes- damage envUnreliable?Embezzlement

Multilateral Through international institutes e.g. World Bank

UNICEF- aims to build protective environment for children & provide them with health & educationFAO- leads international efforts to eliminate hunger (and bilateral +ves)

“tied aid”- with conditionsBig business reaps benefits- poor left sinking in their wakeSAPs- can have –ve effects- reduced spending on health/ education

NGO Under 10% of all aid collected by NGOsOccasionally used for emergency aid, mainly long term

Long-term:Dealing with root causesHealth programmes- maintain basic health facilities- eradicating malaria & other disordersFood production, water supplies educationTechnical assistance e.g. training farmers to increase efficiency & prevent soil erosionShort term:Helping refugees to rebuild homes & provide farming equipmentself sufficientMedical & sanitation supplies

Not necessarily prioritising?Admin costsCorruption against politicians

Unit 3 Case Studies

Distribution of Technology: FarmingFarming seen sig changes in recent years due to tech developments:

High-tech machinery GM crops?

GM Crops Foods produced by altering the DNA of seeds by the process of genetic engineeringNA highest usage GM (sp. USA) then Argentina, Brazil, China. Much less found in the centreEurope/Africa/northern SA/AsiaAfrica- unable to afford tech as money going on health/education, heavily indebtEurope- public perception

Advances in tech made in developing countriesCARFOCAL, Andean Highlands, Columbia

Farming community is working with scientists to experiment with high-tech innovations to encourage Latin American farmers to adopt high-tech farming practices“Local agricultural research committee” intro led to mini-boom in maize cultivationSuccess of this NGO schemelab made technological advances in maize selection & production been shared with 114 farming families.Encouraged poor farmers to adopt new technology in the way they farm their land

Agro-technology park, Gannoruwa, Sri Lanka

State of the art tech complexensure the latest recommendations in farming tech are used in Sri LankaLeading research into rice development in Sri Lanka- inc new improved & hybrid varieties & also organising their release for general cultivationAlso houses a no of technological research gardens, food tech centre

Distribution of Technology: TelecommunicationsThe internet- not economically viable everywhere e.g. Africa- many parts not available, if it is- expensiveUganda highest cost- $2300 each month (for slow speeds), Kenya-$500 (has had assistance from WB)Ugandan Communications Commissions aims to develop ICT in “critical mass” as India has done.Cable project in Eastern Africa which is being funded by the development Bank of SA & the World Bank aims to increase internet access

Distribution of Technology: High-speed transportEssential part of economic developmeny & env planning fast, reliable, safeDevelopments in Europe

Took of in sept 81, French train a Grande Vitesse (TGV) started service- ParisLyonToday 3000km high-speed across Europe, 920 trains more than 100 million passengers a yearPlans to build additional 6000km high speed lines by 2020Expected to lead to the creation of Fleets of trains & railway hubs

Developments in Africa

Due to begin in Morocco 2013- £1.5 billion high speed line linking Northern Tangier to commercial capitol, Casa BlancaDrastically cut journey timesOct 2007- Mor. & France signed an agreement to allow French companies to design, build, operate & maintain the high-speed linkTech for this project same as in TGVMake Mor. 1st African country to have a high speed rail infrastructure to match Europe’sAlgeria also has plans to introduce high speed railway

Technological Development

How it works Available to whom? Reasons that may prevent access

New HIV Drug trials in the UK, Jan 2008

New drug- blocks an enzyme that is essential for HIV to be able to replicate itself

Approx 73,000 HIV patients in the UK- potential as is only a trial

Is currently only a trial- may not passCost?

Using ICT to track HIV treatment in research poor countries

Info-management tech which link info between different aid agencies working in Africa

Aimed for many lives to be saved through direct care & preventive care programmes

Still being developed Poor infrastructure may prove a problem

Nanoparticle tech. Feb ‘08

Slow release drug that can be injected once a month using nano-particle tech

Aid Agencies? Still being developed- so not currently available, cost?

Oral Vaccine First oral HIV vaccine stems from research that was used to produce an oral vaccine for anthrax & plague

Aid agencies? Still being developed- so not currently available, cost?

Eliminating HIV from semen

Scientists in Japan developed process that “washes” semen Can then be used in IVF

Hope for those couples who wish to start a family but have HIV +ve male partner

Still being developed- so not currently available, cost?

HIV-free breast milk Involves flash-treating infected milk which inactivates the virus simply involves heating a glass jar of expressed milk in a pan of water over a flame/ burner

HIV +ve mothers Use in poor countries with high HIV rates will be easily used as much simpler than previous methods

Should be few reasons, but poor infrastructure may pose a problem

Unit 3 Case Studies

Reasons for limited access Politics & CultureNorth Korea “Blackened” country, impoverished where televisions & radios are hard wired to

receive government controlled frequenciesCell phones banned in 2004Most censored countryAlso have internet restrictedHandful of elite have access to the wider webAny information leaked- devastatingUnknown how will change as tech develops

Amish Population Led to much controversyRecent developments led to divisions within the community“techno-selectives”- devise technologies that fit within their self-imposed limits“old order”- horse & buggy“New order”- telephones & powered farm equipment not public electricity“Beachy Amish”- permit both public electricity & cars“we don’t want to stop progress, we just want to slow it down”

Reasons for inequality of access to technologyWealth Cost barriers- new tech is expensive & its producers need to cover R&D costsInfrastructure Cost of developing necessary infrastructure- benefits of leapfroggingCulture/ Religion “techno-selective” some religious groups beliefs effect access e.g. Catholicismcondoms/

contraceptionJehovah- blood transfusions

Education Needs to be increased investment in HE to ensure economic growthHighly skilled labour force neededChina seeing surge in uni appsIndustrialised countries- responsibility to finance, the expansion of Africa’s university application to make up for Africa’s brain drain

Patent Laws Exclusive rights of ownership countries may not have the ability to invent as quickly as they can adopt & learn new technologies

Public opposition

GM crops opposition in the UKPublic perception of nuclear power

Environmental Determinism

“at the mercy of nature” e.g. climate harnessing use of renewable energy

Resources Availability of raw materialsPolitics Some political leaders feel they will be undermined if their people have access to info on the

internet- a means of control e.g. North KoreaGEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Mobile phones in Afghanistan Due to conflict in Afghanistan since the Russian invasion of 1979 the country is littered with landmines & unexploded bombsMeant that laying/maintaining landline cables is dangerousTerrain also makes it challengingAlso security issues from ongoing conflictLed to Roshar (countries largest telephone provider) leapfrogging fixed telephone lines straight to mobile phones- much cheaper & safer2008- Roshan 2 million mobile sub. 43% total market72% Afghans now covered by mobile signals, just 1% access to fixed landlinesMakes it much easier to order products esp in rural areas

DDT pesticide Positive NegativeEnvironmental Use as agricultural insecticide Threat to wildlife part birds & wide range of

animals & insectsPersistent organic pollutant- extremely hydrophobic, strongly absorbed by soils- quickly absorbed by organisms in aquatic ecosystems

EconomicSocial Used to control mosquitoes spreading

malaria & lice transmitting typhus in second half WW2

May cause cancer, diabetesModerately toxicReproductive consequences- semen levels, early pregnancy loss

Unit 3 Case Studies

GM crops e.g. Golden rice

Positive Negative

Environmental Disease-resistant seedsHigher yielding cropsHerbicide-tolerant varieties

Long term effects not yet been fully tested- impossible to know what long term env effects there may beIf GM crops escape into the wild and mix with non-GM crops, there is no knowing how this might affect plant & animal lifeMay take 5 years before trial crops can be devised to suit local climatesRequire herbicides to develop fullypollution

Economic Cost?Social Help to feed ever-growing population

Could remove allergens from foodsFat-free foodsAlter composition of fruit/ vegetables- tackle cancer or heart diseaseGolden rice- helps with vit A deficiency

Could be effects on the health of those eating the cropsStill does not contain enough vit AMay discourage children to eat balanced diet

Developed 1999 at Institute of Plant Sciences in Switzerland to contain added Vitamin A through the process of GMDNA from Daffodil plant & form of soil bacteriarice plantPurpose to tackle issue of Vitamin A deficiency in children across the world- mainly in areas where rice is main foodSimple & cheap way of providing extra vitamin A- thought to be more reliable than through vitamin supplements or trying to promote eating of green vegetables

Issues of externalities of technologyPollution sink Many techs produce externalities that are not accounted for e.g. Carbon dioxide from burning

fossil fuelsAtmosphere treated as “pollution sink”- assumed it was large enough to copeIssues of the hole in the ozone layer & reducing “Living Planet Index” suggests it can’t

Polluter pays principle

Those that cause the pollution should bare the economic cost of the damage they are doing to the env2 ways:

1) Command & control- new technologies are introduced to limit pollution e.g. catalytic converters

2) Market-based- govs introduce pollution taxes, carbon trading permits & produce labelling

The Car industry Many govs have imposed penalties on polluters e.g. car drivers have to pay vehicle excise duty (VED) bands based on the amount of CO2 a vehicle emitsExpected to increase

Indian Car sales boom

Tata Nano car- £1250- cheapest new car in worldDemands for up to 1 mill cars each yearIndian car ownership expected to be more than Japan by 2017Externalities:

In 2004 India released 266 million tons of carbon= 4th largest CO2 emitting country Concerns new Tata Nano does not meet current European emission standards & will

increase the CO2 emissions into the atmosphere

Impacts of intermediate/ appropriate technology with hi-tech mega projects- ViewsPessimist- Malthus Population growth at geometric growth (2,4,8,16,32....)

Food protection increased at arithmetic growth (1,2,3,4,5....)Leading to starvation as people outweigh food

Optimist- Boserup Possible to overcome environmental limits through culture & technologyPopulation increase is the main factor driving technological change & creating a better world for many more people

Technology definitionsIntermediate technology Relatively low cost, usually labour intensive technology that can be mastered by local

people, especially in the developing world

Mobile phones in other areasMany developing countries now developing mobile networks2006- 68% mobile subscribers in developing countriesAllow them to avoid need for expensive cabled landlinesAlso other examples:China Laying of countries infrastructure of cable landlines too slow to keep up with demand for better

communication & eco growthLed to increased usage of mobile phones

Kenya Low cost mobile telephone service (M-Pesa) allows Kenyans to send & receive money via textRemoves need to travel long distances

Unit 3 Case Studies

Appropriate technology Technology that suits the level of income, skills & needs of the local peopleMega projects Looks to develop a high-income consumer economy through large-scale projects

such as dams, airports etc

Ethiopia’s dam optionsBackground Considered one of the poorest countries in the world

Issues of drought- huge water potential not being usedVariety of technology- low-tech- harvesting the rain, high tech- Tekeze dam & intermediate tech- small dams97.5% of electricity produced in 2005- hydro-electricWhen drought struck lack of electricityLack of water in rural areas & lack of bottled water in urban areas (as bottled water require a lot of electricity)World Bank developed a Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy to help Ethiopia to develop a water storage capacity to provide year round access to waterLed to a range of strategies

Solution’s Low tech solution- harvesting the rain- Small pits are dug and money is borrowed to pay for a blue plastic sheet to line it. This pit is then able to hold around 60m3 of water which will help save crops if the rains fail.High tech solution- Tekeze Dam- This hydro-electric project aims to hold back 9 billion m3 of water that can be used to irrigate large amounts of land, in addition to generating renewable energy for the region.Intermediate Technology- small dams- Small dams built by locals made from local builders are able to provide families with irrigated land which can then be used to ensure that their crops do not fail. In this case the families are each given ¼ of a hectare in addition to fruit tree seedlings and elephant grass which will help to stop the walls eroding away. This scheme has helped to provide food security for the locals of Adis Nifas.

EvaluationSocial impacts Economic impacts Environmental impacts

Low tech solution- harvesting the rain

Malaria (from mosquitoes which have gathered around the pits)The pit will hold 60m3 of water which will help to save crops if the rains failedHelps to improve the water supply for Ethiopia’s rural poor

Many farmers have been left with debts that they are unable to repay (also social)

The pits have become a breeding ground for mosquitoes

High tech solution- Tekeze Dam

The dam will hold back 9 billion m3 of water that will be used to irrigate 60 000 hectares of land, as well as generate electricityOnce complete, the project will supply electricity to Ethiopia’s national grid as it will provide 300 megawatts of electricity

The cost of the dam is estimated to be $224 million and when finished it will be the 10th hydro-electric power plant in Ethiopia500 Chinese expatriates (as the contract is held by a Chinese company) are working on the dam as well as 2000 EthiopiansAny excess electricity will be sold to neighbouring countries in order to earn much needed foreign currency

As it is a hydro-electric power plant, it will mean that it is producing a renewable type of power meaning reduced CO2 emissions.Electricity pylons that stretch 105km have been built to connect the dam to the regional capitol, Mek’ele

Intermediate Technology- small dams

The reservoir is close to the water and manages to retain water for most of the year, even through the dry seasonEach family in the village has been given a quarter of a hectare of irrigated land, as well as fruit tree seedlings and elephant grass to plant into the earth walls that divide up the fields (help to prevent the walls from eroding away)The irrigated areas have now provided food security for the locals

The Relief Society for Tigray provided the money and machinery for the project, meaning little economic impact for the localsThe dam was built by local people (with support from the Relief Society for Tigray) who supplied the labour, as well as being built from local materials

There is little environmental impact due to the small scale of the project, however mosquitoes may gather at the site

Unit 3 Case Studies

Role of technology in global issues: Climate ChangeBio-engineering: Designing things based on natureTechnological solutions to global warming:Giant sunshade for the earth 16 trillion floating disks to reflect solar energyIron fertilisation of the oceans Encourages blooms of planktonremove excess CO2

Artificial volcano Sulphur in large amounts causes enhanced reflection of solar radiation into space- global cooling

Artificial trees Carbon capture via limewater coating to collect the CO2

Carbon capture technology e.g. Artificial trees 2 aspects- collecting the carbon & then storing it Possible to collect some CO2 as it is emitted, but not all e.g. not from cars (would require huge

storage tanks) Alternative- to capture in the atmosphere Artificial tree- like a filter capturing CO2 from wind Coating of limewater used on slats to collect CO2 then form limestone which would need

removing regularly Key issue- what would be done with the carbon once collected? Prototype being built at great cost Ion exchange membrane- recent- CO2 can then be pumped into greenhouses to enhance plant

growth

Capital cities response to flooding1) LondonWhy? Home to 7 million people, high pop density

Major centre for international business & commerce6th largest economy in worldBuilt on floodplain along tidal estuary- ThamesStrom surge funnel of estuaryfloodingClimate changeTilting of Britain post glacial rebound

Solution Pre-barrier, building higher & stronger river walls/ embankmentsAfter number of events including 1928 Thames river flood- 14 people died, North Sea flood 1953- 307 deaths, £50m damage (£5bn at today’s costs)Thames barrier- world’s largest moveable flood barrier spanning 520m across the Thames at Woolwich9 concrete islands- 6 openings for vessels to pass through between them as well as 4 smaller openings when no flood risk

Future? Due to increased risk- Thames 2100 project set up- results of detailed assessment and appraisal of options available to manage flood risk, economic & env costs/ impactsRecommendations on what should be done- given to DEFRA for them to decide

2) DhakaWhy? Capital of Bangladesh- commercial centre of countries economy

Still low average wageVery close to sea level- in floodplain Cyclones frequent in autumnHighly vulnerable to climate change

Solution Dhaka integrated Flood Protection Project DIFPP- set up as part of national flood action plan- result of the disastrous floods that struck Bangladesh that badly affected DHAKAFocused on structural measures e.g. building embankments & levees to hold back floodwatersAims:

To make Dhaka flood free To improve drainage system of Dhaka City To improve overall environmental condition of the city

Money could not be raised for whole project areaDecided to start by protecting the more densely populated western part of the citySeveral schemes, including

o 30km earthen embankment in western side (it can also be used as a roado 13 nos sluices to control water inside and outside of the embankment. When

water level rises above 3.00m pwd then gates are closedo 3 pump houses to pump out accumulated water, when water levels go above

3.50m then pump houses go under operationo 3.8 sheet pile flood wall, 25km slope protection worko 260 ha. Ponding area to retain storm & surface water

Problems Dhaka once again badly flooded- engineering solutions on their own not good enough to protect cityLed to Phase II being introduced, aims this time being to:

Protect the eastern part of Dhaka, which had suffered the most flood damage Start to implement non-structural solutions such as better flood forecasting and

warning, land use planning restrictions, flood zoning and improved emergency responses

Improve coordination between the agencies responsible for flood protection and drainage of the city, which could significantly reduce the flood damage

Still flooded again several times e.g. July 2004London V Similar approach, London still more eco developed put more money in. Dhaka also more

Unit 3 Case Studies

Dhaka geographically isolated Dhaka average wage below £300, London- £627Western Europe tackling CO2 emissions- GermanyIssues High carbon emissions

Large volumes of traffic- central location in EuropeImpacts of high CO2 levels- climate change unusually high winter temperatures causing storms and heavy rain

Solutions 2007- Germany’s gov put plan in place to improve energy efficiency by 3% per year in order to meet EU targetsSchemes include:

Jan 2005- electronic heavy goods vehicle toll system put in place- drivers charged around €0.15 per km

Car sharing schemes Modernizing power stations- Combined HEP stations- trap & reuse heat Jan 2009- taxes based on both CO2 emissions & engine size Plans to subsidize railway network

Success Currently emits more than 1bn tonnes CO2 per year- 6th largest polluterFossil-fuel emissions of CO2 from unified Germany declined 22.3% since 1990 to 215mn tons in 2007Germanys levels meet Kyoto protocol