Understanding the brain: a work in progress. The brain performs an incredible range of functions...
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Understanding the brain: a work in progress
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The brain performs an incredible range of functions
• Controls body functions and motivates us to obtain appropriate resources to maintain life
• Movement• Detect and interpret sensory information and
social cues• Attend to specific things rather than others• Learn and remember information and integrate it
with past knowledge• Guide behaviour through emotional responses • Generate conscious awareness of the external
environment, self and others
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0.5
5
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High speed supercomputers 2000-2010• 2000 IBM ASCI White 7.226 TFLOPS
DoE-Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory USA • 2002 NEC Earth Simulator 35.86 TFLOPS
Earth Simulator Center, Japan • 2004 IBM Blue Gene/L 70.72 TFLOPS DoE/IBM • 2005 136.8 TFLOPS DoE/U.S. National Nuclear
Security, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 280.6 TFLOPS
• 2007/8 478.2 TFLOPS IBM Roadrunner 1.026 PFLOPS DoE-Los Alamos National Laboratory 1.105 PFLOPS
• 2009 Cray Jaguar 1.759 PFLOPS DoE-Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
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IBM Sequoia Supercomputer
20 PFLOPS speed1.6 PFLOPS memory318m296 racks7megawatts
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Neurons
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Neuroglial cellsAstrocytes - anchor neurons to blood vessels and transport of nutrients/ waste. Have receptors, produce growth factors and modulate synaptic transmission. Signal to one another via gap junctions using calcium. Microglia - defence against pathogens and monitor the condition of neurons. Ependymal cells - line the fluid-filled cavities in brain and spinal cord. Produce, transport, and circulate the cerebrospinal fluid. Oligodendrocytes- produce the myelin sheath in the CNS which insulates and protects axons.
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P P
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GluGlu
PresynapticTerminal
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GluGlu
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GLUR
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GPCR
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Growth
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ReceptorGrowth Factor
Receptor
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CREB PathwayCREB Pathway
NeuronNeuron
PLC
TATATATACRECRESRESRE
P Elk1
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Hormones/Neurotransmitters
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The molecular brain!
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Major subdivisions of the brain
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Reticular activating system
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Neural plasticityNeural plasticity
Learning – turning the gain up and the noise down
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Imitating the actions of others (mirror neurons)
Control Autistic
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How is information represented in the brain?
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Advantages/disadvantages of spatial encoding
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pre-stimulus during stimulus
A
B
C
D
DABC
Correlation and pattern changes
Advantages and disadvantages of temporal encoding
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InhaleInhale
5 sec5 sec
247ms247ms
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11 22 33 44
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Combined spatial and temporal encoding
•Most robust solution, allowing brains to be a reasonable size
•Makes it easier to both separate, integrate and decode information
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The Sensory Brain
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Sensory maps - vision
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Sensory maps - hearing
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Somatosensory and motor maps
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The somatosensory homunculus
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Integration of sensory information
• Multisensory brain areas• One sense can influence interpretation of
another one (see a mouth shape the word “bait” and hear the word “gate”, you think you hear “date”) – McGurk Illusion
• Facial expressions, even if not consciously perceived, modify the perception of emotion in the voice of the speaker
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The brain as an interpreter
Illusions
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Synaesthesia
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Synaesthesia
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Synaesthesia
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Synaesthesia
We may all start offexperiencing the world through synaesthesia
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Neural encoding of faces
"Who are you?", "how do you feel?"
"do i like you"?” Answers in <300
milliseconds!
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Face processing in the brain
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Face processing in the brain
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Single cell vs population encoding
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Quian-Quiroga et al (2005) Nature
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Andrews et alJ Neurosci (2010)
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The brain as an interpreter
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Encoding face identity and face emotion cues simultaneously
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Operant discrimination between different faces
Face discrimination learning
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Brain rhythms and face recognition learning
30-120Hz
4-8Hz
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Coupling between fast and slow oscillations (theta and gamma)
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Phase locking between IT neuronal activity and theta
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>75% of IT electrodes show coupling between theta phase and gamma amplitude
I 5µV
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Correlations between discriminationperformance and altered theta/gamma activity
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Neural network models
NL=0.002L= 0.0035
NL=0.0001L= 0.00055
Theta ↑Gamma ↓
Gamma ↑Theta ↓
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Decreased synchronization as theta/gamma ratio increases
Downstream neuron
Model IT
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Excitatoryneurons
Synch(1) De-synch
(2)
Downstreamneuron
Output
(1) (2)
How desynchronization alone can produce potentiation
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Excitatoryneurons
Synch(1) De-synch
(2)
Downstreamneuron
Output
(1) (2)
How desynchronization alone can produce potentiation
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Excitatoryneurons
Synch(1) De-synch
(2)
Downstreamneuron
Output
(1) (2)
How desynchronization alone can produce potentiationDecorrelation reduces noise
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Decorrelation improves discriminability of patterns
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The problems of consciousness
• There is no single seat of consciousness in the brain
• Many things are processed without conscious awareness
• Often similar patterns of brain activation are seen when information is processed with or without conscious awareness
• There are different levels of consciousness• Individuals may be aware even when they show
no obvious signs of consciousness
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Spatial imagery Motor imagery
Assessing conscious awareness in “vegetative state” brain damaged patients
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Study found 10% of vegetative state patients could perform motor/spatial imagery tasks
Monti et al (2010)New Eng J Med
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Using brain imaging to enable vegetative state patients to communicate
Monti et al(2010)New Eng J Med
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PP
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Alkire et al (2008) Science
Effects of anaesthesia and sleep on cortical integration
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Reduced unidirectional information flow and long distance connections, and increased short-loop feedback
Effects of deep anaesthesia on cortical processing
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How does consciousness emerge?
• Perhaps widespread and integrated flow of activity in the neocortex generates a metarepresentation.
• When information is processed unconsciously a metarepresentation does not form due to lack of integrated flow between cortical processing nodes.
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Establishing functional connections in the brain using Granger causality
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Future progress
• Stronger links between mathematicians, computer scientists and neuroscientists
• A greater emphasis on revealing key functional connectivity changes in the brain
• Provide a better understanding of temporal/patterning aspects of neural encoding
• Further advances in technologies for measuring the activity of the working brain